1.
Psychiatry
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Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, study, and treatment of mental disorders. These include various abnormalities related to mood, behaviour, cognition, initial psychiatric assessment of a person typically begins with a case history and mental status examination. Physical examinations and psychological tests may be conducted, on occasion, neuroimaging or other neurophysiological techniques are used. The fifth edition of the DSM was published in 2013, assertive community treatment, community reinforcement, and supported employment. Treatment may be delivered on an inpatient or outpatient basis, depending on the severity of functional impairment or on aspects of the disorder in question. The term psychiatry was first coined by the German physician Johann Christian Reil in 1808, a medical doctor specializing in psychiatry is a psychiatrist. Psychiatry refers to a field of medicine focused specifically on the mind, aiming to study, prevent and it has been described as an intermediary between the world from a social context and the world from the perspective of those who are mentally ill. People who specialize in psychiatry often differ from most other health professionals. The discipline studies the operations of different organs and body systems as classified by the subjective experiences. Psychiatry treats mental disorders, which are divided into three very general categories, mental illnesses, severe learning disabilities, and personality disorders. While the focus of psychiatry has changed little over time, the diagnostic and treatment processes have evolved dramatically, since the late 20th century the field of psychiatry has continued to become more biological and less conceptually isolated from other medical fields. Psychiatrists can therefore counsel patients, prescribe medication, order laboratory tests, order neuroimaging, like other purveyors of professional ethics, the World Psychiatric Association issues an ethical code to govern the conduct of psychiatrists. The psychiatric code of ethics, first set forth through the Declaration of Hawaii in 1977, has expanded through a 1983 Vienna update and, in 1996. The code was revised during the organizations general assembblies in 1999,2002,2005. Discredited psychiatrists who operated outside the norms of medical ethics include Harry Bailey, Donald Ewen Cameron, Samuel A. Cartwright, Henry Cotton, Psychiatric illnesses can be conceptualised in a number of different ways. The biomedical approach examines signs and symptoms and compares them with diagnostic criteria, Mental illness can be assessed, conversely, through a narrative which tries to incorporate symptoms into a meaningful life history and to frame them as responses to external conditions. The notion of a model is often used to underline the multifactorial nature of clinical impairment. In this notion the word model is not used in a scientific way though
2.
Medical Subject Headings
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Medical Subject Headings is a comprehensive controlled vocabulary for the purpose of indexing journal articles and books in the life sciences, it serves as a thesaurus that facilitates searching. Created and updated by the United States National Library of Medicine, it is used by the MEDLINE/PubMed article database, MeSH is also used by ClinicalTrials. gov registry to classify which diseases are studied by trials registered in ClinicalTrials. gov. MeSH was introduced in 1960, with the NLMs own index catalogue, the yearly printed version of MeSH was discontinued in 2007 and MeSH is now available online only. It can be browsed and downloaded free of charge through PubMed, originally in English, MeSH has been translated into numerous other languages and allows retrieval of documents from different languages. The 2009 version of MeSH contains a total of 25,186 subject headings, most of these are accompanied by a short description or definition, links to related descriptors, and a list of synonyms or very similar terms. This additional information and the structure make the MeSH essentially a thesaurus. The descriptors or subject headings are arranged in a hierarchy, a given descriptor may appear at several locations in the hierarchical tree. The tree locations carry systematic labels known as numbers. The tree numbers of a given descriptor are subject to change as MeSH is updated, every descriptor also carries a unique alphanumerical ID that will not change. Most subject headings come with a description or definition. See the MeSH description for diabetes type 2 as an example, the explanatory text is written by the MeSH team based on their standard sources if not otherwise stated. References are mostly encyclopaedias and standard textbooks of the subject areas, references for specific statements in the descriptions are not given, instead readers are referred to the bibliography. In addition to the hierarchy, MeSH contains a small number of standard qualifiers. For example, Measles is a descriptor and epidemiology is a qualifier, the epidemiology qualifier can be added to all other disease descriptors. Not all descriptor/qualifier combinations are allowed some of them may be meaningless. In all there are 83 different qualifiers, in addition to the descriptors, MeSH also contains some 139,000 supplementary concept records. These do not belong to the vocabulary as such, instead they enlarge the thesaurus. Many of these records describe chemical substances, by default, a search for a descriptor will include all the descriptors in the hierarchy below the given one
3.
Belief
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Belief is the state of mind in which a person thinks something to be the case, with or without there being empirical evidence to prove that something is the case with factual certainty. Another way of defining belief sees it as a representation of an attitude positively oriented towards the likelihood of something being true. In the context of Ancient Greek thought, two related concepts were identified with regards to the concept of belief, pistis and doxa, simplified, we may say that pistis refers to trust and confidence, while doxa refers to opinion and acceptance. The English word orthodoxy derives from doxa, Jonathan Leicester suggests that belief has the purpose of guiding action rather than indicating truth. In epistemology, philosophers use the belief to refer to personal attitudes associated with true or false ideas. However, belief does not require active introspection and circumspection, for example, we never ponder whether or not the sun will rise. We simply assume the sun will rise, since belief is an important aspect of mundane life, according to Eric Schwitzgebel in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, a related question asks, how a physical organism can have beliefs. Epistemology is concerned with delineating the boundary between justified belief and opinion, and involved generally with a philosophical study of knowledge. The primary problem in epistemology is to exactly what is needed in order for us to have knowledge. Plato dismisses this possibility of a relation between belief and knowledge even when the one who opines grounds his belief on the rule. Among American epistemologists, Gettier and Goldman, have questioned the true belief definition. Mainstream psychology and related disciplines have traditionally treated belief as if it were the simplest form of mental representation, philosophers have tended to be more abstract in their analysis, and much of the work examining the viability of the belief concept stems from philosophical analysis. The concept of belief presumes a subject and an object of belief, Beliefs are sometimes divided into core beliefs and dispositional beliefs. For example, if asked do you believe tigers wear pink pajamas, a person might answer that they do not, despite the fact they may never have thought about this situation before. This has important implications for understanding the neuropsychology and neuroscience of belief, if the concept of belief is incoherent, then any attempt to find the underlying neural processes that support it will fail. Jerry Fodor is one of the defenders of this point of view. Most notably, philosopher Stephen Stich has argued for this understanding of belief. In these cases science hasnt provided us with a detailed account of these theories
4.
