1.
Algeria
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Algeria, officially the Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a sovereign state in North Africa on the Mediterranean coast. Its capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the far north. With an area of 2,381,741 square kilometres, Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world, the country is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes. Abdelaziz Bouteflika has been President since 1999, Berbers are the indigenous inhabitants of Algeria. Algeria is a regional and middle power, the North African country supplies large amounts of natural gas to Europe, and energy exports are the backbone of the economy. According to OPEC Algeria has the 16th largest oil reserves in the world, Sonatrach, the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa. Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest defence budget on the continent, most of Algerias weapons are imported from Russia, with whom they are a close ally. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC, the countrys name derives from the city of Algiers. The citys name in turn derives from the Arabic al-Jazāir, a form of the older Jazāir Banī Mazghanna. In the region of Ain Hanech, early remnants of hominid occupation in North Africa were found, neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles similar to those in the Levant. Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques, tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called Aterian. The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called Iberomaurusian and this industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the Maghreb between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC and this life, richly depicted in the Tassili nAjjer paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The amalgam of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a native population that came to be called Berbers. These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages, as Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, by the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the Revolt of the Mercenaries, Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthages North African territory, the Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars
2.
Demography
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Demography is the statistical study of populations, especially human beings. As a very general science, it can analyse any kind of dynamic living population, Demography encompasses the study of the size, structure, and distribution of these populations, and spatial or temporal changes in them in response to birth, migration, ageing, and death. Based on the research of the earth, earths population up to the year 2050 and 2100 can be estimated by demographers. Demographics are quantifiable characteristics of a given population, demographic analysis can cover whole societies or groups defined by criteria such as education, nationality, religion, and ethnicity. Educational institutions usually treat demography as a field of sociology, though there are a number of independent demography departments, demographic thoughts can be traced back to antiquity, and were present in many civilizations and cultures, like Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, India and China. In ancient Greece, this can be found in the writings of Herodotus, Thucidides, Hippocrates, Epicurus, Protagoras, Polus, Plato and Aristotle. In Rome, writers and philosophers like Cicero, Seneca, Pliny the elder, Marcus Aurelius, Epictetus, Cato, in the Middle ages, Christian thinkers devoted much time in refuting the Classical ideas on demography. Important contributors to the field were William of Conches, Bartholomew of Lucca, William of Auvergne, William of Pagula, and Ibn Khaldun. One of the earliest demographic studies in the period was Natural and Political Observations Made upon the Bills of Mortality by John Graunt. Among the studys findings were that one third of the children in London died before their sixteenth birthday, mathematicians, such as Edmond Halley, developed the life table as the basis for life insurance mathematics. Richard Price was credited with the first textbook on life contingencies published in 1771, followed later by Augustus de Morgan, at the end of the 18th century, Thomas Robert Malthus concluded that, if unchecked, populations would be subject to exponential growth. He feared that population growth would tend to outstrip growth in production, leading to ever-increasing famine. He is seen as the father of ideas of overpopulation. Later, more sophisticated and realistic models were presented by Benjamin Gompertz, the period 1860-1910 can be characterized as a period of transition wherein demography emerged from statistics as a separate field of interest. There are two types of data collection—direct and indirect—with several different methods of each type, direct data comes from vital statistics registries that track all births and deaths as well as certain changes in legal status such as marriage, divorce, and migration. In developed countries with good registration systems, registry statistics are the best method for estimating the number of births and deaths, a census is the other common direct method of collecting demographic data. A census is conducted by a national government and attempts to enumerate every person in a country. Analyses are conducted after a census to estimate how much over or undercounting took place and these compare the sex ratios from the census data to those estimated from natural values and mortality data
3.
Population
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A population is the number of all the organisms of the same group or species, which live in a particular geographical area, and have the capability of interbreeding. In sociology, population refers to a collection of humans, Demography is a social science which entails the statistical study of human populations. This article refers mainly to human population, in population genetics a sexual population is a set of organisms in which any pair of members can breed together. This means that they can regularly exchange gametes to produce normally-fertile offspring and this also implies that all members belong to the same species. If the gamodeme is very large, and all gene alleles are uniformly distributed by the gametes within it, however, there may be low frequencies of exchange with these neighbours. This may be viewed as the breaking up of a sexual population into smaller overlapping sexual populations. The overall rise in homozygosity is quantified by the inbreeding coefficient, note that all homozygotes are increased in frequency – both the deleterious and the desirable. The mean phenotype of the collection is lower than that of the panmictic original – which is known as inbreeding depression. It is most important to note, however, that some lines will be superior to the panmictic original, while some will be about the same. The probabilities of each can be estimated from those binomial equations, in plant and animal breeding, procedures have been developed which deliberately utilise the effects of dispersion. It can be shown that dispersion-assisted selection leads to the greatest genetic advance and this is so for both allogamous and autogamous gamodemes. In ecology, the population of a species in a certain area can be estimated using the Lincoln Index. As of todays date, the population is estimated by the United States Census Bureau to be 7.496 billion. The US Census Bureau estimates the 7 billion number was surpassed on 12 March 2012, according to papers published by the United States Census Bureau, the world population hit 6.5 billion on 24 February 2006. The United Nations Population Fund designated 12 October 1999 as the day on which world population reached 6 billion. This was about 12 years after world population reached 5 billion in 1987, the population of countries such as Nigeria, is not even known to the nearest million, so there is a considerable margin of error in such estimates. Researcher Carl Haub calculated that a total of over 100 billion people have probably been born in the last 2000 years, Population growth increased significantly as the Industrial Revolution gathered pace from 1700 onwards. In 2007 the United Nations Population Division projected that the population will likely surpass 10 billion in 2055
4.
Population density
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Population density is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume, it is a quantity of type number density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and most of the time to humans and it is a key geographical term. Population density is population divided by land area or water volume. Low densities may cause a vortex and lead to further reduced fertility. This is called the Allee effect after the scientist who identified it, commonly this may be calculated for a county, city, country, another territory, or the entire world. The worlds population is around 7,000,000,000, therefore, the worldwide human population density is around 7,000,000,000 ÷510,000,000 =13.7 per km2. If only the Earths land area of 150,000,000 km2 is taken into account and this includes all continental and island land area, including Antarctica. If Antarctica is also excluded, then population density rises to over 50 people per km2, thus, this number by itself does not give any helpful measurement of human population density. Several of the most densely populated territories in the world are city-states, microstates, cities with high population densities are, by some, considered to be overpopulated, though this will depend on factors like quality of housing and infrastructure and access to resources. Most of the most densely populated cities are in Southeast Asia, though Cairo, for instance, Milwaukee has a greater population density when just the inner city is measured, and the surrounding suburbs excluded. Arithmetic density, The total number of people / area of land, physiological density, The total population / area of arable land. Agricultural density, The total rural population / area of arable land, residential density, The number of people living in an urban area / area of residential land. Urban density, The number of people inhabiting an urban area / total area of urban land, ecological optimum, The density of population that can be supported by the natural resources. S. States by population density Selected Current and Historic City, Ward & Neighborhood Density
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Ethnic group
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An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities, such as common ancestral, language, social, cultural or national experiences. Unlike other social groups, ethnicity is often an inherited status based on the society in which one lives, in some cases, it can be adopted if a person moves into another society. Ethnic groups, derived from the historical founder population, often continue to speak related languages. By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is possible for individuals or groups to leave one ethnic group. Ethnicity is often used synonymously with terms such as nation or people. In English, it can also have the connotation of something exotic, generally related to cultures of more recent immigrants, the largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals, while the smallest are limited to a few dozen individuals. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity, whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis. The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word ἔθνος ethnos, the inherited English language term for this concept is folk, used alongside the latinate people since the late Middle English period. In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan, as the Septuagint used ta ethne to translate the Hebrew goyim the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews. The Greek term in antiquity could refer to any large group, a host of men. In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of peculiar to a race, people or nation, the abstract ethnicity had been used for paganism in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an ethnic character. The term ethnic group was first recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972, depending on the context that is used, the term nationality may either be used synonymously with ethnicity, or synonymously with citizenship. The process that results in the emergence of an ethnicity is called ethnogenesis, the Greeks at this time did not describe foreign nations but had also developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes. Herodotus gave an account of what defined Greek ethnic identity in his day, enumerating shared descent. Whether ethnicity qualifies as a universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf and they regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups. According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently, one is between primordialism and instrumentalism. In the primordialist view, the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as a given, even coercive
6.
