1.
Italian language
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By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
2.
Repetition (music)
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Repetition is important in music, where sounds or sequences are often repeated. It may be called restatement, such as the restatement of a theme, while it plays a role in all music, with noise and musical tones lying along a spectrum from irregular to periodic sounds, it is especially prominent in specific styles. A literal repetition of a passage is often indicated by the use of a repeat sign. Repetition is a part and parcel of symmetry—and of establishing motifs and you find a melodic or rhythmic figure that you like, and you repeat it throughout the course of the melody or song. This sort of repetition. helps to unify your melody, its the equivalent of a steady drumbeat. However, too much of a thing can get annoying. If you repeat your figure too often, it start to bore the listener. Memory affects the music-listening experience so profoundly that it would be not be hyperbole to say that without memory there would be no music, as scores of theorists and philosophers have noted. music is based on repetition. Music works because we remember the tones we have just heard and are relating them to the ones that are just now being played, theodor Adorno criticized repetition and popular music as being psychotic and infantile. There is no universal norm or convention for the amount or type of repetition, all music contains repetition - but in differing amounts, thus Middleton distinguishes between discursive and musematic repetition. A museme is a unit of meaning, analogous to morpheme in linguistics. Discursive repetition is at the level of the phrase or section and he gives paradigmatic case, the riff and the phrase. Musematic repetition includes circularity, synchronic relations, and openness, discursive repetition includes linearity, rational control, and self-sufficiency. Discursive repetition is most often nested in larger repetitions and may be thought of as sectional, put more simply, musematic repetition is simple repetition of precisely the same musical figure, such as a repeated chorus. Discursive repetition is, both repetitive and non-repetitive, such as the repetition of the rhythmic figure with different notes. Therefore, they would repeat parts of their song at times, making music like sonata very repetitive, Repetition is important in musical form. The repetition of any section of ternary form results in expanded ternary form, types of repetition include exact repetition, repetition after digression, and nonrepetition. Copland and Slatkin offer Au clair de la lune and Ach. du lieber Augustin Play as examples of aba, at the tone level, repetition creates a drone
3.
Repeat sign
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In music, a repeat sign is a sign that indicates a section should be repeated. If the piece has one repeat sign alone, then means to repeat from the beginning. A corresponding sign facing the other way indicates where the repeat is to begin and these are similar to the instructions da capo and dal segno. When a repeat calls for a different ending, numbered brackets above the bars indicate which to play the first time and these are called first-time bars and second-time bars, or first and second endings. They are also known as volta brackets and have no limit to how many there can be. | In Gregorian chant and this is common particularly in a Kyrie, where the lines followed by iii are to be repeated three times. In shape-note singing, repeat signs usually have four dots, between each line of the staff, the corresponding sign to show where the repeat is from is either the same sign reversed, or the dots themselves. First and second endings are given with just the numbers above the corresponding bars, abbreviation Coda Da capo Dal segno Repetition List of repeat variations
4.
Section (music)
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In music, a section is a complete, but not independent musical idea. Types of sections include the introduction or intro, exposition, recapitulation, verse, chorus or refrain, conclusion, coda or outro, fadeout, bridge or interlude. In sectional forms such as binary, the unit is built from various smaller clear-cut units in combination. Some well known songs consist of one or two sections, for example Jingle Bells commonly contains verses and choruses. It may contain auxiliary members such as an introduction and/or outro, a section is, a major structural unit perceived as the result of the coincidence of relatively large numbers of structural phenomena. An episode may also refer to a section, a passage is a musical idea that may or may not be complete or independent. For example, fill, riff, and all sections, musical material is any musical idea, complete or not, independent or not, including motifs. Song structure Period Phrase Repetition and repeat sign
5.
Musical form
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The term musical form refers to the overall structure or plan of a piece of music, and it describes the layout of a composition as divided into sections. According to Richard Middleton, musical form is the shape or structure of the work and he describes it through difference, the distance moved from a repeat, the latter being the smallest difference. Difference is quantitative and qualitative, how far, and of what type, in many cases, form depends on statement and restatement, unity and variety, and contrast and connection. This phrase may be regarded as the unit of musical form. Even at this level, the importance of the principles of repetition and contrast, weak and strong, climax and repose, thus, form may be understood on three levels of organization. For the purpose of exposition, these levels can be roughly designated as passage, piece. The smallest level of construction concerns the way musical phrases are organized into musical sentences and this may be compared to, and is often decided by, the verse form or meter of the words or the steps of a dance. In the analysis of form, any components that can be defined on the time axis are conventionally designated by letters. Upper-case letters are used for the most fundamental, while lower-case letters are used for sub-divisions, if one such section returns in a varied or modified form, a numerical digit or an appropriate number of prime symbols appears after the letter. Even at this simplest level, there are patterns that may be re-used on larger timescales, for example, consider the analogy with rhyme schemes, The following verse is composed of two differently-rhymed couplets, and thus its organization is binary or twofold. Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are, up above the world so high, like a diamond in the sky. There once was a fellow from Leeds Who swallowed a packet of seeds, in less than an hour he burst into flower And he died trying to pull up the weeds. The next level concerns the structure of any single self-contained musical piece. If the hymn, ballad, blues or dance alluded to above simply repeats the same musical material indefinitely then the piece is said to be in strophic form overall. If it repeats with distinct, sustained changes each time, for instance in setting, ornamentation or instrumentation, then the piece is a theme and variations. If the theme is played, then a new theme is introduced, great arguments and misunderstanding can be generated by such terms as ternary and binary, as a complex piece may have elements of both at different organizational levels. The grandest level of organization may be referred to as cyclical form and it concerns the arrangement of several self-contained pieces into a large-scale composition. For example, a set of songs with a theme may be presented as a song-cycle
6.
