1.
Hauran
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Auranitis, also spelled Hawran, Houran and Horan, is a volcanic plateau, a geographic area and a people located in southwestern Syria and extending into the northwestern corner of Jordan. It gets its name from the Aramaic Hawran, meaning cave land, in geographic and geomorphic terms, it extends from near Damascus and Mount Hermon in the north to the Ajloun mountains of Jordan in the south. It includes the Golan Heights in the west and is bounded there by the Jordan Rift Valley, it also includes Jabal al-Druze in the east and is bounded there by more arid steppe and desert terrains. The Yarmouk River drains much of the Hauran to the west and is the largest tributary of the Jordan River, however, the name is used colloquially by both the inhabitants of the region and outsiders, to refer to the area and its people. The volcanic soils of Hauran make it one of the most fertile regions in Syria, the region receives above-average annual precipitation but has few rivers. Hauran relies mainly on annual snow and rain during winter and spring and many of the ancient sites contain cisterns, the area is unlike other historical fertile areas of Syria, which rely on controlled irrigation systems for their farming productivity. Since the mid-1980s, Syria has built a number of seasonal storage dams within the headwaters of the Yarmouk River drainage basin. The plains of Auranitis appear to have been inhabited by small bands of hunters and gatherers. By circa 12,000 BC, microliths and bone tools were becoming part of daily lifestyle. By this time Natufians settled in Taiyiba in southern Houran, and southwest of Houran in Tabqat Fahl, to their east, circa 8,300 BC wheat was domesticated and their neighbors to the west in Canaan and to the East in Mesopotamia started living in oval houses. Between 8,000 and 7,000 BC, people of Hauran were eating mostly hunted gazelles and foxes, between 7000 and 6000 BC their daily food was mostly domesticated animals and domesticated cereals. By the 4th millennium BC there were many Chalcolithic settlements in the valley of the Yarmouk river, the Auranitis is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible including the boundary area of the Israelite northern kingdom at the time. The countrys most distinguished citizen is said to have been the prophet Job, at the time, the Hauran also included the northern cities of the Decapolis. Atypically, its name is part of that of the Melkite Greek Catholic Archeparchy of Bosra-Haūrān, in alphabetical order, including article and disregarding hyphens
2.
Canada Park
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Canada Park is an Israeli national park stretching over 7,000 dunams, and extending from No mans land into the West Bank. In addition it has picnic areas, springs and panoramic hilltop views, the lands of the 3 villages were confiscated and declared a closed area, and only declared public land to be developed for a recreational park two years later in 1969. According to Meron Benvenisti the function of such re-afforestation projects like that at Canada Park was to confiscate Arab land in the Palestinian territories Israeli occupied after 1967, Canada Park was established on the lands of the two Palestinian Arab villages Imwas and Yalo. The inhabitants were offered compensation but not allowed to return, Imwas, Yalo and Bayt Nuba were demolished as part of strategic plans to widen the Jerusalem corridor. Dayr Ayyub, also on the grounds of the park, had partly destroyed during the fighting in 1948. The settlement of Mevo Horon was built on the lands of Bayt Nuba in 1970, signage in the park indicates that it falls under the Department of Archaeology, Civil Administration of Judea and Samaria, Judea and Samaria being the Israeli terms for the West Bank. In 1972, Bernard Bloomfield of Montreal, then President of JNF Canada, the road leading to the park is named for John Diefenbaker, the former Canadian prime minister, who opened it in 1975. The project was completed in 1984, JNF Canada has continued fund-raising towards the maintenance of the park. They did not receive a reply, in 2007, the Israeli NGO Zochrot wrote to Israels minister of defense, Ehud Barak, on behalf of the residents to ask why they could not return to their homes. In 2008, the ministers office informed them that The return of the inhabitants not allowed for security considerations. In 2013 the Palestinian National Authoritys Negotiations Affairs Department launched a campaign to have the 50-km, contiguous to the Green Line restored to it as vital and integral part of the State of Palestine as defined by the 1967 border. Canada Park covers an area of 7,000 dunams and it is filled with wooded areas, walking trails, water features and archaeological sites. Trees in the park include olive, carob, pomegranate, pine, the area is also home to a range of wildlife from lizards and turtles to gray ravens and blue jays. Historical ruins on the grounds of the include a Roman bathhouse, a Hasmonean cemetery. Two Second Temple-era ritual baths were discovered there. At the foot of one of the hills overlooks the city of Modiin is a large reservoir built by the Jewish National Fund for irrigating local fields. In the middle of the park is a forest planted to commemorate over 300 American and Canadian Jews who died in Israels wars or were victims of terror, an annual memorial ceremony is organized by the Association of Americans and Canadians in Israel. In 2011, the ceremony was attended by the US Ambassador to Israel Daniel Shapiro, ajalon Emmaus Nicopolis List of national parks and nature reserves of Israel Official website
3.