Mediterranean Sea
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The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum
7.
Urbanization
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Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which each society adapts to the change. It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed, the United Nations projected that half of the worlds population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008. It is predicted that by 2050 about 64% of the developing world and that is equivalent to approximately 3 billion urbanites by 2050, much of which will occur in Africa and Asia. Notably, the United Nations has also projected that nearly all global population growth from 2017 to 2030 will be absorbed by cities. Urbanization is relevant to a range of disciplines, including geography, sociology, economics, urban planning, the phenomenon has been closely linked to modernization, industrialization, and the sociological process of rationalization. Urbanization can be seen as a condition at a set time or as an increase in that condition over time. The first major change in settlement patterns was the accumulation of hunter-gatherers into villages many years ago. This unprecedented movement of people is forecast to continue and intensify during the few decades. Outside Asia, Mexico City, São Paulo, London, New York City, Lagos, in England the proportion of the population living in cities jumped from 17% in 1801 to 72% in 1891. Growing trade around the world also allowed cereals to be imported from North America and refrigerated meat from Australasia, spatially, cities also expanded due to the development of public transport systems, which facilitated commutes of longer distances to the city centre for the working class. Urbanization rapidly spread across the Western world and, since the 1950s, at the turn of the 20th century, just 15% of the world population lived in cities. According to the UN the year 2007 witnessed the turning point when more than 50% of the population were living in cities. Living in a city can provide opportunities of proximity, diversity, as against this, there may be alienation issues, stress, increased cost of living, and negative social aspects that result from mass marginalization. In cities, money, services, wealth and opportunities are centralized, many rural inhabitants come to the city to seek their fortune and alter their social position. Businesses, which provide jobs and exchange capital, are concentrated in urban areas. Whether the source is trade or tourism, it is also through the ports or banking systems, commonly located in cities, many people move into cities for the economic opportunities, but this does not fully explain the very high recent urbanization rates in places like China and India. Rural flight is a factor to urbanization. Farm living has always been susceptible to environmental conditions, and in times of drought, flood or pestilence
8.
Sahara
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The Sahara is the largest hot desert and the third largest desert in the world after Antarctica and the Arctic. Its area of 9,200,000 square kilometres is comparable to the area of the United States. The desert comprises much of North Africa, excluding the fertile region on the Mediterranean Sea coast, the Atlas Mountains of the Maghreb, and the Nile Valley in Egypt and Sudan. It stretches from the Red Sea in the east and the Mediterranean in the north to the Atlantic Ocean in the west, where the landscape gradually changes from desert to coastal plains. To the south, it is bounded by the Sahel, a belt of tropical savanna around the Niger River valley. The Sahara can be divided into several regions including, the western Sahara, the central Ahaggar Mountains, the Tibesti Mountains, the Aïr Mountains, the Ténéré desert, the name Sahara is derived from ṣaḥārā, the plural of the Arabic word for desert. The Sahara covers large parts of Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Western Sahara, Sudan and it covers 9 million square kilometres, amounting to 31% of Africa. If all areas with an annual precipitation of less than 250 mm were included. It is one of three physiographic provinces of the African massive physiographic division. The Sahara is mainly rocky hamada, Ergs form only a minor part, wind or rare rainfall shape the desert features, sand dunes, dune fields, sand seas, stone plateaus, gravel plains, dry valleys, dry lakes, and salt flats. Unusual landforms include the Richat Structure in Mauritania, several deeply dissected mountains, many volcanic, rise from the desert, including the Aïr Mountains, Ahaggar Mountains, Saharan Atlas, Tibesti Mountains, Adrar des Iforas, and the Red Sea hills. The highest peak in the Sahara is Emi Koussi, a volcano in the Tibesti range of northern Chad. The central Sahara is hyperarid, with sparse vegetation, the northern and southern reaches of the desert, along with the highlands, have areas of sparse grassland and desert shrub, with trees and taller shrubs in wadis, where moisture collects. In the central, hyperarid region, there are subdivisions of the great desert, Tanezrouft, the Ténéré, the Libyan Desert, the Eastern Desert. These extremely arid areas often receive no rain for years, the northern limit also corresponds to the 100 mm isohyet of annual precipitation. To the south, the Sahara is bounded by the Sahel, the southern limit of the Sahara is indicated botanically by the southern limit of Cornulaca monacantha, or northern limit of Cenchrus biflorus, a grass typical of the Sahel. According to climatic criteria, the limit of the Sahara corresponds to the 150 mm isohyet of annual precipitation. The Sahara is the worlds largest low-latitude hot desert and this steady descending airflow causes a warming and a drying effect in the upper troposphere
9.
Sunni Islam
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Sunni Islam is the largest group of Islam. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the behavior of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to Sunni tradition, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and this contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad intended his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him. Political tensions between Sunnis and Shias continued with varying intensity throughout Islamic history and they have been exacerbated in recent times by ethnic conflicts, as of 2009, Sunni Muslims constituted between 87–90% of the worlds Muslim population. Sunni Islam is the worlds largest religious denomination, followed by Catholicism and its adherents are referred to in Arabic as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah or ahl as-sunnah for short. In English, its doctrines and practices are sometimes called Sunnism, while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, Sunnites, Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as orthodox Islam. The Quran, together with hadith and binding juristic consensus form the basis of all traditional jurisprudence within Sunni Islam, sunnī, also commonly referred to as Sunnīism, is a term derived from sunnah meaning habit, usual practice, custom, tradition. The Muslim use of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of the prophet Muhammad, in Arabic, this branch of Islam is referred to as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah, the people of the sunnah and the community, which is commonly shortened to ahl as-sunnah. One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammads death, and that Sufism and Shiism developed out of Sunni Islam. This perception is due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines, the first four caliphs are known among Sunnis as the Rashidun or Rightly-Guided Ones. Sunni recognition includes the aforementioned Abu Bakr as the first, Umar who established the Islamic calendar as the second, Uthman as the third, Sunnis believe that the companions of Muhammad were the best of Muslims. Support for this view is found in the Quran, according to Sunnis. Sunnis also believe that the companions were true believers since it was the companions who were given the task of compiling the Quran, furthermore, narrations that were narrated by the companions are considered by Sunnis to be a second source of knowledge of the Muslim faith. A study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2010 and released January 2011 found that there are 1.62 billion Muslims around the world, Islam does not have a formal hierarchy or clergy. Leaders are informal, and gain influence through study to become a scholar of Islamic law, according to the Islamic Center of Columbia, South Carolina, anyone with the intelligence and the will can become an Islamic scholar. During Midday Mosque services on Fridays, the congregation will choose a person to lead the service
10.