Evidence
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Evidence, broadly construed, is anything presented in support of an assertion. This support may be strong or weak, the strongest type of evidence is that which provides direct proof of the truth of an assertion. At the other extreme is evidence that is consistent with an assertion but does not rule out other, contradictory assertions. In law, rules of evidence govern the types of evidence that are admissible in a legal proceeding, types of legal evidence include testimony, documentary evidence, and physical evidence. The parts of a case which are not in controversy are known, in general. Beyond any facts that are undisputed, a judge or jury is usually tasked with being a trier of fact for the issues of a case. Evidence and rules are used to decide questions of fact that are disputed, Evidence in certain cases must be more compelling than in other situations, which drastically affects the quality and quantity of evidence necessary to decide a case. In philosophy, the study of evidence is tied to epistemology. The burden of proof is the obligation of a party in an argument or dispute to provide sufficient evidence to shift the other partys or a third partys belief from their initial position, the burden of proof must be fulfilled by both establishing confirming evidence and negating oppositional evidence. Conclusions drawn from evidence may be subject to criticism based on a failure to fulfill the burden of proof. Two principal considerations are, On whom does the burden of proof rest, to what degree of certitude must the assertion be supported. The latter question depends on the nature of the point under contention, in a criminal trial in the United States, for example, the prosecution carries the burden of proof since the defendant is presumed innocent until proven guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. Similarly, in most civil procedures, the plaintiff carries the burden of proof, other legal standards of proof include reasonable suspicion, probable cause, prima facie evidence, credible evidence, substantial evidence, and clear and convincing evidence. In a philosophical debate, there is a burden of proof on the party asserting a claim. Each party in a debate will therefore carry the burden of proof for any assertion they make in the argument, although some assertions may be granted by the other party without further evidence. If the debate is set up as a resolution to be supported by one side and refuted by another, in scientific research evidence is accumulated through observations of phenomena that occur in the natural world, or which are created as experiments in a laboratory or other controlled conditions. Scientific evidence usually goes towards supporting or rejecting a hypothesis, one must always remember that the burden of proof is on the person making a contentious claim. Within science, this translates to the burden resting on presenters of a paper and this paper is placed before a panel of judges where the presenter must defend the thesis against all challenges
5.
Illusion
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An illusion is a distortion of the senses, revealing how the brain normally organizes and interprets sensory stimulation. Though illusions distort reality, they are shared by most people. Illusions may occur with any of the senses, but visual illusions are the best-known. The emphasis on visual illusions occurs because vision often dominates the other senses, for example, individuals watching a ventriloquist will perceive the voice is coming from the dummy since they are able to see the dummy mouth the words. Some illusions are based on general assumptions the brain makes during perception and these assumptions are made using organizational principles, an individuals capacity for depth perception and motion perception, and perceptual constancy. Other illusions occur because of biological sensory structures within the body or conditions outside of the body within one’s physical environment. The term illusion refers to a form of sensory distortion. Unlike a hallucination, which is a distortion in the absence of a stimulus, for example, hearing voices regardless of the environment would be a hallucination, whereas hearing voices in the sound of running water would be an illusion. Mimes are known for a repertoire of illusions that are created by physical means, the mime artist creates an illusion of acting upon or being acted upon by an unseen object. These illusions exploit the audiences assumptions about the physical world, well-known examples include walls, climbing stairs, leaning, descending ladders, and pulling and pushing. An optical illusion is characterized by visually perceived images that are deceptive or misleading, therefore, the information gathered by the eye is processed by the brain to give, on the face of it, a percept that does not tally with a physical measurement of the stimulus source. The human brain constructs a world inside our head based on what it samples from the surrounding environment, however, sometimes it tries to organise this information it thinks best while other times it fills in the gaps. This way in which our brain works is the basis of an illusion, an auditory illusion is an illusion of hearing, the sound equivalent of an optical illusion, the listener hears either sounds which are not present in the stimulus, or impossible sounds. In short, audio illusions highlight areas where the ear and brain, as organic, makeshift tools. One example of an illusion is a Shepard tone. Interestingly, the areas activated during illusory tactile perception are similar to those activated during actual tactile stimulation. Tactile illusions can also be elicited through haptic technology and these illusory tactile objects can be used to create virtual objects. A temporal illusion is a distortion in the perception of time, in such cases, a person may momentarily perceive time as slowing down, stopping, speeding up, or running backwards
6.