Palestinians
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Despite various wars and exoduses, roughly one half of the worlds Palestinian population continues to reside in historic Palestine, the area encompassing the West Bank, the Gaza Strip and Israel. Of the Palestinian population who live abroad, known as the Palestinian diaspora, the history of a distinct Palestinian national identity is a disputed issue amongst scholars. Palestinian was used to refer to the nationalist concept of a Palestinian people by Palestinian Arabs in a limited way until World War I, Modern Palestinian identity now encompasses the heritage of all ages from biblical times up to the Ottoman period. Founded in 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organization is an organization for groups that represent the Palestinian people before the international community. Since 1978, the United Nations has observed an annual International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People, herodotus also employs the term as an ethnonym, as when he speaks of the Syrians of Palestine or Palestinian-Syrians, an ethnically amorphous group he distinguishes from the Phoenicians. Herodotus makes no distinction between the Jews and other inhabitants of Palestine, the Greek word reflects an ancient Eastern Mediterranean-Near Eastern word which was used either as a toponym or ethnonym. In Ancient Egyptian Peleset/Purusati has been conjectured to refer to the Sea Peoples, among Semitic languages, Akkadian Palaštu is used of Philistia and its 4 city states. Biblical Hebrews cognate word Plištim, is usually translated Philistines, the Arabic word Filastin has been used to refer to the region since the time of the earliest medieval Arab geographers. It appears to have used as an Arabic adjectival noun in the region since as early as the 7th century CE. The Arabic newspaper Falasteen, published in Jaffa by Issa and Yusef al-Issa, the first Zionist bank, the Jewish Colonial Trust, was founded at the Second Zionist Congress and incorporated in London in 1899. The JCT was intended to be the instrument of the Zionist Organization. On 27 February 1902, a subsidiary of this Trust called the Anglo-Palestine Company was established in London with the assistance of Zalman David Levontin and this Company was to become the future Bank Leumi. Following the 1948 establishment of Israel, the use and application of the terms Palestine and Palestinian by, for example, the English-language newspaper The Palestine Post, founded by Jews in 1932, changed its name in 1950 to The Jerusalem Post. Jews in Israel and the West Bank today generally identify as Israelis, Arab citizens of Israel identify themselves as Israeli and/or Palestinian and/or Arab. Anyone born, after that date, of a Palestinian father – whether in Palestine or outside it – is also a Palestinian. Thus, the Jews of Palestine were/are also included, although limited only to the Jews who had resided in Palestine until the beginning of the Zionist invasion. The Charter also states that Palestine with the boundaries it had during the British Mandate, is a territorial unit. The although the timing and causes behind the emergence of a distinctively Palestinian national consciousness among the Arabs of Palestine are matters of scholarly disagreement
4.
Operation Nachshon
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Operation Nachshon was a Jewish military operation during the 1948 war. In case of resistance, the Arabs of conquered villages were to be expelled outside the borders of the Jewish state, if no resistance was met, the Arab residents could stay put, under military rule. Operation Nachshon was carried out by the Haganahs Givati and the Harel Brigade of the Palmach, by the end of March 1948, Abd al-Qadir al-Husaynis troops were preventing supply convoys from reaching Jerusalem. The city was besieged and the Jewish population was forced to adhere to a rationing system, on 31 March a 60 vehicle Jewish convoy was ambushed at Hulda and forced to turn back with the loss of five vehicles and 17 dead. Yishuv leader David Ben-Gurion decided to launch Nachshon in order to open up the city, although initially intended as a one-shot affair, Nachshon later proved to be the first operation in the implementation of Plan Dalet. The operation was named after the Biblical figure Nachshon Ben Aminadav, the operation was commanded by Shimon Avidan. The first orders were given on 2 April 1948, a telegraph confirming the beginning of the operation, was released on 5 April, with the operation starting that same night. 1,500 men from the Givati and Harel brigades took control of the road to Jerusalem, the operation was a military success. All the Arab villages that blocked the route were taken or destroyed. Nonetheless, not all the objectives of the operation were achieved, as only 1,800 tonnes of the 3,000 envisaged were transported to the town, and two months of severe rationing had to be assumed. Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni was killed during the night of 7–8 April, the loss of the charismatic Palestinian leader disrupted the Arab strategy and organisation in the area of Jerusalem. During Operation Nachshon the Haganah wanted to attack the village of Abu Gosh. Operation Nachshon exposed the poor military organisation of the Palestinian paramilitary groups, due to lack of logistics, particularly food and ammunition, they were incapable of maintaining engagements that were more than a few hours away from their permanent bases. Faced with these events, the Arab Higher Committee asked Alan Cunningham to allow the return of the Mufti, despite obtaining permission, the Mufti did not get to Jerusalem. His declining prestige cleared the way for the expansion of the influence of the Arab Liberation Army, between 15 and 20 April, three convoys, totalling over 700 lorries were able to reach Jewish Jerusalem. The Arabs, however, managed to block the road immediately thereafter, Operation Nachshon was therefore followed by Operation Harel, and immediately thereafter Operation Yevusi. Further operations in the Jerusalem region, Operation Maccabi and Operation Kilshon, sources, Walid Khalidi, All That Remains, ISBN 0-88728-224-5. Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian refugee problem, 1947–1949,1948, a history of the first Arab-Israeli war
5.