Mozabite people
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The Mozabite people are a Berber ethnic group inhabiting the Mzab natural region in the northern Sahara in Algeria. They speak Mozabite, a branch of the Zenati group of Berber languages, Mozabites live in five oases, namely, Ghardaïa, Beni Isguen, El Atteuf, Melika and Bounoura, as well as two other isolated oases farther north, Berriane and Guerrara. According to tradition the Ibadis, after their overthrow at Tiaret by the Fatimids and they founded an independent state there. In 1012, owing to further persecutions, they fled to their present location, after the capture of Laghouat by France, the Mozabites concluded a convention with them in 1853, whereby they accepted to pay an annual contribution of 1,800 francs in return for their independence. In November 1882, the Mzab country was annexed to French Algeria. Ghardaïa is the capital of the confederacy, followed in importance by Beni Isguen, since the establishment of French control, Beni Isguen has become the depot for the sale of European goods. The Mozabite engineers built a system of works that made the oases much more fertile than they used to be. Mozabites speak Mozabite, a branch of the Zenati group of Berber languages, Mozabite people are characterized by a very high level of North African haplogroups E1b1b1b and U6. Mzab This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. A. Coyne, Le Mzab, Rinn, Occupation du Mzab Amat, Le MZab el les MZabites
11.
Shia Islam
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Shia is a branch of Islam which holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor. Shia Islam primarily contrasts with Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor, instead they consider Abu Bakr to be the correct Caliph. Adherents of Shia Islam are called Shias of Ali, Shias or the Shia as a collective or Shii individually, Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam, in 2009, Shia Muslims constituted 10–13% of the worlds Muslim population. Twelver Shia is the largest branch of Shia Islam, in 2012 it was estimated that perhaps 85 percent of Shias were Twelvers. Shia Islam is based on the Quran and the message of Muhammad attested in hadith, Shia consider Ali to have been divinely appointed as the successor to Muhammad, and as the first Imam. The word Shia means follower and is the form of the historic phrase shīʻatu ʻAlī, meaning followers of Ali, faction of Ali. Shia and Shiism are forms used in English, while Shiite or Shiite, as well as Shia, the term for the first time was used at the time of Muhammad. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the community after Muhammad belongs to Ali, nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims that at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded Ali as the Imam and Caliph. Al-Shahrastani expresses that the term Shia refers to those who believe that Ali is designated as the Heir, Imam and caliph by Muhammad, for the Shia, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and history of Islam. And Allah is Hearing and Knowing, Shia search for the true meaning of the revelation to get the purpose of the life blood and the human destiny. Shia Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone and they believe God chose Ali to be Muhammads successor, infallible, the first caliph of Islam. The Shias believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by Gods command, Ali was Muhammads first cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammads daughter Fatimah. Ali would eventually become the fourth Muslim caliph, after the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad ordered the gathering of Muslims at the pond of Khumm and it was there that Shia Muslims believe Muhammad nominated Ali to be his successor. The hadith of the pond of Khumm was narrated on 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah of 10 AH in the Islamic calendar at a place called Ghadir Khumm, located near the city of al-Juhfah, Saudi Arabia. Muhammad there stated, Shia Muslims believe this to be Muhammads appointment of Ali as his successor, when Muhammad died in 632 CE, Ali and Muhammads closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abu Bakr, Umar, Ali and his family accepted the appointment for the sake of unity in the early Muslim community. Alis rule over the early Muslim community was often contested, as a result, he had to struggle to maintain his power against the groups who betrayed him after giving allegiance to his succession, or those who wished to take his position. This dispute eventually led to the First Fitna, which was the first major civil war within the Islamic Caliphate, the Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against Ali ibn Abi Talib, caused by the assassination of his political predecessor, Uthman ibn Affan
12.
Islam in Algeria
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Islam is the majority religion in Algeria. The vast majority of citizens are Sunni Muslims belonging to Maliki school of jurisprudence, with a minority of Ibadi, Islam provides the society with its central social and cultural identity and gives most individuals their basic ethical and attitudinal orientation. Orthodox observance of the faith is much less widespread and steadfast than is identification with Islam, there are also Sufi philosophies which arose as a reaction to theoretical perspectives of some scholars. The native Berbers were rapidly converted in large numbers, although some Christian, however, as in the Middle East itself, they sought to combine their new Islam with resistance to the Caliphates foreign rule - a niche which the Kharijite and Shiite heresies filled perfectly. By the late 8th century, most of Algeria was ruled by the Rustamids, with the political threat of the Abbasid Caliphate gone, these soon reverted to Sunni Islam - specifically, the Maliki branch, whose popularity had spread widely in the Maghreb. The Almohads were zealously orthodox, and under their rule Algeria gradually acquired its notable religious homogeneity, Sunni Islam and the Maliki madhhab became virtually universal, apart from the Ibadhis of the Mzab and small Jewish communities. When the Ottomans ruled Algeria, they brought the Hanafi madhhab with them, however, they accepted the local custom of Maliki law, during these centuries Sufi brotherhoods were widespread, and marabouts and saint cults - still testified to by the many Algerian towns named Sidi. Islam took longer to spread to the far south of Algeria, whose history is to a large extent separate, in 1830, the French conquered Algiers. Their attempts to rule the rest of the country met stiff opposition, often religiously inspired, the Sufi warrior Amir Abd al-Qadir was particularly notable for his campaign to keep the French out. Even after his defeat, rebellions continued to be mounted until at least 1870, notably that of Cheikh Mokrani, again, soon after arriving in Algeria, the French colonial regime set about undermining traditional Muslim Algerian culture. By French law Muslims could not hold meetings, carry firearms. Legally, they were French subjects, but to become French citizens, with full rights, the land of Islamic charitable trusts was regarded as government property and confiscated. Much of the network of traditional Quranic schools and zaouias - regarded with suspicion as centers of potential resistance - collapsed, however, the emergence of the religious scholar and reformer Abdelhamid Ben Badis would go some way to reversing these trends. After independence the Algerian government asserted state control over religious activities for purposes of national consolidation, Islam became the religion of the state in the new constitution, and was the religion of its leaders. The state monopolized the building of mosques, and the Ministry of Religious Affairs controlled an estimated 5,000 public mosques by the mid-1980s. Imams were trained, appointed, and paid by the state, and that ministry also administered religious property, provided for religious education and training in schools, and created special institutes for Islamic learning. Those measures, however, did not satisfy everyone, as early as 1964 a militant Islamic movement, called Al Qiyam, emerged and became the precursor of the Islamic Salvation Front of the 1990s. Al Qiyam called for a dominant role for Islam in Algerias legal and political systems
13.