Perception
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Perception is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the environment. All perception involves signals in the system, which in turn result from physical or chemical stimulation of the sense organs. For example, vision involves light striking the retina of the eye, smell is mediated by odor molecules, Perception is not the passive receipt of these signals, but is shaped by learning, memory, expectation, and attention. Perception can be split into two processes, firstly, processing sensory input, which transforms these low-level information to higher-level information. Secondly, processing which is connected with a persons concepts and expectations, Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious awareness. Since the rise of psychology in the 19th Century, psychologys understanding of perception has progressed by combining a variety of techniques. Psychophysics quantitatively describes the relationships between the qualities of the sensory input and perception. Sensory neuroscience studies the mechanisms underlying perception. Perceptual systems can also be studied computationally, in terms of the information they process, Perceptual issues in philosophy include the extent to which sensory qualities such as sound, smell or color exist in objective reality rather than in the mind of the perceiver. The perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as stable, even though the information is typically incomplete. Human and animal brains are structured in a way, with different areas processing different kinds of sensory information. Some of these take the form of sensory maps, mapping some aspect of the world across part of the brains surface. These different modules are interconnected and influence each other, for instance, taste is strongly influenced by smell. The process of perception begins with an object in the real world, by means of light, sound or another physical process, the object stimulates the bodys sensory organs. These sensory organs transform the energy into neural activity—a process called transduction. This raw pattern of activity is called the proximal stimulus. These neural signals are transmitted to the brain and processed, the resulting mental re-creation of the distal stimulus is the percept. An example would be a shoe, the shoe itself is the distal stimulus
7.
Neurological disorder
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A neurological disorder is any disorder of the nervous system. Structural, biochemical or electrical abnormalities in the brain, spinal cord or other nerves can result in a range of symptoms, examples of symptoms include paralysis, muscle weakness, poor coordination, loss of sensation, seizures, confusion, pain and altered levels of consciousness. There are many recognized neurological disorders, some common. They may be assessed by examination, and studied and treated within the specialities of neurology. Nerves tend to lie deep under the skin but can become exposed to damage. Individual neurons, and the networks and nerves into which they form, are susceptible to electrochemical and structural disruption. Neuroregeneration may occur in the nervous system and thus overcome or work around injuries to some extent. The problem may start in another system that interacts with the nervous system. Neurological disorders can be categorized according to the location affected. The broadest division is between central nervous system disorders and peripheral nervous system disorders, a neurological examination can to some extent assess the impact of neurological damage and disease on brain function in terms of behavior, memory or cognition. Behavioral neurology specializes in this area, alternatively, a condition might first be detected through the presence of abnormalities in mental functioning, and further assessment may indicate an underlying neurological disorder. In practice, cases may present as one type but be assessed as more appropriate to the other, neuropsychiatry deals with mental disorders arising from specific identified diseases of the nervous system. One area that can be contested is in cases of neurological symptoms - conditions where the cause cannot be established. Classic examples are functional seizures, sensory numbness, functional limb weakness, such cases may be contentiously interpreted as being psychological rather than neurological. At one extreme this may be diagnosed as depersonalization disorder, theories and assumptions about consciousness, free will, moral responsibility and social stigma can play a part in this, whether from the perspective of the clinician or the patient. Conditions that are classed as mental disorders, or learning disabilities, biological psychiatry seeks to understand mental disorders in terms of their basis in the nervous system, however. In clinical practice, mental disorders are usually indicated by a state examination. In general, numerous fields intersect to try and understand the processes involved in mental functioning
8.
Karl Jaspers
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Karl Theodor Jaspers was a German-Swiss psychiatrist and philosopher who had a strong influence on modern theology, psychiatry, and philosophy. After being trained in and practicing psychiatry, Jaspers turned to philosophical inquiry and he was often viewed as a major exponent of existentialism in Germany, though he did not accept this label. Jaspers was born in Oldenburg in 1883 to a mother from a farming community. He showed an early interest in philosophy, but his fathers experience with the legal system undoubtedly influenced his decision to study law at University of Heidelberg. It soon became clear that Jaspers did not particularly enjoy law, in 1910 he married Gertrud Mayer, the sister of his close friends Gustav Mayer and Ernst Mayer. Jaspers became dissatisfied with the way the community of the time approached the study of mental illness. In 1913 Jaspers habilitated at the faculty of the Heidelberg University. The post later became a permanent philosophical one, and Jaspers never returned to clinical practice, during this time Jaspers was a close friend of the Weber family. In 1921, at the age of 38, Jaspers turned from psychology to philosophy and he became a philosopher, in Germany and Europe. After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, Jaspers was considered to have a Jewish taint due to his Jewish wife, in 1938 he fell under a publication ban as well. Many of his long-time friends stood by him, however, and he was able to continue his studies, but he and his wife were under constant threat of removal to a concentration camp until 30 March 1945, when Heidelberg was liberated by American troops. In 1948 Jaspers moved to the University of Basel in Switzerland and he remained prominent in the philosophical community and became a naturalized citizen of Switzerland living in Basel until his death on his wifes 90th birthday in 1969. Jaspers dissatisfaction with the understanding of mental illness led him to question both the diagnostic criteria and the methods of clinical psychiatry. He published a paper in 1910 in which he addressed the problem of whether paranoia was an aspect of personality or the result of biological changes. Although it did not broach new ideas, this introduced a rather unusual method of study. Not unlike Freud, Jaspers studied patients in detail, giving information about the patients as well as notes on how the patients themselves felt about their symptoms. This has become known as the method and now forms a mainstay of psychiatric. Jaspers set down his views on mental illness in a book which he published in 1913 and this work has become a classic in the psychiatric literature and many modern diagnostic criteria stem from ideas found within it
9.