Ramla
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Ramla is a city in central Israel. The city is predominantly Jewish with a significant Arab minority, Ramla was founded circa 705–715 CE by the Umayyad governor and future caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. Ramla lies along the route of the Via Maris, connecting old Cairo with Damascus, at its intersection with the road connecting the port of Jaffa with Jerusalem. It was conquered many times in the course of its history, by the Abbasids, the Ikhshidids, the Fatimids, the Seljuqs, the Crusaders, the Mameluks, the Turks, the British, and the Israelis. After an outbreak of the Black Death in 1347, which reduced the population. Under Arab and Ottoman rule the city became an important trade center, napoleons French Army occupied it in 1799 on its way to Acre. The town had an Arab majority before most of its Arab inhabitants were expelled or fled during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the town was subsequently repopulated by Jewish immigrants. In 2001, 80% of the population were Jewish and 20% Arab, in recent years, attempts have been made to develop and beautify the city, which has been plagued by neglect, financial problems and a negative public image. New shopping malls and public parks have been built, and a museum opened in 2001. A2013 Israeli police report documented that the Central District ranks fourth among Israels seven districts in terms of drug-related arrests, today, five prisons are located in Ramla, including the maximum-security Ayalon Prison. Its name was derived from the Arabic word raml, meaning sand, the early residents came from nearby Ludd. Ramla flourished as the capital of Jund Filastin, which was one of the five districts of the Syrian province of the Ummayad, Ramla was the principal city and district capital almost until the arrival of the Crusaders in the 11th century. In the 8th century, the Ummayads built the White Mosque, the remains of this mosque, flanked by a minaret added at a later date, can still be seen today. In the courtyard are underground water cisterns from this period, Ramla was sometimes referred to as Filastin, in keeping with the common practice of referring to districts by the name of their main city. The 10th-century geographer al-Muqaddasi describes Ramla at the peak of its prosperity, It is a fine city and it combines manifold advantages, situated as it is in the midst of beautiful villages and lordly towns, near to holy places and pleasant hamlets. Commerce here is prosperous, and the markets excellent. The bread is of the best, the lands are well favoured above all others, and the fruits are the most luscious. This capital stands among fields, walled towns and serviceable hospices. Ramlas economic importance, shared with the city of Lydda, was based on its strategic location
6.
Sha'ar HaGai
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Shaar HaGai in Hebrew, or Bab al-Wad in Arabic, lit. The journey from Jaffa to Jerusalem was reduced, thanks to this upgrade, in 1898 it was used again by German emperor Wilhelm II and his wife Augusta Victoria. From mid-May 1948 on, the fort at Latrun, only two kilometres west of Bab al-Wad, was held by the efficient, British-trained and commanded army of Transjordan. The Palmachs 10th brigade under the command of Lt. Col, in order to bypass the Arab-held bottleneck, the Israelis constructed the so-called Burma Road, named after the famous World War II road into China. This very steep bypass road was in use during the first, crucial part of the war, after the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, when the Latrun area was captured by Israel, the main Tel Aviv–Jerusalem highway was once again constructed on the shortest route past Latrun and Shaar HaGai. Todays already four-lane wide Highway 1 is currently being widened due to increasing traffic, to this day, the remains of armoured cars that belonged to Jewish convoys and were destroyed during the 1948 war are lining the route as a memorial to the war dead. Most of them were regular trucks with improvised armour made of two sheets of steel and a layer of wood in between, which led to them being called sandwich cars. The battles of 1948 were commemorated by a Hebrew song, Bab al-Wad, with words by Haim Gouri, the song has been performed by numerous famous Israeli singers, such as Yafa Yarkoni, Shoshana Damari, Shlomo Gronich, and Harel Skaat. The song has four verses, with the fourth verse spoken before the final chorus
7.