Christianity in Algeria
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Christianity came to North Africa in the Roman era. According to historian Theodore Mommsen what is now Mediterranean Algeria was fully Christian by the fifth century, a notable Berber Christian of Algeria was SaintAugustine, important saints of Roman Catholicism. Christianitys influence declined during the period of the Vandal invasions but was strengthened in the succeeding Byzantine period. After the Arab invasions of the 7th century, Christianity began to gradually disappear, currently, North Africa is primarily Muslim, Islam is the state religion of Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia. While the practice and expression of other faiths is guaranteed by law, converts to Christianity may be investigated and searched by the authorities. There is some evidence that there has been an increase in conversions to Christianity among North African Muslims in recent years, despite this, the total number of Christians remains very low relative to the populations of these countries. In 2009, the percentage of Christians in Algeria was less than 2%, in this same survey, the UNO counted 100,000 Roman Catholics and 45,000 Protestants in the country. A2015 study estimates 380,000 Muslims converted to Christianity in Algeria, although Christians are a religious minority in Algeria, churches built during the French and to a lesser extent Italian rule can still be found. Conversions to Christianity have been most common in Kabylie, especially in the wilaya of Tizi-Ouzou, in Tizi-Ouzou, the proportion of Christians has been estimated to be between 1% and 5%. Christians have at times subjected to religiously motivated attacks. In 1996, Pierre Claverie, bishop of Oran, was assassinated by terrorists and this murder occurred soon after that of seven monks of the Trappistes of Tibérine, and of six nuns. This terrorist act was part of a trend of violence during the Algerian Civil War in the 1990s. During this time, between 100,000 and 200,000 Algerians lost their lives, Protestants number approximately 45,000 in Algeria, according to more conservative estimates. A2015 study, however, estimated 380,000 Muslims converted to Christianity in Algeria and this small population generally practices its faith without government interference but incidences of persecution were more frequently recorded of late. Missionary groups are permitted to conduct humanitarian activities without government interference as long as they are discreet, since 2006 missionary outreach among Muslims can be punished with up to five years of prison. The Protestant Church of Algeria is a church formed by the Methodist Church. The Protestant Church of Algeria is one of two officially recognized Christian organizations in the country. According to the ICC, most Christians meet in homes, to protect themselves, the countrys Minister of Religious Affairs has called the evangelical churches dangerous
14.
French Algeria
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French Algeria began in 1827 with the blockade of Algiers by the French navy and lasted from 1830 to 1962, under a variety of governmental systems. From 1848 until independence, the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria was administered as an part of France. The vast arid interior of Algeria, like the rest of French North Africa, was never considered part of France, one of Frances longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants, known as colons and later, as pieds-noirs. However, indigenous Muslims remained a majority of the population throughout its history. Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population with its lack of political and economic status fueled calls for political autonomy. Tensions between the two groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the Algerian War began. The war concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 Evian agreements, since the 1516 capture of Algiers by the Ottoman admirals, the brothers Oruç and Hayreddin Barbarossa, Algeria had been a base for conflict and piracy in the Mediterranean. In 1681, Louis XIV asked Admiral Abraham Duquesne to fight the Berber pirates, again, dEstrées bombarded Tripoli and Algiers from 1685 to 1688. An ambassador from Algiers visited the Court in Versailles, and a Treaty was signed in 1690 that provided peace throughout the 18th century, however, Bonaparte refused to pay the bill back, claiming it was excessive. In 1820, Louis XVIII paid back half of the Directorys debts, the dey, who had loaned to the Bacri 250,000 francs, requested from France the rest of the money. The Dey of Algiers himself was politically, economically. Algeria was then part of the Barbary States, along with todays Tunisia – which depended on the Ottoman Empire then led by Mahmud II —, the Barbary Coast was then the stronghold of the Berber pirates, which carried out raids against European and American ships. Conflicts between the Barbary States and the newly independent United States of America culminated in the First, an Anglo-Dutch force, led by Admiral Lord Exmouth, carried out a punitive expedition, the August 1816 bombardment of Algiers. The Dey was forced to sign the Barbary treaties, while the advance of U. S. British. The name of Algeria itself came from the French and his intention was to bolster patriotic sentiment, and distract attention from ineptly handled domestic policies by skirmishing against the dey. In the 1790s, France had contracted to purchase wheat for the French army from two merchants in Algiers, Messrs, Bacri and Boushnak, and was in arrears paying them. These merchants, Bacri and Boushnak who had debts to the dey, devals nephew Alexandre, the consul in Bône, further angered the dey by fortifying French storehouses in Bône and La Calle against the terms of prior agreements. After a contentious meeting in which Deval refused to provide answers on 29 April 1827
15.
History of the Jews in Algeria
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The History of the Jews in Algeria refers to the history of the Jewish community of Algeria, which dates to the 1st century CE. Following Algerian independence in 1962, most Algerias Jews, having been granted French citizenship in 1870, the vast majority moved to France, and the rest moved to Israel. Those who remained resided mostly in Algiers, while some settled in Blida, Constantine, in the 1990s, the trials of Algerian Civil War led most of the remaining Jews to emigrate. In 1994, the rebel Armed Islamic Groups 1994 declaration of war on all non-Muslims in the country was an event for Jews remaining in Algeria. That year, the Algerian Jews abandoned their last synagogue, the Great Synagogue of Algiers, today, most Jews in France are of North African origin, and consequently, most of the recent immigration from France to Israel consists of Jews of North African origin. There is evidence of Jewish settlements in Algeria since at least the Roman period, epitaphs have been found in archeological excavations that attest to Jews in the first centuries of the common era. Berber lands were said to welcome Christians and Jews very early from the Roman Empire, the destruction of the second temple in Jerusalem by Titus in 70, and thereafter by the Kitos wars in 117 AD reinforced Jewish settlement in North Africa and the Mediterranean. Early descriptions of the Rustamid capital, Tahert, note that Jews were found there, centuries later, the Geniza Letters mention many Algerian Jewish families. They escaped to the Maghreb and settled in the Byzantine Empire and it is debated whether Jews influenced the Berber population, making converts among them. In that century, Islamic armies conquered the whole Maghreb and Iberian peninsula, the Jewish population was placed under the Muslim domination in constant cultural exchanges with Al Andalus and the Near East. Later many Sephardic Jews were forced to take refuge in Algeria from the persecutions in Spain of Catalonia, Valencia and Balearic Islands in 1391, together with the Moriscos, they thronged to the ports of North Africa, and mingled with native Jewish people. In the 16th century there were large Jewish communities in such as Oran, Bejaïa. Jews were also present in the cities of the such as Tlemcen and Constantine and as far spread as Touggourt. Some Jews in Oran preserved Ladino language—which was a uniquely conservative dialect of Spanish—until the 19th century, Jewish merchants did well financially in late Ottoman Algiers. The French attack on Algeria was provoked by the Deys demands that the French government pay its large outstanding debts to two Jewish merchants. Between the 16th and 17th centuries, richer Jews from Livorno in Italy started settling in Algeria, commercial trading and exchanges between Europe and the Ottoman Empire reinforced the Jewish community. Later again in the 19th century, many Sephardic Jews from Tetouan settled in Algeria, creating new communities, in 1830, the Algerian Jewish population was between 15,000 and 17,000, mostly congregated in the coastal area. Some 6,500 Jews lived in Algiers, where they made up 20% of the population,2,000 in Oran,3,000 in Constantine, after their conquest, the French government rapidly restructured the Ottoman millet system
16.