Genetics
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Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in living organisms. It is generally considered a field of biology, but intersects frequently with other life sciences and is strongly linked with the study of information systems. The father of genetics is Gregor Mendel, a late 19th-century scientist, Mendel studied trait inheritance, patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring. He observed that organisms inherit traits by way of discrete units of inheritance and this term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene. Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the cell, the organism, genetics has given rise to a number of subfields, including epigenetics and population genetics. Organisms studied within the broad field span the domain of life, including bacteria, plants, animals, genetic processes work in combination with an organisms environment and experiences to influence development and behavior, often referred to as nature versus nurture. The intracellular or extracellular environment of a cell or organism may switch gene transcription on or off, a classic example is two seeds of genetically identical corn, one placed in a temperate climate and one in an arid climate. The word genetics stems from the ancient Greek γενετικός genetikos meaning genitive/generative, the observation that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, prior to Mendel, Imre Festetics, a Hungarian noble, who lived in Kőszeg before Mendel, was the first who used the word genetics. He described several rules of inheritance in his work The genetic law of the Nature. His second law is the same as what Mendel published, in his third law, he developed the basic principles of mutation. Other theories of inheritance preceded his work, a popular theory during Mendels time was the concept of blending inheritance, the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents. Mendels work provided examples where traits were not blended after hybridization. Blending of traits in the progeny is now explained by the action of genes with quantitative effects. Another theory that had some support at that time was the inheritance of acquired characteristics, other theories included the pangenesis of Charles Darwin and Francis Galtons reformulation of pangenesis as both particulate and inherited. Modern genetics started with Gregor Johann Mendel, a scientist and Augustinian friar who studied the nature of inheritance in plants, the importance of Mendels work did not gain wide understanding until the 1890s, after his death, when other scientists working on similar problems re-discovered his research. William Bateson, a proponent of Mendels work, coined the word genetics in 1905, Bateson popularized the usage of the word genetics to describe the study of inheritance in his inaugural address to the Third International Conference on Plant Hybridization in London in 1906. After the rediscovery of Mendels work, scientists tried to determine which molecules in the cell were responsible for inheritance, in 1911, Thomas Hunt Morgan argued that genes are on chromosomes, based on observations of a sex-linked white eye mutation in fruit flies
10.
Self-esteem
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In sociology and psychology, self-esteem reflects a persons overall subjective emotional evaluation of his or her own worth. It is a judgment of oneself as well as an attitude toward the self, Self-esteem encompasses beliefs about oneself, as well as emotional states, such as triumph, despair, pride, and shame. Smith and Mackie defined it by saying The self-concept is what we think about the self, self-esteem, is the positive or negative evaluations of the self, Self-esteem can apply specifically to a particular dimension or a global extent. Psychologists usually regard self-esteem as a personality characteristic, though normal. Synonyms or near-synonyms of self-esteem include, self-worth, self-regard, self-respect, the identification of self-esteem as a distinct psychological construct is thought to have its origins in the work of philosopher and psychologist, William James. James identified multiple dimensions of the self, with two levels of hierarchy, processes of knowing and the knowledge about the self. Observation about the self and storage of those observations by the I-self create three types of knowledge, which account for the Me-self, according to James. These are the material self, social self, and spiritual self, the social self comes closest to self-esteem, comprising all characteristics recognized by others. The material self consists of representations of the body and possessions, and this view of self-esteem as the collection of an individuals attitudes toward oneself remains today. Behaviorism placed the human being as a subject to reinforcements. As a consequence, clinical trials on self-esteem were overlooked, since considered the idea less liable to rigorous measurement. In the mid-20th century, the rise of phenomenology and humanistic psychology led to renewed interest in self-esteem, Self-esteem then took a central role in personal self-actualization and in the treatment of psychic disorders. Psychologists started to consider the relationship between psychotherapy and the satisfaction of a person with high self-esteem as useful to the field. Self-esteem may, in fact, be one of the most essential core self-evaluation dimensions because it is the value one feels about oneself as a person. The importance of self-esteem has gained endorsement from some government and non-government groups starting around the 1970s and this movement can be used as an example of promising evidence that psychological research can have an effect on forming public policy. The underlying idea of the movement was that low self-esteem was the root of the problem for individuals, making it the root of societal problems, Self-esteem was believed to be a cultural phenomenon of Western individualistic societies since low self-esteem was not occurring in collectivist countries such as Japan. Vasconcellos argued that this force could combat many of the states problems from crime and teen pregnancy to school underachievement. He compared increasing self-esteem to giving out a vaccine for a disease, the task force created committees in many California counties and compiled a committee of scholars to review the available literature on self-esteem
11.
