1.
Hungarians
–
Hungarians, also known as Magyars, are a nation and ethnic group who speak Hungarian and are primarily associated with Hungary. There are around 13. 1–14.7 million Hungarians, of whom 8. 5–9.8 million live in todays Hungary, the Hungarians own ethnonym to denote themselves in the Early Middle Ages is uncertain. The Magyars/Hungarians probably belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance, and it is possible that they became its ethnic majority, in the Early Middle Ages the Hungarians had many names, including Ungherese, Ungar, and Hungarus. The H- prefix is an addition of Medieval Latin, another possible explanation comes from the Old Russian Yugra. It may refer to the Hungarians during a time when they dwelt east of the Ural Mountains along the borders of Europe. The Hungarian people refer to themselves by the demonym Magyar rather than Hungarian, Magyar is Finno-Ugric from the Old Hungarian mogyër. Magyar possibly derived from the name of the most prominent Hungarian tribe, the tribal name Megyer became Magyar in reference to the Hungarian people as a whole. Magyar may also derive from the Hunnic Muageris or Mugel, the Greek cognate of Tourkia was used by the scholar and Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his De Administrando Imperio of c. AD950, though in his use, Turks always referred to Magyars, the historical Latin phrase Natio Hungarica had a wider meaning because it once referred to all nobles of the Kingdom of Hungary, regardless of their ethnicity. During the 4th millennium BC, the Uralic-speaking peoples who were living in the central, some dispersed towards the west and northwest and came into contact with Iranian speakers who were spreading northwards. From at least 2000 BC onwards, the Ugrian speakers became distinguished from the rest of the Uralic community, judging by evidence from burial mounds and settlement sites, they interacted with the Indo-Iranian Andronovo culture. In the 4th and 5th centuries AD, the Hungarians moved from the west of the Ural Mountains to the area between the southern Ural Mountains and the Volga River known as Bashkiria and Perm Krai. In the early 8th century, some of the Hungarians moved to the Don River to an area between the Volga, Don and the Seversky Donets rivers, meanwhile, the descendants of those Hungarians who stayed in Bashkiria remained there as late as 1241. The Hungarians around the Don River were subordinates of the Khazar khaganate and their neighbours were the archaeological Saltov Culture, i. e. Bulgars and the Alans, from whom they learned gardening, elements of cattle breeding and of agriculture. Tradition holds that the Hungarians were organized in a confederacy of seven tribes, the names of the seven tribes were, Jenő, Kér, Keszi, Kürt-Gyarmat, Megyer, Nyék, and Tarján. Around 830, a rebellion broke out in the Khazar khaganate, as a result, three Kabar tribes of the Khazars joined the Hungarians and moved to what the Hungarians call the Etelköz, the territory between the Carpathians and the Dnieper River. The Hungarians faced their first attack by the Pechenegs around 854, the new neighbours of the Hungarians were the Varangians and the eastern Slavs. In 895/896, under the leadership of Árpád, some Hungarians crossed the Carpathians, the tribe called Magyar was the leading tribe of the Hungarian alliance that conquered the centre of the basin
Hungarians
–
The Hungarian bow
Hungarians
Hungarians
–
Prince
Árpád crossing the
Carpathians. A detail from the
Arrival of the Hungarians,
Árpád Feszty 's and his assistants' vast
cyclorama (over 1800 m²), painted to celebrate the 1000th anniversary of the Hungarians conquest of Hungary, now displayed at the
Ópusztaszer National Heritage Park in Hungary.
Hungarians
–
Hungarian Conquest of the Carpathian Basin, from the
Chronicon Pictum, 1360.
2.