Ternary form
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Ternary form, sometimes called song form, is a three-part musical form where the first section is repeated after the second section ends. It is usually schematized as A–B–A, examples include the da capo aria The trumpet shall sound from Handels Messiah, Chopins Prelude in D-Flat Major and the opening chorus of Bachs St John Passion. In ternary form each section is self-contained both thematically as well as tonally (that is, each section contains distinct and complete themes and it usually also has a contrasting character, for example section A might be stiff and formal while the contrasting B section would be melodious and flowing. Da capo arias are usually in simple ternary form, commonly, the third section will feature more ornamentation than the first section. In these cases the last section is sometimes labeled A’ or A1 to indicate that it is different from the first A section. In a trio form each section is a movement in binary form. An example is the minuet and trio from the Haydns Surprise Symphony, the minuet consists of one section which is repeated and a second section which is also repeated. The trio section follows the same format, the complete minuet is then played again at the end of the trio represented as. By convention in the rendition of the minuet, the sections are not repeated with the scheme. The scherzo and trio, which is identical in structure to other trio forms, examples include the scherzo and trio from Beethovens Symphony No.9 and the scherzo and trio in Schuberts String Quintet. Another name for the latter is composite ternary form, trio form movements written from the early romantic era sometimes include a short coda and possibly a short introduction. The second movement of Beethovens Symphony No.9 is written in style which can be diagrammed as Polkas are also often in compound-ternary form. In a complex ternary form each section is itself in ternary form in the scheme of By convention each part is repeated, an example are the Impromptus by Jan Voříšek. Thirty-two-bar form Small Ternary Form by Jon Brantingham,17 October 2011, artofcomposing. com
7.
Opera
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Opera is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text and musical score, usually in a theatrical setting. In traditional opera, singers do two types of singing, recitative, a style and arias, a more melodic style. Opera incorporates many of the elements of theatre, such as acting, scenery. The performance is given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble. Opera is a key part of the Western classical music tradition, in the 18th century, Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe, attracting foreign composers such as George Frideric Handel. Opera seria was the most prestigious form of Italian opera, until Christoph Willibald Gluck reacted against its artificiality with his operas in the 1760s. The first third of the 19th century saw the point of the bel canto style, with Gioachino Rossini, Gaetano Donizetti. It also saw the advent of Grand Opera typified by the works of Auber and Meyerbeer, the mid-to-late 19th century was a golden age of opera, led and dominated by Richard Wagner in Germany and Giuseppe Verdi in Italy. The popularity of opera continued through the era in Italy and contemporary French opera through to Giacomo Puccini. During the 19th century, parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe, the 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles, such as atonality and serialism, Neoclassicism, and Minimalism. With the rise of recording technology, singers such as Enrico Caruso, since the invention of radio and television, operas were also performed on these mediums. Beginning in 2006, a number of opera houses began to present live high-definition video transmissions of their performances in cinemas all over the world. In 2009, an opera company offered a download of a complete performance. The words of an opera are known as the libretto, some composers, notably Wagner, have written their own libretti, others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists, e. g. Mozart with Lorenzo Da Ponte. Vocal duets, trios and other ensembles often occur, and choruses are used to comment on the action, in some forms of opera, such as singspiel, opéra comique, operetta, and semi-opera, the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue. Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of, or instead of, the terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail below. Over the 18th century, arias were accompanied by the orchestra. Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagners example, though some, the changing role of the orchestra in opera is described in more detail below
8.
Aria
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An aria in music was originally any expressive melody, usually, but not always, performed by a singer. The term became used almost exclusively to describe a piece for one voice, with or without orchestral accompaniment. The typical context for arias is opera, but vocal arias also feature in oratorios and cantatas, the term, which derives from the Greek and Latin aer first appeared in relation to music in the 14th century when it simply signified a manner or style of singing or playing. By the end of the 16th century, the term refers to an instrumental form. By the early 16th century it was in use as meaning a simple setting of strophic poetry, melodic madrigals. In the context of staged works and concert works, arias evolved from simple melodies into structured forms, the aria evolved typically in one of two forms. Binary form arias were in two sections, arias in ternary form were known as da capo arias, in the da capo aria the B episode would typically be in a different key – the dominant or relative major key. This version of form with ritornelli became a dominant feature of European opera throughout the 18th century. It is thought by some writers to be the origin of the forms of concerto. The ritornelli became essential to the structure of the aria – while the words determine the character of a melody the ritornello instruments often decided in terms it shall be presented. By the early 18th century, composers such as Alessandro Scarlatti had established the aria form and it offered balance and continuity, and yet gave scope for contrast. The very regularity of its conventional features enabled deviations from the normal to be exploited with telling effect. In the early years of the century, arias in the Italian style began to take over in French opera, giving rise eventually to the French genre of ariette, normally in a relatively simple ternary form. Types of operatic aria became known by a variety of terms according to their character – e. g. aria parlante, aria di bravura, aria buffa, and so on. By the end of this first vocal paragraph the music, if it were in a key as it usually was, had modulated to the dominant. The orchestra then played a second ritornello usually shorter than the first, the singer re-entered and sang the same words through a second time. The music of this paragraph was often slightly more elaborate than that of the first. There were more repeats of words and perhaps more florid vocalisations, the key worked its way back to the tonic for the final vocal cadence after which the orchestra rounded the section off with a final ritornello