Hearing (sense)
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Hearing, or auditory perception, is the ability to perceive sound by detecting vibrations, changes in the pressure of the surrounding medium through time, through an organ such as the ear. Sound may be heard through solid, liquid, or gaseous matter and it is one of the traditional five senses, partial or total inability to hear is called hearing loss. Like touch, audition requires sensitivity to the movement of molecules in the world outside the organism, both hearing and touch are types of mechanosensation. There are three components of the human ear, the outer ear, the middle ear. The outer ear includes the pinna, the part of the ear, as well as the ear canal which terminates at the eardrum. The pinna serves to focus sound waves through the ear canal toward the eardrum, because of the asymmetrical character of the outer ear of most mammals, sound is filtered differently on its way into the ear depending on what vertical location it is coming from. This gives these animals the ability to localize sound vertically, the eardrum is an airtight membrane, and when sound waves arrive there, they cause it to vibrate following the waveform of the sound. The middle ear consists of a small air-filled chamber that is located medial to the eardrum, within this chamber are the three smallest bones in the body, known collectively as the ossicles which include the malleus, incus and stapes. They aid in the transmission of the vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear, the purpose of the middle ear ossicles is to overcome the impedance mismatch between air and water, by providing impedance matching. Also located in the ear are the stapedius and tensor tympani muscles which protect the hearing mechanism through a stiffening reflex. The stapes transmits sound waves to the ear through the oval window. The round window, another flexible membrane, allows for the displacement of the inner ear fluid caused by the entering sound waves. The inner ear consists of the cochlea, which is a spiral-shaped, fluid-filled tube and it is divided lengthwise by the organ of Corti, which is the main organ of mechanical to neural transduction. Inside the organ of Corti is the membrane, a structure that vibrates when waves from the middle ear propagate through the cochlear fluid – endolymph. The basilar membrane is tonotopic, so that frequency has a characteristic place of resonance along it. Characteristic frequencies are high at the entrance to the cochlea. Basilar membrane motion causes depolarization of the cells, specialized auditory receptors located within the organ of Corti. While the hair cells do not produce action potentials themselves, they release neurotransmitter at synapses with the fibers of the auditory nerve, which does produce action potentials
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Visual perception
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Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment using light in the visible spectrum reflected by the objects in the environment. The resulting perception is known as visual perception, eyesight, sight. The visual system in animals allows individuals to assimilate information from their surroundings, the act of seeing starts when the cornea and then the lens of the eye focuses light from its surroundings onto a light-sensitive membrane in the back of the eye, called the retina. The retina is actually part of the brain that is isolated to serve as a transducer for the conversion of light into neuronal signals. These signals are processed via complex feedforward and feedback processes by different parts of the brain, signals from the retina can also travel directly from the retina to the superior colliculus. The perception of objects and the totality of the scene is accomplished by the visual association cortex. The visual association cortex combines all sensory information perceived by the cortex which contains thousands of modules that are part of modular neural networks. The neurons in the cortex send axons to the extrastriate cortex. The major problem in perception is that what people see is not simply a translation of retinal stimuli. Thus people interested in perception have long struggled to explain what visual processing does to create what is actually seen, there were two major ancient Greek schools, providing a primitive explanation of how vision is carried out in the body. The first was the theory which maintained that vision occurs when rays emanate from the eyes and are intercepted by visual objects. If an object was seen directly it was by means of coming out of the eyes. This theory was championed by scholars like Euclid and Ptolemy and their followers, the second school advocated the so-called intro-mission approach which sees vision as coming from something entering the eyes representative of the object. Plato makes this assertion in his dialogue Timaeus, as does Aristotle, alhazen carried out many investigations and experiments on visual perception, extended the work of Ptolemy on binocular vision, and commented on the anatomical works of Galen. Leonardo da Vinci is believed to be the first to recognize the special qualities of the eye. He wrote The function of the human eye, was described by a large number of authors in a certain way. But I found it to be completely different and his main experimental finding was that there is only a distinct and clear vision at the line of sight—the optical line that ends at the fovea. Although he did not use these words literally he actually is the father of the distinction between foveal and peripheral vision
13.
Immigration
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As for economic effects, research suggests that migration is beneficial both to the receiving and sending countries. Studies show that the elimination of barriers to migration would have effects on world GDP. Development economists argue that reducing barriers to labor mobility between developing countries and developed countries would be one of the most efficient tools of poverty reduction. Research shows that country of origin matters for speed and depth of immigrant assimilation, many animals have migrated across evolutionary history, including pre-humans. Human migration started with the out of Africa into the Middle East, and then to Asia, Australia, Europe, Russia. This is discussed in the article pre-modern human migration, recent history is discussed in the articles history of human migration and human migration. When people cross national borders during their migration, they are called migrants or immigrants from the perspective of the country which they enter, from the perspective of the country which they leave, they are called emigrant or outmigrant. Sociology designates immigration usually as migration, as of 2015, the number of international migrants has reached 244 million worldwide, which reflects a 41% increase since 2000. One third of the worlds international migrants are living in just 20 countries, the largest number of international migrants live in the United States, with 19% of the worlds total. Germany and Russia host 12 million migrants each, taking the second, Saudi Arabia hosts 10 million migrants, followed by the United Kingdom and the United Arab Emirates. Between 2000 and 2015, Asia added more international migrants than any major area in the world. Europe added the second largest with about 20 million, in most parts of the world, migration occurs between countries that are located within the same major area. In 2015, the number of international migrants below the age of 20 reached 37 million, while 177 million are between the ages of 20 and 64. International migrants living in Africa were the youngest, with an age of 29, followed by Asia, and Latin America/Caribbean, while migrants were older in Northern America, Europe. Nearly half of all international migrants originate in Asia, and Europe was the birthplace of the second largest number of migrants, india has the largest diaspora in the world, followed by Mexico and Russia. The other top desired destination countries were Canada, France, Saudi Arabia, Australia, Germany, one theory of immigration distinguishes between push and pull factors. Push factors refer primarily to the motive for immigration from the country of origin, in the case of economic migration, differentials in wage rates are common. If the value of wages in the new country surpasses the value of wages in ones country, he or she may choose to migrate
14.