Hungarian language
–
Hungarian is the official language of Hungary and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. Outside Hungary it is spoken by communities of Hungarian people in neighbouring countries. Like Finnish and Estonian, it belongs to the Uralic language family, its closest relatives being Mansi and it is one of several European languages not part of the Indo-European languages, and the most widely-spoken European language that does not belong to the Indo-European family. The Hungarian name for the language is magyar or magyar nyelv, the word Magyar is used as an English and Hungarian word to refer to Hungarian people as an ethnic group. Hungarian is a member of the Uralic language family, the name of Hungary could be a result of regular sound changes of Ungrian/Ugrian, and the fact that the Eastern Slavs referred to Hungarians as Ǫgry/Ǫgrove seemed to confirm that. Current literature favors the hypothesis that it comes from the name of the Turkic tribe Onogur, there are numerous regular sound correspondences between Hungarian and the other Ugric languages. For example, Hungarian /aː/ corresponds to Khanty /o/ in certain positions, for example, Hungarian ház house vs. Khanty xot house, and Hungarian száz hundred vs. Khanty sot hundred. The distance between the Ugric and Finnic languages is greater, but the correspondences are also regular, during the later half of the 19th century, a competing hypothesis proposed a Turkic affinity of Hungarian. Following an academic debate known as Az ugor-török háború, the Finno-Ugric hypothesis was concluded the sounder of the two, foremost based on work by the German linguist Josef Budenz. The traditional view argues that the Hungarian language separated from its Ugric relatives in the first half of the 1st millennium b. c. e. in western Siberia, east of the southern Urals. The Hungarians gradually changed their lifestyle from settled hunters to nomadic pastoralists, in Hungarian, Iranian loans date back to the time immediately following the breakup of Ugric and probably span well over a millennium. Among these include tehén ‘cow’, tíz ‘ten’, tej ‘milk’, increasing archaeological evidence from present-day southern Bashkortostan found in the previous decades confirms the existence of Hungarian settlements between the Volga River and Ural Mountains. The Onogurs later had a influence on the language, especially between the 5th-9th centuries. This layer of Turkic loans is large and varied, and includes words borrowed from Oghur Turkic, e. g. borjú ‘calf’, dél ‘noon, many words related to agriculture, to state administration or even to family relations have such backgrounds. Hungarian syntax and grammar were not influenced in a dramatic way during these 300 years. After the arrival of the Hungarians into the Carpathian Basin the language came into contact with different speech communities, Turkic loans from this period come mainly from the Pechenegs and Cumanians who settled in Hungary during the 12th-13th centuries, e. g. koboz ‘cobza’, komondor ‘mop dog’. Hungarian borrowed many words from especially the neighbouring Slavic languages, in exchange, these languages also borrowed words from Hungarian, e. g. Serbo-Croatian ašov from Hung ásó ‘spade’. Approximately 1. 6% of the Romanian lexicon is of Hungarian origin, on the basis of the growing genetic evidence, the accepted origin theory is contested by geneticists too
Hungarian language
–
Hungarian keyboard
Hungarian language
Hungarian language
–
Funeral Sermon and Prayer, 12th century
Hungarian language
–
A page from the first book written completely in Hungarian from 1533
3.
Demographics
–
Demography is the statistical study of populations, especially human beings. As a very general science, it can analyse any kind of dynamic living population, Demography encompasses the study of the size, structure, and distribution of these populations, and spatial or temporal changes in them in response to birth, migration, ageing, and death. Based on the research of the earth, earths population up to the year 2050 and 2100 can be estimated by demographers. Demographics are quantifiable characteristics of a given population, demographic analysis can cover whole societies or groups defined by criteria such as education, nationality, religion, and ethnicity. Educational institutions usually treat demography as a field of sociology, though there are a number of independent demography departments, demographic thoughts can be traced back to antiquity, and were present in many civilizations and cultures, like Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, India and China. In ancient Greece, this can be found in the writings of Herodotus, Thucidides, Hippocrates, Epicurus, Protagoras, Polus, Plato and Aristotle. In Rome, writers and philosophers like Cicero, Seneca, Pliny the elder, Marcus Aurelius, Epictetus, Cato, in the Middle ages, Christian thinkers devoted much time in refuting the Classical ideas on demography. Important contributors to the field were William of Conches, Bartholomew of Lucca, William of Auvergne, William of Pagula, and Ibn Khaldun. One of the earliest demographic studies in the period was Natural and Political Observations Made upon the Bills of Mortality by John Graunt. Among the studys findings were that one third of the children in London died before their sixteenth birthday, mathematicians, such as Edmond Halley, developed the life table as the basis for life insurance mathematics. Richard Price was credited with the first textbook on life contingencies published in 1771, followed later by Augustus de Morgan, at the end of the 18th century, Thomas Robert Malthus concluded that, if unchecked, populations would be subject to exponential growth. He feared that population growth would tend to outstrip growth in production, leading to ever-increasing famine. He is seen as the father of ideas of overpopulation. Later, more sophisticated and realistic models were presented by Benjamin Gompertz, the period 1860-1910 can be characterized as a period of transition wherein demography emerged from statistics as a separate field of interest. There are two types of data collection—direct and indirect—with several different methods of each type, direct data comes from vital statistics registries that track all births and deaths as well as certain changes in legal status such as marriage, divorce, and migration. In developed countries with good registration systems, registry statistics are the best method for estimating the number of births and deaths, a census is the other common direct method of collecting demographic data. A census is conducted by a national government and attempts to enumerate every person in a country. Analyses are conducted after a census to estimate how much over or undercounting took place and these compare the sex ratios from the census data to those estimated from natural values and mortality data
Demographics
–
Sociology
4.