Royal Jordanian Army
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The Royal Jordanian Army is part of the Jordanian Armed Forces. It draws its origins from units such as the Arab Legion and it has seen combat against Israel in 1948,1956,1967, and 1973. The Army also fought the Syrians and the PLO during Black September in 1970, on 21 November 1920, Prince Abdullah Bin Al-Hussien arrived at Maan, where he expressed his resolution to drive out the Turkish forces from Syria. Later, on 5 December 1920, he proclaimed himself as deputy king in Syria and his calls received much attention in the Arab world as several prominent Arab nationalists and other Arab princes joined his campaign, these later formed the embryonic force of the Arab legion. When Prince Abdullah came to power in the Emirate of Transjordan, a mobile force of 150 men and horses. A regular Army battalion of some 200 infantrymen, an Arab force, which was probably the battalion that had accompanied prince Abdullah to Amman from Maan. It also took part in the fighting against the French forces in Syria, the Arab Legion, – During World War II, it was mainly tasked with maintaining law and order in the country. Moreover, it extended support to British Forces engaged in actions in Syria, Iraq. A military detachment of this force participated in the Victory Day ceremonies in London on 8 June 1946, the Desert Force, AKA Desert Patrol. Its main task was to guard Jordans borders with neighboring Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Syria, besides that, it participated in the campaigns of Syria and Iraq during World War II. This army started with a company, cavalry company, machine guns unit, signal section. In 1923, the strength of the army, which was under the command of British Captain Frederick Gerard Peake. During 1930, the Arab Legions strength was expanded to approximately 1,100, in 1931, a camel-mounted desert mobile force was organized under the command of John Bagot Glubb to maintain security and order. This organization attracted numerous Bedouin volunteers, in 1933, the first mechanized force was formed. This element consisted of three vehicles and 120 men including the camel-mounted desert mobile force and it undertook the responsibility of maintaining security, preventing the raids among the tribal groups and deterring the raids from the outside. By the eve of World War II, the legion had been expanded to a force of about 1,600 men and this legion took part in operations in Syria during the war. Independent companies were established in addition to a battalion, which was later expanded to become the 1st Brigade. In 1942, the 2nd battalion was formed, which became the 2nd Brigade
8.
Bible
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The Bible is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans. Many different authors contributed to the Bible, what is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups, a number of Bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents. The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint, the New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first-century Koine Greek. These early Christian Greek writings consist of narratives, letters, among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the Apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect. Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups and this concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching. With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the Bible is widely considered to be the book of all time. It has estimated sales of 100 million copies, and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West. The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin. Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra holy book, while biblia in Greek and it gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe. Latin biblia sacra holy books translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, the word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of paper or scroll and came to be used as the ordinary word for book. It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, Egyptian papyrus, possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece, the Greek ta biblia was an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books. Christian use of the term can be traced to c.223 CE, bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer to use the Greek phrase ta biblia to describe both the Old and New Testaments together. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th-century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in oral traditions. The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, the oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus and he states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that, Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, the period of transmission is short, less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Marks Gospel. This means that there was time for oral traditions to assume fixed form
9.