Terrorism
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Terrorism is, in its broadest sense, the use of intentionally indiscriminate violence as a means to create terror or fear, in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological aim. It is classified as fourth-generation warfare and as a violent crime, in modern times, terrorism is considered a major threat to society and therefore illegal under anti-terrorism laws in most jurisdictions. It is also considered a war crime under the laws of war when used to target non-combatants, such as civilians, neutral military personnel, a broad array of political organizations have practiced terrorism to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political organizations, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments, there is no universally agreed upon definition of the term, and many definitions exist. According to data from the Global Terrorism Database, more than 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism, Terrorism comes from the French word terrorisme, and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the 1793–1794 Reign of Terror. The French word terrorisme in turn derives from the Latin verb terrere meaning to frighten, the Jacobins, coming to power in France in 1792, are said to have initiated the Reign of Terror. After the Jacobins lost power, the word terrorist became a term of abuse, although terrorism originally referred to acts committed by a government, currently it usually refers to the killing of innocent people for political purposes in such a way as to create a spectacle. This meaning can be traced back to Sergey Nechayev, who described himself as a terrorist, Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group Peoples Retribution in 1869. It is a form of state-terrorism, the concept was however developed long before the Second Gulf War by Harlan Ullman as chair of a forum of retired military personnel. The definition of terrorism has proven controversial, various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation. Moreover, the community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term terrorism is politically and emotionally charged, in this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian parliament, stated, The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. The international community has adopted a series of conventions that define. U. S. Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted, experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. Four years and a second later, Schmid was no closer to the goal of his quest. Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt. Hoffman believes it is possible to some key characteristics of terrorism. A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C, such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization
17.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
18.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
19.
UNDP
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The United Nations Development Programme is the United Nations global development network. Headquartered in New York City, UNDP advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge, experience and it provides expert advice, training and grants support to developing countries, with increasing emphasis on assistance to the least developed countries. The status of UNDP is that of an executive board within the United Nations General Assembly, the UNDP Administrator is the third highest-ranking official of the United Nations after the United Nations Secretary-General and Deputy Secretary-General. UNDP also encourages the protection of rights and the empowerment of women in all of its programmes. The UNDP Human Development Report Office also publishes an annual Human Development Report to measure, in addition to a global Report, UNDP publishes regional, national, and local Human Development Reports. UNDP is funded entirely by contributions from member nations. The organization operates in 177 countries, where it works with governments to meet development challenges. Additionally, the UNDP works internationally to help achieve the Millennium Development Goals. Currently, the UNDP is one of the main UN agencies involved in the development of the Post-2015 Development Agenda, UNDP works with nations on their own solutions to global and national development challenges. As they develop local capacity, they draw on the people of UNDP, the UNDP was founded on 22 November 1965 with the merger of the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance and the Special Fund. The rationale was to avoid duplication of activities, the EPTA was set up in 1949 to help the economic and political aspects of underdeveloped countries while the Special Fund was to enlarge the scope of UN technical assistance. The Special Fund arose from the idea of a Special United Nations Fund for Economic Development, while countries such as the Nordic countries were proponents of such a United Nations controlled fund. The concept of SUNFED was dropped to form the Special Fund and this Special Fund was some compromise over the SUNFED concept, it did not provide investment capital, but only helped to bring pre-conditions for private investment. With the US proposing and creating the International Development Association within the World Banks umbrella, the EPTA, in 2013, UNDP’s entire budget was approximately US$5 billion. The following table lists the top 15 DAC5 Digit Sectors to which UNDP has committed funding, the UNDP claims on the IATI Registry website that the data covers 100% of development flows. UNDP’s offices and staff are on the ground in 177 countries, working with governments, UNDP links and coordinates global and national efforts to achieve the goals and national development priorities laid out by host countries. UNDP also supports existing democratic institutions by increasing dialogue, enhancing national debate, UNDP also works at the macro level to reform trade, encourage debt relief and foreign investment, and ensure the poorest of the poor benefit from globalisation. On the ground, UNDP sponsors developmental pilot projects, promotes the role of women in development, in this way, UNDP works with local leaders and governments to provide opportunities for impoverished people to create businesses and improve their economic condition
20.
Algiers
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Algiers is the capital and largest city of Algeria. In 2011, the population was estimated to be around 3,500,000. An estimate puts the population of the metropolitan city to be around 5,000,000. Algiers is located on the Mediterranean Sea and in the portion of Algeria. The casbah and the two form a triangle. A Phoenician commercial outpost called Ikosim which later developed into a small Roman town called Icosium existed on what is now the quarter of the city. The rue de la Marine follows the lines of what used to be a Roman street, Roman cemeteries existed near Bab-el-Oued and Bab Azoun. The city was given Latin rights by Emperor Vespasian, the bishops of Icosium are mentioned as late as the 5th century. The present-day city was founded in 944 by Bologhine ibn Ziri and he had earlier built his own house and a Sanhaja center at Ashir, just south of Algiers. Although his Zirid dynasty was overthrown by Roger II of Sicily in 1148, the city was wrested from the Hammadids by the Almohads in 1159, and in the 13th century came under the dominion of the Ziyanid sultans of Tlemcen. Nominally part of the sultanate of Tlemcen, Algiers had a measure of independence under amirs of its own due to Oran being the chief seaport of the Ziyanids. As early as 1302 the islet of Peñón in front of Algiers harbour had been occupied by Spaniards, thereafter, a considerable amount of trade began to flow between Algiers and Spain. However, Algiers continued to be of little importance until after the expulsion of the Moors from Spain. In 1510, following their occupation of Oran and other towns on the coast of Africa, in 1516, the amir of Algiers, Selim b. Teumi, invited the corsair brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Barbarossa to expel the Spaniards, Aruj came to Algiers, ordered the assassination of Selim, and seized the town and ousted the Spanish in the Capture of Algiers. Hayreddin, succeeding Aruj after the latter was killed in battle against the Spaniards in the Fall of Tlemcen, was the founder of the pashaluk, Algiers from this time became the chief seat of the Barbary pirates. Formally part of the Ottoman Empire but essentially free from Ottoman control, starting in the 16th century Algiers turned to piracy, repeated attempts were made by various nations to subdue the pirates that disturbed shipping in the western Mediterranean and engaged in slave raids as far north as Iceland. The United States fought two wars over Algiers attacks on shipping, among the notable people held for ransom was the future Spanish novelist Miguel de Cervantes, who was captive in Algiers almost five years, and who wrote two plays set in Algiers of the period
21.