Hungary
–
Hungary is a unitary parliamentary republic in Central Europe. With about 10 million inhabitants, Hungary is a member state of the European Union. The official language is Hungarian, which is the most widely spoken language in Europe. Hungarys capital and largest metropolis is Budapest, a significant economic hub, major urban areas include Debrecen, Szeged, Miskolc, Pécs and Győr. His great-grandson Stephen I ascended to the throne in 1000, converting the country to a Christian kingdom, by the 12th century, Hungary became a middle power within the Western world, reaching a golden age by the 15th century. Hungarys current borders were established in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon after World War I, when the country lost 71% of its territory, 58% of its population, following the interwar period, Hungary joined the Axis Powers in World War II, suffering significant damage and casualties. Hungary became a state of the Soviet Union, which contributed to the establishment of a four-decade-long communist dictatorship. On 23 October 1989, Hungary became again a democratic parliamentary republic, in the 21st century, Hungary is a middle power and has the worlds 57th largest economy by nominal GDP, as well as the 58th largest by PPP, out of 188 countries measured by the IMF. As a substantial actor in several industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds 36th largest exporter and importer of goods, Hungary is a high-income economy with a very high standard of living. It keeps up a security and universal health care system. Hungary joined the European Union in 2004 and part of the Schengen Area since 2007, Hungary is a member of the United Nations, NATO, WTO, World Bank, the AIIB, the Council of Europe and Visegrád Group. Well known for its cultural history, Hungary has been contributed significantly to arts, music, literature, sports and science. Hungary is the 11th most popular country as a tourist destination in Europe and it is home to the largest thermal water cave system, the second largest thermal lake in the world, the largest lake in Central Europe, and the largest natural grasslands in Europe. The H in the name of Hungary is most likely due to historical associations with the Huns. The rest of the word comes from the Latinized form of Medieval Greek Oungroi, according to an explanation the Greek name was borrowed from Proto-Slavic Ǫgǔri, in turn borrowed from Oghur-Turkic Onogur. Onogur was the name for the tribes who later joined the Bulgar tribal confederacy that ruled the eastern parts of Hungary after the Avars. The Hungarians likely belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance and it is possible they became its ethnic majority. The Hungarian endonym is Magyarország, composed of magyar and ország, the word magyar is taken from the name of one of the seven major semi-nomadic Hungarian tribes, magyeri
Hungary
–
Italian fresco depicting a Hungarian warrior shooting backwards
Hungary
–
Flag
Hungary
–
Hungarian raids in the 10th century
Hungary
–
King
Saint Stephen, the first
King of Hungary, converted the nation to Christianity
5.
Population density
–
Population density is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume, it is a quantity of type number density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and most of the time to humans and it is a key geographical term. Population density is population divided by land area or water volume. Low densities may cause a vortex and lead to further reduced fertility. This is called the Allee effect after the scientist who identified it, commonly this may be calculated for a county, city, country, another territory, or the entire world. The worlds population is around 7,000,000,000, therefore, the worldwide human population density is around 7,000,000,000 ÷510,000,000 =13.7 per km2. If only the Earths land area of 150,000,000 km2 is taken into account and this includes all continental and island land area, including Antarctica. If Antarctica is also excluded, then population density rises to over 50 people per km2, thus, this number by itself does not give any helpful measurement of human population density. Several of the most densely populated territories in the world are city-states, microstates, cities with high population densities are, by some, considered to be overpopulated, though this will depend on factors like quality of housing and infrastructure and access to resources. Most of the most densely populated cities are in Southeast Asia, though Cairo, for instance, Milwaukee has a greater population density when just the inner city is measured, and the surrounding suburbs excluded. Arithmetic density, The total number of people / area of land, physiological density, The total population / area of arable land. Agricultural density, The total rural population / area of arable land, residential density, The number of people living in an urban area / area of residential land. Urban density, The number of people inhabiting an urban area / total area of urban land, ecological optimum, The density of population that can be supported by the natural resources. S. States by population density Selected Current and Historic City, Ward & Neighborhood Density
Population density
–
Monaco in
South Europe, currently holds the record for being the most densely populated nation in the world.