Job (biblical figure)
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Job is the central figure of the Book of Job in the Bible. Job is a prophet in the Abrahamic religions, Judaism, Christianity, in rabbinical literature, Iyov is called one of the prophets of the Gentiles. Job is presented as a good and prosperous family man who is beset with horrendous disasters that take all that he holds dear, including his offspring, his health. He struggles to understand his situation and begins a search for the answers to his difficulties, the Hebrew Book of Job is part of Ketuvim of the Jewish Bible. Not much is known about Job based on the Masoretic text of the Jewish Bible, the characters in the Book of Job consist of Job, his wife, his three friends, a man named Elihu, God, and angels. It begins with an introduction to Jobs character—he is described as a man who lives righteously in the Land of Uz. The Lords praise of Job prompts an angel with the title of satan to suggest that Job served God simply because God protected him, God removes Jobs protection, ordering the angel to take his wealth, his children, and his physical health. Despite his difficult circumstances, he does not curse God, and although he anguishes over his plight, he stops short of accusing God of injustice. Jobs miserable earthly condition is simply Gods Will, in the following, Job debates three friends concerning Jobs condition. They argue whether it was justified, and they debate solutions to his problems, Job ultimately condemns all their counsel, beliefs, and critiques of him as false. God then appears to Job and his friends out of a whirlwind, Job, by staying silent before God, stresses the point that he understands that his affliction is Gods Will even though he despairs at not knowing why. Job appears faithful without direct knowledge of God and without demands for attention from God. And the text gives an allusion to Job 28,28 And unto man he said, Behold, the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom, and to depart from evil is understanding. God rebukes the three friends and gives them instruction for remission of sin, followed by Job being restored to a better condition than his former wealthy state. Job 42, 10–17 Job is blessed to have seven sons and his daughters were said to be the most beautiful women in the land. The Greek Old Testament of the Christian Bible has a revised and updated final verse that claims Jobs genealogy, asserting him to be a grandson of Esau and a ruler of Edom. And he himself was the son of his father Zare, one of the sons of Esau, and his friends who came to him were Eliphaz, of the children of Esau, king of the Thaemanites, Baldad sovereign the Sauchaeans, Sophar king of the Minaeans. In addition to the Book of Job, Job is mentioned in religious texts
10.
Hellenistic period
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It is often considered a period of transition, sometimes even of decadence or degeneration, compared to the enlightenment of the Greek Classical era. The Hellenistic period saw the rise of New Comedy, Alexandrian poetry, the Septuagint, Greek science was advanced by the works of the mathematician Euclid and the polymath Archimedes. The religious sphere expanded to include new gods such as the Greco-Egyptian Serapis, eastern deities such as Attis and Cybele, the Hellenistic period was characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization which established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa. This resulted in the export of Greek culture and language to new realms. Equally, however, these new kingdoms were influenced by the cultures, adopting local practices where beneficial, necessary. Hellenistic culture thus represents a fusion of the Ancient Greek world with that of the Near East, Middle East and this mixture gave rise to a common Attic-based Greek dialect, known as Koine Greek, which became the lingua franca through the Hellenistic world. Scholars and historians are divided as to what event signals the end of the Hellenistic era, Hellenistic is distinguished from Hellenic in that the first encompasses the entire sphere of direct ancient Greek influence, while the latter refers to Greece itself. The word originated from the German term hellenistisch, from Ancient Greek Ἑλληνιστής, from Ἑλλάς, Hellenistic is a modern word and a 19th-century concept, the idea of a Hellenistic period did not exist in Ancient Greece. Although words related in form or meaning, e. g, the major issue with the term Hellenistic lies in its convenience, as the spread of Greek culture was not the generalized phenomenon that the term implies. Some areas of the world were more affected by Greek influences than others. The Greek population and the population did not always mix, the Greeks moved and brought their own culture. While a few fragments exist, there is no surviving historical work which dates to the hundred years following Alexanders death. The works of the major Hellenistic historians Hieronymus of Cardia, Duris of Samos, the earliest and most credible surviving source for the Hellenistic period is Polybius of Megalopolis, a statesman of the Achaean League until 168 BC when he was forced to go to Rome as a hostage. His Histories eventually grew to a length of forty books, covering the years 220 to 167 BC, another important source, Plutarchs Parallel Lives though more preoccupied with issues of personal character and morality, outlines the history of important Hellenistic figures. Appian of Alexandria wrote a history of the Roman empire that includes information of some Hellenistic kingdoms, other sources include Justins epitome of Pompeius Trogus Historiae Philipicae and a summary of Arrians Events after Alexander, by Photios I of Constantinople. Lesser supplementary sources include Curtius Rufus, Pausanias, Pliny, in the field of philosophy, Diogenes Laertius Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers is the main source. Ancient Greece had traditionally been a collection of fiercely independent city-states. After the Peloponnesian War, Greece had fallen under a Spartan hegemony, in which Sparta was pre-eminent but not all-powerful
11.
Roman Empire
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Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empires existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, following Octavians victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus and his short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors, the empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus, Commodus assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I. Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour and it remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the state religion of the empire. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history, at its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the entire population. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, then, it was an empire long before it had an emperor