Oran
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Oran is an important coastal city that is located in the north-west of Algeria. It is considered the second most important city after the capital Algiers, due to its commercial, industrial and it is 432 km from Algiers. The total population of the city was 759,645 in 2008, the name Wahran is derived from the Berber word uharan that means two lions. A legend says that in 900 AD, lions still lived in the area, the last two lions were hunted on a mountain near Oran and are elsewhere referred to as mountain lions. During the Roman empire, a settlement called Unica Colonia existed in the area of current Oran. Present-day Oran was founded in 903 by Moorish Andalusi traders and it was captured by the Castilians under Cardinal Cisneros in 1509, and Spanish sovereignty lasted until 1708, when the city was conquered by the Ottomans. Spain recaptured the city in 1732, however, its value as a trading post had decreased greatly, so King Charles IV sold the city to the Turks in 1792. Ottoman rule lasted until 1831, when it fell to the French, during French rule over Algeria during the 19th and 20th centuries, Oran was the capital of a département of the same name. The action increased the hatred of the Vichy regime for Britain but convinced the world that the British would fight on alone against Nazi Germany, the Vichy government held Oran during World War II until its capture by the Allies in late 1942, during Operation Torch. Also, during French rule, Jews were encouraged to modernize, Jews In the city were allowed to join the French Army starting October 24,1870 when Algerian Jews were granted citizenship. French Jews would soon be targeted after not choosing to side with the Algerian Muslims who fought for independence against France, before the Algerian War, 1954–1962, Oran had one of the highest proportions of Europeans of any city in North Africa. In July 1962, after a ceasefire and accords with France, a mob attacked pied-noir neighborhoods and massacred thousands of Europeans in Oran,453 have been said to have disappeared. This triggered an exodus of Europeans to France, which was already underway. Shortly after the end of the war, most of the Europeans, in less than three months, Oran lost about half its population. This population lost is similar to the Jews as many fled after siding with France in the Algerian War for Independence, as the war progressed, those who supported independence in Algeria threatened those who sided with Europe causing these people to flee. Before the Spaniards, the Portuguese launched an expedition to capture the city in July 1501. Four years later, the Spanish took Mers-el-Kébir, located just four miles to the west of the Oran, thus began the first organized incursions against the city which, at the time, numbered 25,000 inhabitants and counted 6,000 fueros. Count Pedro Navarro, on the orders of Cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, the occupying forces set fire to the books and archives of the town
22.
Algiers Province
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Algiers is a province in Algeria, named after its capital, Algiers, which is also the national capital. It is adopted from the old French département of Algiers and has a population of about 3 million and it is the smallest and most densely populated province of Algeria. Algiers province is divided into 13 districts and 57 communes or municipalities, the districts, listed according to official numbering, are, The communes, listed alphabetically, are, Lyès Deriche, 20th-century leader of the algerian national political movement against the French. Alger, Capitale previligiée pour linvestissement - National Agency of Investment Development
23.
Biskra
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Biskra is the capital city of Biskra Province, Algeria. In 2007, its population was recorded as 307,987, during Roman times the town was called Vescera, though this may have been simply a Latin transliteration of the native name. Around 200 AD under Septimius Severus reign, it was seized by the Romans, as a major settlement in the border region, it was significant even then. Its name was apparently bowdlerized by the Romans to Ad Piscīnam, a significant portion of the inhabitants descend from the Arab bedouin tribe of Banu Hilal, others are mainly Chaoui Berbers. In 1844, Biskra became a French garrison, as of 1935, Biskra was an inland town, the principal settlement of a Saharan oasis watered by the intermittent Oued Biskra. In 1911, it was described as the Nice, France of Algiers and it is in the southern part of the Algerian rail system, and a favourite winter resort. Large quantities of fruit, especially dates and olives, were grown in the vicinity, the town was a military post, and was the scene of severe fighting in the rebellions of 1849 and 1871. The inhabitants are also Ouled Naïl or Chaamba living in Biskra, MSila, the Hungarian composer Béla Bartók collected traditional music in Biskra in 1913. The Polish composer Karol Szymanowski, who traveled to North Africa and he composed many pieces influenced by his experience there. He sent a post card from Biskra on April 11th,1914, Biskra has a hot desert climate, with very hot summers and mild winters. Summers are dry, and the light rainfall of 129 millimetres is spread fairly evenly over the rest of the year. With January temperatures averaging 11 °C, Biskra is a holiday spot in winter. Located in north-eastern Algeria on the edge of the Sahara Desert. This article incorporates text from The Modern World Encyclopædia, Illustrated, media related to Biskra at Wikimedia Commons Biskra City
24.
Biskra Province
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Biskra is a province of Algeria. Tolga is one of the famous daïras of this wilaya, other localities include Lichoua, Sidi Okba, Sidi Khaled, El-Kantara and Ouled Djellal. The province is made up of 12 districts and 33 communes or municipalities, a website about Biskra and the surrounding area Airport
25.
Constantine (Algeria)
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Constantine is the capital of Constantine Province in north-eastern Algeria. During Roman times it was called Cirta and was renamed Constantina in honour of emperor Constantine the Great and it was the capital of the same-named French département until 1962. Slightly inland, it is about 80 kilometres from the Mediterranean coast, regarded as the capital of eastern Algeria and the centre of its region, Constantine has a population of 448,374, making it the third largest city in the country after Algiers and Oran. There are museums and important historical sites around the city and it is often referred to as the City of Bridges due to the numerous picturesque bridges connecting the mountains the city is built on. The city was created by the Phoenicians, who called it Sewa. Later it was renamed Cirta, by the Numidian king Syphax, the city was taken over by Numidia, the country of the Berber people, after the Phoenicians were defeated by Rome in the Third Punic War. In 112 BC the city was occupied by Jugurtha who defeated his half-brother Adherbal, the city later served as the base for Roman generals Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus and Gaius Marius in their war against Jugurtha. Later, with the removal of King Juba I and the supporters of Pompey in Africa, Julius Caesar gave special rights to the citizens of Cirta. In 311, during the war between emperor Maxentius and usurper Domitius Alexander, the city was destroyed. Rebuilt in 313, it was named after emperor Constantine the Great. Captured by the Vandals in 432, Constantine returned to the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa from 534 to 697 and it was conquered by the Arabs in the 7th century, receiving the name of Qusantina. The city recovered in the 12th century and under Almohad and Hafsid rule it was again a market, with links to Pisa, Genoa. Since 1529 it was part of Ottoman Empire, ruled by a Turkish bey subordinate to the dey of Algiers. Salah Bey, who ruled the city in 1770–1792, greatly embellished it, in 1826 the last bey, Ahmed Bey ben Mohamed Chérif, became the new head of state. He led a resistance against French forces, which invaded Algeria four years later. By 13 October 1837, the territory was captured by France, under the French rule, there were Muslim anti-Jewish riots in Constantine in 1934 when 34 Jews were killed. In World War II, during the campaign in North Africa, Constantine, for this, he received the 1907 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. This was the first time that protozoa were shown to be a cause of disease and his work helped inspire researchers and veterinarians today to try to find a cure for malaria in animals
26.