Population density
–
Mongolia is the least densely populated country in the world.
6.
Ethnic group
–
An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities, such as common ancestral, language, social, cultural or national experiences. Unlike other social groups, ethnicity is often an inherited status based on the society in which one lives, in some cases, it can be adopted if a person moves into another society. Ethnic groups, derived from the historical founder population, often continue to speak related languages. By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is possible for individuals or groups to leave one ethnic group. Ethnicity is often used synonymously with terms such as nation or people. In English, it can also have the connotation of something exotic, generally related to cultures of more recent immigrants, the largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals, while the smallest are limited to a few dozen individuals. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity, whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis. The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word ἔθνος ethnos, the inherited English language term for this concept is folk, used alongside the latinate people since the late Middle English period. In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan, as the Septuagint used ta ethne to translate the Hebrew goyim the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews. The Greek term in antiquity could refer to any large group, a host of men. In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of peculiar to a race, people or nation, the abstract ethnicity had been used for paganism in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an ethnic character. The term ethnic group was first recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972, depending on the context that is used, the term nationality may either be used synonymously with ethnicity, or synonymously with citizenship. The process that results in the emergence of an ethnicity is called ethnogenesis, the Greeks at this time did not describe foreign nations but had also developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes. Herodotus gave an account of what defined Greek ethnic identity in his day, enumerating shared descent. Whether ethnicity qualifies as a universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf and they regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups. According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently, one is between primordialism and instrumentalism. In the primordialist view, the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as a given, even coercive
Ethnic group
–
Before the 1970s, the
Korowai people of
Papua were an
uncontacted people. Their population numbers no more than 3,000.
Ethnic group
–
The
Assyrians are the indigenous peoples of
Northern Iraq.
Ethnic group
–
Some European ethnic groups, such as
Basque people, do not constitute a majority in any one country.
7.
Avars (Carpathians)
–
The Pannonian Avars /ˈævɑːrz/ also known as the Obri, the Abaroi and Varchonitai, and the Pseudo-Avars and Varchonites, were a group of Eurasian nomads of unknown origin during the early Middle Ages. The name Pannonian Avars, is used to them from the Avars of the Caucasus – who may or may not have been an unrelated people. They established the Avar Khaganate, which spanned the Pannonian Basin and considerable areas of Central and they were ruled by a khagan, who was assisted by an entourage of professional warriors. The language or languages spoken by the Avars are now unknown, denis Sinor states that most of the Avar words used in contemporaneous Latin or Greek texts, appear to have their origins in Siberian languages, especially Tungusic languages and Mongolian. There is also evidence, however, that ruling and subject clans spoke a variety of languages, proposals by scholars include Caucasian, Iranian, Tungusic, Hungarian and Turkic. A few scholars suggest that Proto-Slavic became the lingua franca of the Avar Khaganate, according to Gyula László, the late 9th century Pannonian Avars spoke a variety of Old Hungarian, thereby forming an Avar-Hungarian continuity with then newly arrived Hungarians. The earliest clear reference to the Avar ethnonym comes from Priscus the Rhetor,463, the Šaragurs, Onogurs and Ogurs were attacked by the Sabirs, who had been attacked by the Avars. In turn, the Avars had been driven off by people fleeing man-eating griffins coming from the ocean, whilst Priscus accounts provide some information about the ethno-political situation in the Don-Kuban-Volga region after the demise of the Huns, no unequivocal conclusions can be reached. Denis Sinor has argued that whoever the Avars referred to by Priscus were, they differed from the Avars who appear a century later, during the time of Justinian. The next author of late antiquity to discuss the Avars, Menander Protector in the 6th century, each time, the Turks appear angered at the Byzantines for having made an alliance with the Avars, whom the Turks saw as their subjects and slaves. Turxanthos, a Turk prince, calls the Avars Varchonites and escaped slaves of the Turks, many more, but somewhat confusing, details come from Theophylact Simocatta, who wrote c. 629, but detailed the two decades of the 6th century. For it is by a misnomer that the barbarians on the Ister have assumed the appellation of Avars, so, when the Avars had been defeated some of them made their escape to those who inhabit Taugast. Taugast is a city, which is a total of one thousand five hundred miles distant from those who are called Turks. These make their habitations in the east, by the course of the river Til, the earliest leaders of this nation were named Var and Chunni, from them some parts of those nations were also accorded their nomenclature, being called Var and Chunni. Then, while the emperor Justinian was in possession of the royal power and these named themselves Avars and glorified their leader with the appellation of Chagan. Let us declare, without departing in the least from the truth, for this reason they honoured the fugitives with splendid gifts and supposed that they received from them security in exchange. In point of fact even up to our present times the Pseudo-Avars are divided in their ancestry, some bearing the time-honoured name of Var while others are called Chunni
Avars (Carpathians)
–
Warrior with captive, from a golden ewer of the
Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós. There is no agreement as to whether he represents an Avar, a Bulgar or a Khazar warrior.