DSM-5
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The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition is the 2013 update to the American Psychiatric Associations classification and diagnostic tool. In the United States the DSM serves as an authority for psychiatric diagnoses. Treatment recommendations, as well as payment by health care providers, are determined by DSM classifications. The DSM-5 was published on May 18,2013, superseding the DSM-IV-TR, the development of the new edition began with a conference in 1999, and proceeded with the formation of a Task Force in 2007, which developed and field-tested a variety of new classifications. In most respects DSM-5 is not greatly changed from DSM-IV-TR, in addition, the DSM-5 is the first living document version of a DSM. Various authorities criticized the fifth edition both before and after it was formally published, many of the members of work groups for the DSM-5 had conflicting interests, including ties to pharmaceutical companies. General criticism of the DSM-5 ultimately resulted in a petition, signed by many mental health organizations and this part of the article summarizes changes from DSM-IV to DSM-5. DSM-5 is divided into three Sections, using Roman numerals to designate each Section, the same organizational structure is used in this overview, e. g. Section I summarizes relevant changes discussed in DSM-5, Section I. Note that if a specific disorder cannot be seen, e. g. Section I describes DSM-5 chapter organization, its change from the multiaxial system, and Section IIIs dimensional assessments. The DSM-5 deleted the chapter that includes disorders usually first diagnosed in infancy, childhood, a note under Anxiety Disorders says that the sequential order of at least some DSM-5 chapters has significance that reflects the relationships between diagnoses. This introductory section describes the process of DSM revision, including field trials, public and professional review and it states its goal is to harmonize with the ICD systems and share organizational structures as much as is feasible. Concern about the system of diagnosis is expressed, but the conclusion is the reality that alternative definitions for most disorders is scientifically premature. The new version replaces the NOS categories with two options, other specified disorder and unspecified disorder to increase the utility to the clinician. The first allows the clinician to specify the reason that the criteria for a specific disorder are not met, DSM-5 has discarded the multiaxial system of diagnosis, listing all disorders in Section II. It has replaced Axis IV with significant psychosocial and contextual features, the World Health Organizations Disability Assessment Schedule is added to Section III under Assessment Measures, as a suggested, but not required, method to assess functioning. Mental retardation has a new name, intellectual disability, a new sub-category, motor disorders, encompasses developmental coordination disorder, stereotypic movement disorder, and the tic disorders including Tourette syndrome. All subtypes of schizophrenia were removed from the DSM-5, a major mood episode is required for schizoaffective disorder. Criteria for delusional disorder changed, and it is no longer separate from shared delusional disorder, catatonia in all contexts requires 3 of a total of 12 symptoms
15.
Ideas of reference
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Ideas of reference and delusions of reference describe the phenomenon of an individuals experiencing innocuous events or mere coincidences and believing they have strong personal significance. It is the notion that one perceives in the world relates to ones own destiny. In psychiatry, delusions of reference form part of the criteria for psychotic illnesses such as schizophrenia, delusional disorder. To a lesser extent, it can be a hallmark of paranoid personality disorder, such symptoms can also be caused by intoxication, especially with hallucinogens or stimulants like methamphetamine. B. C. R. D. Laing took a view of the person who was saying that his brains have been taken from him. Such delusions are partially achieved derealization-realizations, Laing also considered of the way in typical paranoid ideas of reference, the person feels that the murmurings and mutterings he hears as he walks past a street crowd are about him. Ideas of reference must be distinguished from delusions of reference, which may be similar in content but are held with greater conviction and it has been noted that the character rigidly controlled by his superego. readily forms sensitive ideas of reference. A key experience may occur in his circumstances and quite suddenly these ideas become structured as delusions of reference. Within the focus of paranoia. that man crossing his legs and it has a particular meaning, is intended to convey something. Thinking that posts on social network websites or Internet blogs have hidden meanings pertaining to them, believing that the behavior of others is in reference to an abnormal, offensive body odor, which in reality is non-existent and cannot be detected by others. In Mrs Dalloway, as a plane flies over a soldier, So, thought Septimus. The author, Virginia Woolf, recorded in a memoir how she herself had lain in bed, from now on his signposts would be words overheard accidentally, graffiti, advertisements, street names. the clues the city offered him
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Insect
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Insects are a class of hexapod invertebrates within the arthropod phylum that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body, three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes and one pair of antennae. They are the most diverse group of animals on the planet, including more than a million described species, the number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million, and potentially represent over 90% of the differing animal life forms on Earth. Insects may be found in all environments, although only a small number of species reside in the oceans. The life cycles of insects vary but most hatch from eggs, insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton and development involves a series of molts. The immature stages can differ from the adults in structure, habit and habitat, Insects that undergo 3-stage metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and adults develop through a series of nymphal stages. The higher level relationship of the Hexapoda is unclear, fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonflies with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm. The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants, adult insects typically move about by walking, flying or sometimes swimming. As it allows for rapid yet stable movement, many insects adopt a tripedal gait in which they walk with their legs touching the ground in alternating triangles, Insects are the only invertebrates to have evolved flight. Many insects spend at least part of their lives under water, with adaptations that include gills. Some species, such as water striders, are capable of walking on the surface of water, Insects are mostly solitary, but some, such as certain bees, ants and termites, are social and live in large, well-organized colonies. Some insects, such as earwigs, show maternal care, guarding their eggs, Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways. Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances, other species communicate with sounds, crickets stridulate, or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyridae in the beetle order communicate with light, humans regard certain insects as pests, and attempt to control them using insecticides and a host of other techniques. Some insects damage crops by feeding on sap, leaves or fruits, a few parasitic species are pathogenic. Some insects perform complex ecological roles, blow-flies, for example, help consume carrion, Many other insects are considered ecologically beneficial as predators and a few provide direct economic benefit. Silkworms and bees have been used extensively by humans for the production of silk and honey, in some cultures, people eat the larvae or adults of certain insects. Insect first appears documented in English in 1601 in Hollands translation of Pliny, translations of Aristotles term also form the usual word for insect in Welsh, Serbo-Croatian, Russian, etc. The evolutionary relationship of insects to other animal groups remains unclear, in the Pancrustacea theory, insects, together with Entognatha, Remipedia, and Cephalocarida, make up a natural clade labeled Miracrustacea