M'Sila Province
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MSila is a province of northern Algeria. It has a population of 1 million people and an area of 18,718 km², while its capital, also called Msila, some localities in this wilaya are Bou Saada and Maadid. Chott El Hodna, a lake, crosses into MSila. However, most of the region is semi-arid and undeveloped, MSila is primarily known for its farming. Additionally, MSila was the location of the first village constructed as part of a program to transition nomadic Algerians to sedentary life using local materials. The village, now complete, was dubbed Maader and consists of houses, public and trading areas, the province is divided into 15 districts, which are further divided into 47 communes or municipalities
27.
Constantine Province
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Constantine is one of the 48 provinces of Algeria, whose capital is the city of the same name. The province is divided into 6 districts or daïra, which are subdivided into 12 communes or municipalities, districts of the province of Constantine,1
28.
Ouargla
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Ouargla is the capital city of Ouargla Province in the Sahara Desert in southern Algeria. It has a flourishing petroleum industry and hosts one of Algerias universities, the commune of Ouargla had a population of 133,024 in the 2008 census, up from 112,339 in 1998, and an annual population growth rate of 1. 7%. However, including the commune of Rouissat, found in Ouarglas urban area, according to Ibn Khaldun the town was founded by Banu Wargla who, accompanied by sections of the Maghrawa and Banu Ifran, left the Tlemcen region and founded Ouargla. These Berbers of Ouarghla then embraced Ibadi doctrines, which made the town an attractive refuge for the citizens of Tahert. In 11th century, Banu Hilal, an Arab tribe living between Nile and Red Sea, settled in Tunisia, Tripolitania and Constantinois which was Ouargla party, the city was a significant tourist attraction until the civil unrest during the 1990s. Many tourists chose to shop for sand roses at souk lehjar, the souq, or market, had many traditional shops filled with antiquities, traditional crafts, and local items - from dresses to stuffed lizards. The area across from these shops was used to display sand roses, mineral specimens, the market has gone through a renovation process. However many criticized this renovation, feeling it destroyed the character of souk lehjar. Not far from souk lehjar is the old market, or the Sunday market as the called by the locals. It is also located in the centre of the old city, at its centre lies the original old market, shaped as a circle split into small arcs. The central circular structure is now used as a meat market, next to the old groceries market lie the two oldest mosques of the city, al-Masjid al-Atiq which literally means the old mosque, and the old Ibadhi mosque. The old Ibadhi mosque was home to one of the most renowned Islamic scholars of the city, some of Ouarglas population speak the Wargli language, which is part of the Zenati languages subgrouping of the Northern Berber languages. There are Wargli speakers in NGoussa as well, Ouargla has a hot desert climate with long, extremely hot summers and short, warm winters. Averages high temperatures in summer are consistently over 40 °C during nearly 4 months to reach a maximum of around 45 °C in July, averages low temperatures in summer are also very high, and are above 27 °C and routinely above 30 °C during the hottest month. The absolute highest temperature recorded in the city is 53.5 °C. Average annual rainfall is around 45 mm and summers are especially dry
29.
Ouargla Province
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Ouargla or Warqla is a province in eastern Algeria. Other localities include Touggourt, and Hassi Messaoud and it contains the Issaouane Erg desert. In the past Ouargla was the center of trading of gold and slaves, however, the Ibadis have left for the Mzab valley. The province is divided into 10 districts, which are divided into 21 communes or municipalities. The region lies within the Algerian Triassic Sedimentary basin containing numerous oil and gas fields, production is from Triassic sandstones with Andesitic seals and the Gothlandian shale as a source rock. Major fields include the Hassi RMel gas field, Haoud-Berkaolu, Ben-Kahla, and the Guellala
30.
Annaba
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Annaba (Arabic, عنابة, informally known as Balad al-Unnâb, and Bona is a city in the north-eastern corner of Algeria near the Seybouse River, located in an eponymous province. With a population of 257,359, it is the fourth largest city in Algeria and it is a leading industrial centre in eastern Algeria. Annaba is a city and has undergone significant growth. Annaba has an area with a higher population density than the other metropolises of the Algerian coastline such as Oran. Much of eastern and southern Algeria seeks the services, equipment, economically, it is the centre for various dynamic activities, such as industry, transport, finance and tourism. Present-day Annaba grew up on the site of Aphrodisium, the port of the Roman city Hippo Regius and its former names Bône and Bona derived from Ubbo, a local form of the name Hippo. Its informal name Balad al-Unnâb—town of the jujubes—derives from that fruits abundance in the area, the vicinity of Annaba has yielded evidence of very early human occupation at Ain el Hanech, near Saïda, including artifacts that show remarkable tool-making craftsmanship. According to some sources, prehistoric Algeria was the site of the most advanced development of techniques in the Middle Early Stone Age. The Phoenicians settled in Annaba in the 14th century BC, Hippo Regius was a centre of early Western Christianity and was the site of many Christian synods, one of which was central in canonizing the current books of the New Testament. Augustine of Hippo was bishop here from 396 until his death in 430, the city was destroyed in the 5th century by the Vandals. Vandals ruled the city until 534, byzantines then ruled Hippona before Umayyad conquest in 699. Later, Abbasids, Aghlabids, and Fatimids ruled Buna before the ascension of the Zirids and it was relocated to its present place after floods and Banu Hilal ravages in 1033 during Hammadid rule. It was attacked by a Pisan and Genoese fleet in 1034 and was conquered by Kingdom of Sicily in 1153, after the demise of Almohads, Hafsids rule began in Annaba in 1250. Hafsid rule was interrupted by brief occupations of Merinids and Castille, ottoman rule began in 1533 and lasted until French occupation in 1832, except for Spanish rule between 1535 and 1540. Barbary pirates also lived in Annaba from the 16th to 19th century, during French rule, the city was known as Bône. It was one of the main European settlements, having a sizable pied-noir minority, one famous pied-noir from Bône was Alphonse Juin, a Marshal of France and a former NATO Central Europe Commander. In the 11th century, Banu Hilal, an Arab tribe living between the Nile and the Red Sea, settled in Tunisia, Tripolitania and Constantinois which was Annaba party, the city of Annaba had 257,359 people in 2008. Its agglomeration had 359,657 in 1998, if El Hadjar, and Sidi Amar are also included, there are around 500,000 people in greater Annaba
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Skikda
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Skikda is a city in north eastern Algeria and a port on the Gulf of Stora, the ancient Sinus Numidicus. It is the capital of Skikda Province and Skikda District, in the 5th century, the Roman port was destroyed by the Vandals. The current city was founded by Sylvain Charles Valée, for the French to use as a port for Constantine, the Constantine-Skikda railway line was developed. During this time, Valee would also build the largest Roman theatre in Algeria and it was built on top of ruins. On October 10,1883, there was an earthquake in Skikda, towards the end of World War II, there was a UNRRA refugee camp at Skikda which was known as Camp Jeanne dArc. On January 25,1945,200 Jews holding citizenship from countries in North and South America were sent from the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp to Switzerland as part of a prisoner exchange group and they were later sent to the UNRRA camp in Skikda. An attack by the FLN in 1955 during the war of Independence left around 123 civilians dead, mainly French, angered over the massacre of civilians, including women, seniors, and babies, the French escalated their offensive against the FLN. Reprisals by French forces may have killed between 1,200 and 12,000 The city has a harbour with a gas. On 15 February 1989 the