Avars (Carpathians)
–
Gold Avar bowl, found in modern
Albania.
Avars (Carpathians)
–
Avar territory in the 6th century.
Avars (Carpathians)
–
Avar findings from Ozora-Tótipuszta, Hungary
8.
Hungarian people
–
Hungarians, also known as Magyars, are a nation and ethnic group who speak Hungarian and are primarily associated with Hungary. There are around 13. 1–14.7 million Hungarians, of whom 8. 5–9.8 million live in todays Hungary, the Hungarians own ethnonym to denote themselves in the Early Middle Ages is uncertain. The Magyars/Hungarians probably belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance, and it is possible that they became its ethnic majority, in the Early Middle Ages the Hungarians had many names, including Ungherese, Ungar, and Hungarus. The H- prefix is an addition of Medieval Latin, another possible explanation comes from the Old Russian Yugra. It may refer to the Hungarians during a time when they dwelt east of the Ural Mountains along the borders of Europe. The Hungarian people refer to themselves by the demonym Magyar rather than Hungarian, Magyar is Finno-Ugric from the Old Hungarian mogyër. Magyar possibly derived from the name of the most prominent Hungarian tribe, the tribal name Megyer became Magyar in reference to the Hungarian people as a whole. Magyar may also derive from the Hunnic Muageris or Mugel, the Greek cognate of Tourkia was used by the scholar and Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his De Administrando Imperio of c. AD950, though in his use, Turks always referred to Magyars, the historical Latin phrase Natio Hungarica had a wider meaning because it once referred to all nobles of the Kingdom of Hungary, regardless of their ethnicity. During the 4th millennium BC, the Uralic-speaking peoples who were living in the central, some dispersed towards the west and northwest and came into contact with Iranian speakers who were spreading northwards. From at least 2000 BC onwards, the Ugrian speakers became distinguished from the rest of the Uralic community, judging by evidence from burial mounds and settlement sites, they interacted with the Indo-Iranian Andronovo culture. In the 4th and 5th centuries AD, the Hungarians moved from the west of the Ural Mountains to the area between the southern Ural Mountains and the Volga River known as Bashkiria and Perm Krai. In the early 8th century, some of the Hungarians moved to the Don River to an area between the Volga, Don and the Seversky Donets rivers, meanwhile, the descendants of those Hungarians who stayed in Bashkiria remained there as late as 1241. The Hungarians around the Don River were subordinates of the Khazar khaganate and their neighbours were the archaeological Saltov Culture, i. e. Bulgars and the Alans, from whom they learned gardening, elements of cattle breeding and of agriculture. Tradition holds that the Hungarians were organized in a confederacy of seven tribes, the names of the seven tribes were, Jenő, Kér, Keszi, Kürt-Gyarmat, Megyer, Nyék, and Tarján. Around 830, a rebellion broke out in the Khazar khaganate, as a result, three Kabar tribes of the Khazars joined the Hungarians and moved to what the Hungarians call the Etelköz, the territory between the Carpathians and the Dnieper River. The Hungarians faced their first attack by the Pechenegs around 854, the new neighbours of the Hungarians were the Varangians and the eastern Slavs. In 895/896, under the leadership of Árpád, some Hungarians crossed the Carpathians, the tribe called Magyar was the leading tribe of the Hungarian alliance that conquered the centre of the basin
Hungarian people
–
The Hungarian bow
Hungarian people
–
Prince
Árpád crossing the
Carpathians. A detail from the
Arrival of the Hungarians,
Árpád Feszty 's and his assistants' vast
cyclorama (over 1800 m²), painted to celebrate the 1000th anniversary of the Hungarians conquest of Hungary, now displayed at the
Ópusztaszer National Heritage Park in Hungary.