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Bacteria
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Bacteria constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods, Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only half of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology, There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. There are approximately 5×1030 bacteria on Earth, forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants, Bacteria are vital in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of bodies and bacteria are responsible for the putrefaction stage in this process. In March 2013, data reported by researchers in October 2012, was published and it was suggested that bacteria thrive in the Mariana Trench, which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest known part of the oceans. Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2.6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, You can find microbes everywhere—theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, the vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system, though many are beneficial particularly in the gut flora. However several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy. The most common fatal diseases are respiratory infections, with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people per year. In developed countries, antibiotics are used to treat infections and are also used in farming, making antibiotic resistance a growing problem. Once regarded as constituting the class Schizomycetes, bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and these evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea. The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, for about 3 billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life. In 2008, fossils of macroorganisms were discovered and named as the Francevillian biota, however, gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny, and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal/eukaryotic lineage. Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence, that of the archaea, here, eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into endosymbiotic associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells, which were themselves possibly related to the Archaea
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Mite
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Mites, along with ticks, are small arthropods belonging to the subclass Acari and the class Arachnida. The scientific discipline devoted to the study of ticks and mites is called acarology, in soil ecosystems, mites are favored by high organic matter content and by moist conditions, wherein they actively engage in the fragmentation and mixing of organic matter. Mites are among the most diverse and successful of all the invertebrate groups and they have exploited an incredible array of habitats, and because of their small size, go largely unnoticed. Many live freely in the soil or water, but there are also a number of species that live as parasites on plants, animals. It is estimated that 48,200 species of mites have been described, mites occupy a wide range of ecological niches. For example, Oribatida mites are important decomposers and occur in many habitats and they eat a wide variety of material including living and dead plant and fungal material, lichens and carrion, some are even predatory, though no species of Oribatida mite are parasites. Many mites which have well studied are parasitic on plants. One family of mites Pyroglyphidae, or nest mites, live primarily in the nests of birds and these mites are largely parasitic and consume blood, skin and keratin. Dust mites, which feed mostly on dead skin and hair shed from humans instead of consuming them from the organism directly, insects may also be infested by parasitic mites. Examples are Varroa destructor, which attaches to the body of the bee, and Acarapis woodi. There are hundreds of species of associated with other bee species. They attach to the bees in a variety of ways, for example, Trigona corvina workers have been found with mites attached to the outer face of their hind tibiae. Some are thought to be parasites, while others are beneficial symbionts, mites also parasitize some ant species, such as Eciton burchellii. Some of the plant pests include the spider mites, thread-footed mites. Among the species that attack animals are members of the sarcoptic mange mites, demodex mites are parasites that live in or near the hair follicles of mammals, including humans. Acari are mites, except for the three families of ticks, mites also hold the record speed, for its length, Paratarsotomus macropalpis is the fastest animal on Earth. The majority of species are harmless to humans, but a few species of mites can colonize humans directly, act as vectors for disease transmission. Mites which colonize human skin are the cause of several types of skin rashes, such as grain itch, grocers itch
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Lice
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Louse is the common name for members of the order Phthiraptera, which contains nearly 5,000 species of wingless insect. Lice are obligate parasites, living externally on warm-blooded hosts which include species of bird and mammal, except for monotremes, pangolins, bats. Lice are vectors of diseases such as typhus, chewing lice live among the hairs or feathers of their host and feed on skin and debris, while sucking lice pierce the hosts skin and feed on blood and other secretions. They usually spend their life on a single host, cementing their eggs. The eggs hatch into nymphs, which three times before becoming fully grown, a process that takes about four weeks. Humans host three species of louse, the louse, the body louse and the pubic louse. The body louse has the smallest genome of any known insect, Lice were ubiquitous in human society until at least the Middle Ages. They appear in folktales, songs such as The Kilkenny Louse House and they commonly feature in the psychiatric disorder delusional parasitosis. A louse was one of the subjects of microscopy, appearing in Robert Hookes 1667 book. Humans host three different kinds of lice, head lice, body lice, and pubic lice, Lice infestations can be controlled with lice combs, and medicated shampoos or washes. Sucking lice are wingless insects ranging from 0.5 to 5 mm in length. They have narrow heads and oval, flattened bodies and they have no ocelli, and their compound eyes are reduced in size or absent. Their antennae are short with three to five segments, and their parts, which are retractable into their head, are adapted for piercing and sucking. There is a pump at the start of the gut. The mouthparts consist of a proboscis which is toothed, and a set of stylets arranged in a cylinder inside the proboscis, contaiing a salivary canal and a food canal. The thoracic segments are fused, the segments are separate. Chewing lice are also flattened and can be larger than sucking lice. They are similar to sucking lice in form but the head is wider than the thorax, there are no ocelli and the mouthparts are adapted for chewing
20.