Dutch tanker the MV Maassluis was anchored just outside the port, waiting to dock the day at the terminal. The ships anchors didnt hold and the ship smashed on the pier-head of the port, the disaster killed 27 of the 29 people on board. The city has a population of 250,000, natural gas, oil refining, and petrochemical industries were developed in the 1970s and pipelines have been built for their transportation. The city hall and the station were designed by Le Corbusier. The official city flag colours are blue and white, the colours of the Mediterranean, the current postal code is 21000. Skikda has the third largest commercial port in Algeria after Algiers and it has also a petrochemical terminal port and a smaller fishing port in Stora, and there are many beaches along the natural Mediterranean coastline. Тhere is also an airport near the petrochemical complex. Skikda lies on the coast of the Gulf of Stora, part of the Mediterranean Sea, the landscape is hilly and forested, with high ridges on both the western and eastern sides of the city. Skikda has a Mediterranean climate, with cool, wet winters and very warm, historically, Skikda is known for its seaport. It was described, in 1911, by Baedeker as having the youngest Algerian seaport, on the 19th January 2004, a fire and explosion at the Skikda LNG facility killed 29 people and caused $940,000,000 worth of damage
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Blida
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Blida is a city in Algeria. It is the capital of Blida Province, and it is located about 45 km south-west of Algiers, the name Blida, i. e. bulaydah, diminutive of the Arabic word belda, city. The abundant water of this provides power for large corn mills and several factories. Blida is surrounded by a wall of considerable extent, pierced by six gates, the nearby Chiffa gorge is a habitat of the endangered Barbary macaque, Macaca sylvanus, this habitat is one of only a few relict locations where populations of this primate are found. The present town, French in character, has well-built modern streets with many arcades, and numbers among its buildings several mosques and churches, extensive barracks, the principal square, the place dArmes, is surrounded by arcaded houses and shaded by trees. The center of a district, and a post on one of the main routes in the country, Blida has a flourishing trade, chiefly in oranges. The orange groves contain over 50,000 trees, and in April the air for miles round is laden with the scent of the orange blossoms, in the public gardens is a group of magnificent olive trees. The products of the cork trees and cedar groves are a source of revenue to the town. Sidi-Ahmed El-Kebir, Blida’s founder, is buried in Sidi El-Kebir and he founded Blida in the 16th century. The city occupies the site of a station in the time of the Romans. A mosque was built by order of Khair-ed-din Barbarossa, and under the Turks the town was of some importance, in 1825 it was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, but was speedily re-erected on a site about a mile distant from the ruins. It was intricately rebuilt of interconnecting alleyways and streets, and was accessible through the existing six major gates. In 1867, another earthquake damaged Blida, for a long time Blida Province has been home to a cluster of Berber-speaking towns including Djebailia, Beni Salah and Beni Misrah. Their Amazigh dialect is related to the Tamazight of the Atlas mountains
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Blida Province
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Blida is a province in Algeria. The Chréa National Park is situated here and it is made up of 10 districts and 25 municipalities. The districts are, The municipalities are, This province has one of the few areas in Algeria that supports a sub-population of the Barbary macaque
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Bejaia Province
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Béjaïa is a province of Algeria. Gouraya National Park is located in Béjaïa Province, a population of an endangered primate, the Barbary macaque, is found within the park, this primate has a severely restricted and disjunctive range. The province is divided into 19 districts, which are divided into 52 communes or municipalities. The first website of Bgayet Béjaïa Bougie and his region Official website of Béjaïa Province
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Batna, Algeria
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Batna is the main city of Batna Province, Algeria. With a population of 290,645 it is the fifth largest city in Algeria and it is also one of the principal cities of the Chaoui area and is considered the capital of the Aures. The first solid foundations of the city were erected by a French garrison in 1844, batnas geographical location offers a natural break through the Atlas Mountains. The Romans did not detect this passage in their early invasion phase, the ancient cities of Timgad and Lambese, built around the first century CE, are living examples of the importance that the Romans gave to commercial control over the region. The inhabitants of the city revolted against the French authorities at the beginning of colonization, thereafter they organized the Algerian revolution against colonialism French. The Algerian revolution started at Batna under the chairmanship of Batnéen Mustapha Benboulaïd, Batna was the first military region of L Algeria 19541962. On the night of November 1,1954, the barracks of the city of Batna was attacked by the mujahedeen, Batna was the command headquarters of the Algerian revolution until independence. On September 6,2007, Batna saw a massive Al-Qaeda suicide bombing, the bombings were condemned by the UN Security Council. Located in the Aurès Mountains, at 1,048 metres above sea level, Batna has a climate with Mediterranean influences. Summers are moderately hot and dry and winters are chilly and wetter and this climate is described by the Köppen climate classification as BSk. Many entertainment resorts are spread across the town, for children, an attraction park is located in Kechida, which is approximately a ten-minute drive from the downtown area. Also a new 7D movie theater called Maya launched this year in downtown, with regard to night life, due to some religious and cultural limitations, there are almost no night clubs in the city. However, the nightlife is concentrated in the heart of the city, around Les allées Benboulaïd and STAND areas. Downtown Batna has plenty of cafés, traditional restaurants or GARGOUTTIER, Pizzerias, French and oriental bakeries, many festivities take place in allées Ben Boulaïd area, mainly in the season of International Timgad Festival. The most attractive exciting places surrounding the city are, Lambese, Timgad, Ghoufi, Chelaalaa, town centre Zone industrielle batna Kechida Bouakal Route de Tazoult Bouzourane Zone militaire Parc à fourrage Houria Aïchi, musician Rachid Mouffouk, sculptor Travel Batna
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Batna Province
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Batna is a wilaya of Algeria. Localities in this province include NGaous, Merouana and Timgad, Belezma National Park is in the Belezma Range area of the province. It is made up of 21 districts and 61 municipalities and its climate is moderate, hot and dry during summer time, due to its altitude the winter is tough, snowy and at times cold. A large part of the population is mixed from all surrounding villages which suffer from a heavy unemployment. The natives are named Tamazight, or in the local dialect, the presence of the Tamazight is historically established, the locals refer to Jugurtha, Massinissa and especially Dihya or so called Kahina, as their ascendants and history. The local resistance to the repetitive invasions is a source of proud and trivial culture, Phoenicians, Romans, Arabs, the word Tamazight in Chaoui language means Free men. The economy is based on heavy industry launched during the first half of the 1970s, with chemicals, as well as with an industrial and textile base, the region attracts people from the whole region. The city offers a choice of university orientation. The continuously growing city results in a level of inflation especially on the real estate domain where prices reach extreme levels where the lowest paid salaries are in the region of $180. The cultural aspect of the city was active during a time when the theater group was giving continuous. The city consisted of 12 cinemas and 2 cinemathèques, one culture house and many open museums across the province
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This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook document "2009 edition".