Hungarian people
–
Hungarian Conquest of the Carpathian Basin, from the
Chronicon Pictum, 1360.
Hungarian people
–
Location of the Hungarian (Magyar) tribes around 600
9.
Anno Domini
–
The terms anno Domini and before Christ are used to label or number years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term anno Domini is Medieval Latin and means in the year of the Lord, There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia Minor, the Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the world today. Traditionally, English followed Latin usage by placing the AD abbreviation before the year number, however, BC is placed after the year number, which also preserves syntactic order. The abbreviation is widely used after the number of a century or millennium. Because BC is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, it is sometimes concluded that AD means After Death. However, this would mean that the approximate 33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would not be included in either of the BC, astronomical year numbering and ISO8601 avoid words or abbreviations related to Christianity, but use the same numbers for AD years. The Anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate the years in his Easter table. His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. The last year of the old table, Diocletian 247, was followed by the first year of his table. Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus Incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the year during which his birth or conception occurred. Blackburn & Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC,1 BC, There were inaccuracies in the list of consuls There were confused summations of emperors regnal years It is not known how Dionysius established the year of Jesuss birth. It is convenient to initiate a calendar not from the day of an event. For example, the Islamic calendar begins not from the date of the Hegira, at the time, it was believed by some that the Resurrection and end of the world would occur 500 years after the birth of Jesus. The old Anno Mundi calendar theoretically commenced with the creation of the based on information in the Old Testament. It was believed that, based on the Anno Mundi calendar, Anno Mundi 6000 was thus equated with the resurrection and the end of the world but this date had already passed in the time of Dionysius. The Anglo-Saxon historian the Venerable Bede, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius Exiguus, used Anno Domini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731. e. On the continent of Europe, Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by the English cleric and scholar Alcuin in the late eighth century
Anno Domini
–
Dionysius Exiguus invented Anno Domini years to
date Easter.
Anno Domini
–
Anno Domini inscription at a cathedral in
Carinthia,
Austria.
Anno Domini
–
Statue of
Charlemagne by
Agostino Cornacchini (1725), at
St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican, Italy. Charlemagne promoted the usage of the Anno Domini epoch throughout the
Carolingian Empire
10.
Golden Bull of 1222
–
The Golden Bull of 1222 was a golden bull, or edict, issued by King Andrew II of Hungary. King Andrew II was forced by his nobles to accept the Golden Bull, the Golden Bull was issued at the year 1222 diet of Fehérvár. The law established the rights of the Hungarian nobility, including the right to disobey the King when he acted contrary to law. The nobles and the church were freed from all taxes and could not be forced to go to war outside of Hungary and were not obligated to finance it and this was also a historically important document because it set down the principles of equality for all of the nations nobility. The charters creation was influenced by the emergence of a nobility middle class, as a regular gesture of generosity, King Andrew often donated property to particularly faithful servants, who thereafter gained new economic and class power. It may even have inspired by Magna Carta, as its greatest supporters met with exiled Magna Carta leaders such as Robert Fitzwalter during the Fifth Crusade. The Full Text of the Laws Martyn Rady, Hungary and the Golden Bull of 1222
Golden Bull of 1222
–
Golden Bull of 1222
11.