Flea
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Fleas are small flightless insects that form the order Siphonaptera. As external parasites of mammals and birds, they live by consuming the blood of their hosts, adults are up to about 3 mm long and usually brown. Bodies flattened sideways enable them to move through their hosts fur or feathers and they lack wings, and have mouthparts adapted for piercing skin and sucking blood and hind legs adapted for jumping. The latter enable them to leap a distance of some 50 times their body length, larvae are worm-like with no limbs, they have chewing mouthparts and feed on organic debris. Over 2,500 species of fleas have been described worldwide, the Siphonaptera are most closely related to the snow scorpionflies, placing them within the endopterygote insect order Mecoptera. Fleas arose in the early Cretaceous, most likely as ectoparasites of mammals and marsupials, each species of flea is more or less a specialist on its host animal species, many species never breed on any other host, though some are less selective. The oriental rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis, is a vector of Yersinia pestis, the disease was spread by rodents such as the black rat, which were bitten by fleas that then infected humans. Major outbreaks included the Plague of Justinian and the Black Death, both of which killed a sizeable fraction of the worlds population. Fleas appear in human culture in such forms as flea circuses, poems like John Donnes erotic The Flea, works of music such as by Modest Mussorgsky. Flea legs end in strong claws that are designed to grasp a host, unlike other insects, fleas do not possess compound eyes but instead only have simple eyespots with a single biconvex lens, some species lack eyes altogether. Their bodies are compressed, permitting easy movement through the hairs or feathers on the hosts body. The flea body is covered with hard plates called sclerites and these sclerites are covered with many hairs and short spines directed backward, which also assist its movements on the host. The tough body is able to withstand great pressure, likely an adaptation to survive attempts to eliminate them by scratching, fleas lay tiny, white, oval eggs. The larvae are small and pale, have bristles covering their bodies, lack eyes. The larvae feed on organic matter, especially the feces of mature fleas, adults feed only on fresh blood. Immediately before the jump, muscles contract and deform the resilin pad, to prevent premature release of energy or motions of the leg, the flea employs a catch mechanism. Early in the jump, the tendon of the primary jumping muscle passes slightly behind the coxa-trochanter joint, generating a torque which holds the joint closed with the leg close to the body. To trigger jumping, another muscle pulls the tendon forward until it passes the joint axis, generating the opposite torque to extend the leg, the actual take off has been shown by high-speed video to be from the tibiae and tarsi rather than from the trochantera
21.
Entomologists
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Entomology is the scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. This wider meaning may still be encountered in informal use, Entomology is rooted in nearly all human cultures from prehistoric times, primarily in the context of agriculture, but scientific study began only as recently as the 16th century. William Kirby is widely considered as the father of Entomology, in collaboration with William Spence, he published a definitive entomological encyclopedia, Introduction to Entomology, regarded as the subjects foundational text. He also helped to found the Royal Entomological Society in London in 1833, one of the earliest such societies in the world, earlier antecedents, such as the Aurelian society date back to the 1740s. There has also been a history of people becoming entomologists through museum curation and research assistance, insect identification is an increasingly common hobby, with butterflies and dragonflies being the most popular. Most insects can easily be recognized to such as Hymenoptera or Coleoptera. However, insects other than Lepidoptera are typically identifiable to genus or species only through the use of Identification keys and Monographs. Because the class Insecta contains a large number of species and the characteristics separating them are unfamiliar, and often subtle. This has led to the development of automated species identification systems targeted on insects, for example, Daisy, ABIS, SPIDA, in 1994 the Entomological Society of America launched a new professional certification program for the pest control industry called The Associate Certified Entomologist. To qualify as a true entomologist an individual would require an advanced degree. Trichopterology - caddis flies Vespology - Social wasps Like other scientific specialties, entomologists have a number of local, national, there are also many organizations specializing in specific subareas. C. Y. Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas University of Minnesota, big Fleas Have Little Fleas, How Discoveries of Invertebrate Diseases Are Advancing Modern Science University of Arizona Press, Tucson,208 pages, ISBN 0-8165-2544-7. Triplehorn, Charles A. and Norman F. Johnson, borror and DeLongs Introduction to the Study of Insects, 7th edition, Thomas Brooks/Cole. — a classic textbook in North America, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Capinera, JL.2008. Iowa State Entomology Index of Internet Resources, archived from the original on 2006-11-14. Archived from the original on 2006-12-06, archived from the original on 2007-02-07. Compendium of References on Flies and Disease, archived from the original on 2006-10-15. USDA Collecting methods. Detailed instructions Arthropa Extensive photo album sorted by topic, Tereshkin Scientific illustration in entomology Tereshkin, A.2008, Methodology of a scientific drawings preparation in entomology on example of ichneumon flies
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Skin lesions
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A cutaneous condition is any medical condition that affects the integumentary system—the organ system that encloses the body and includes skin, hair, nails, and related muscle and glands. The major function of system is as a barrier against the external environment. Conditions of the integumentary system constitute a broad spectrum of diseases, also known as dermatoses. While only a number of skin diseases account for most visits to the physician. Classification of these conditions often presents many challenges, since underlying causes. Therefore, most current textbooks present a classification based on location, morphology, cause, the diagnosis of many conditions often also requires a skin biopsy which yields histologic information that can be correlated with the clinical presentation and any laboratory data. The skin weighs an average of 4 kg, covers an area of 2 m2, the two main types of human skin are glabrous skin, the nonhairy skin on the palms and soles, and hair-bearing skin. Within the latter type, hairs in structures called pilosebaceous units have a hair follicle, sebaceous gland, in the embryo, the epidermis, hair, and glands are from the ectoderm, which is chemically influenced by the underlying mesoderm that forms the dermis and subcutaneous tissues. The epidermis is the most superficial layer of skin, a squamous epithelium with several strata, the corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum. Nourishment is provided to these layers via diffusion from the dermis, the epidermis contains four cell types, keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells. Of these, keratinocytes are the component, constituting roughly 95% of the epidermis. The dermis is the layer of skin between the epidermis and subcutaneous tissue, and comprises two sections, the dermis and the reticular dermis. The superficial papillary dermis interdigitates with the rete ridges of the epidermis. Structural components of the dermis are collagen, elastic fibers, within these components are the pilosebaceous units, arrector pili muscles, and the eccrine and apocrine glands. The dermis contains two vascular networks that run parallel to the skin surface—one superficial and one deep plexus—which are connected by vertical communicating vessels. The function of blood vessels within the dermis is fourfold, to supply nutrition, to temperature, to modulate inflammation. The subcutaneous tissue is a layer of fat between the dermis and underlying fascia and this tissue may be further divided into two components, the actual fatty layer, or panniculus adiposus, and a deeper vestigial layer of muscle, the panniculus carnosus. The main cellular component of tissue is the adipocyte, or fat cell