Mongol invasion of Europe
–
The Mongol invasion of Europe in the 13th century was the military effort by an Asian power, the Mongol Empire, to invade and conquer parts of Europe. It involved the severe and rampant destruction of East Slavic principalities and major cities, such as Kiev, Mongol invasions also affected Central Europe, leading to conflict with the Kingdom of Hungary and fragmented Poland. The operations were masterminded by General Subutai and commanded by Batu Khan and Kadan, as a result of the invasions, many of the conquered territories would become part of the Golden Horde empire. Historians regard the Mongol raids and invasions as among the deadliest conflicts in history up through that period. Ögedei Khan ordered Batu Khan to conquer Rus in 1235, the main force, headed by Jochis sons, and their cousins, Möngke Khan and Güyük Khan, arrived at Ryazan in December 1237. Ryazan refused to surrender, and the Mongols sacked it and then stormed Suzdalia, many Rus armies were defeated, Grand Prince Yuri was killed on the Sit River. Major cities such as Vladimir, Torzhok, and Kozelsk were captured, afterward, the Mongols turned their attention to the steppe, crushing the Kypchaks and the Alans and sacking Crimea. Batu appeared in Ukraine in 1239, sacking Pereiaslav and Chernihiv, most of the Rus princes fled when it became clear resistance was futile. The Mongols sacked Kiev on December 6,1240 and conquered Galich, Batu sent a small detachment to probe the Poles before passing on to Central Europe. One column was routed by the Poles while the defeated the Polish army. The Mongols had acquired Chinese gunpowder, which deployed in battle during the invasion of Europe to great success. The attack on Europe was planned and executed by Subutai, who achieved perhaps his most lasting fame with his victories there. Having devastated the various Rus principalities, he sent spies into Poland and Hungary, having a clear picture of the European kingdoms, he prepared an attack nominally commanded by Batu Khan and two other familial-related princes. He also commanded the column that moved against Hungary. While Kadans northern force won the Battle of Legnica and Güyüks army triumphed in Transylvania, the newly reunited army then withdrew to the Sajo River where they inflicted a decisive defeat on King Béla IV of Hungary at the Battle of Mohi. Again, Subutai masterminded the operation, and it would one of his greatest victories. The Mongols invaded Central Europe with three armies, one army defeated an alliance which included forces from fragmented Poland and members of various Christian military orders, led by Henry II the Pious, Duke of Silesia in the battle of Legnica. A second army crossed the Carpathian mountains and a third followed the Danube, the armies re-grouped and crushed Hungary in 1241, defeating the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohi on April 11,1241
Mongol invasion of Europe
–
Returning to
Vladimir by
Yaroslav II of Vladimir after Mongol destruction. From the medieval Russian annals
Mongol invasion of Europe
–
The route of the first Mongol expedition in Russia - 1223
Mongol invasion of Europe
–
The Mongol army captures a
Rus' city
Mongol invasion of Europe
–
Henry II the Pious who lost his life at the battle of Legnica, 19th-century painting by
Jan Matejko.
12.
Capetian House of Anjou
–
The Capetian House of Anjou, also known as the House of Anjou-Sicily and House of Anjou-Naples, was a royal house and cadet branch of the direct French House of Capet, part of the Capetian dynasty. It is one of three royal houses referred to as Angevin, meaning from Anjou in France. Founded by Charles I of Naples, a son of Louis VIII of France, later the War of the Sicilian Vespers forced him out of the island of Sicily, leaving him with just the southern half of the Italian Peninsula — the Kingdom of Naples. The house and its various branches would go on to much of the history of Southern and Central Europe during the Middle Ages. Historically, the House ruled Naples and Sicily, parts of Greece, Hungary, and Poland. A younger son of House of Capet king Louis VIII of France the Lion, Charles married the heiress of the County of Provence named Beatrice of Provence, she was a member of the House of Barcelona, this meant Charles holdings were growing as Count of Provence. The reason for Charles being offered the kingdom was because of a conflict between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire, the latter of whom were represented by the ruling House of Hohenstaufen. It was at the Battle of Benevento that the Guelph Capetians gained the Sicilian kingdom from the Ghibelline Swabians, in keeping with the political landscape of the period, Charles is described by scholars as shrewd, energetic and highly ambitious. The Byzantines had taken back the city of Constantinople in 1261, for a while Charles was preoccupied helping his French brother in the unsuccessful Eighth Crusade on Tunis. After this he once again focused on Constantinople, but his fleet was wrecked in a storm off the coast of Trapani. Charles had fully solidified his rule over Durazzo by 1272, creating a small Kingdom of Albania for himself, out of previously Despotate of Epirus territory, Charles was driven out of Sicily in 1282, but his successors ruled Naples until 1435. The line became extinct in the line with the death of King Ladislaus of Naples in 1414. The Kingdom of Albania, or Regnum Albaniae, was established by Charles of Anjou in the Albanian territory he conquered from the Despotate of Epirus in 1271 and he took the title of King of Albania in February 1272. The kingdom extended from the region of Durrës south along the coast to Butrint, a major attempt to advance further in direction of Constantinople, failed at the Siege of Berat. A Byzantine counteroffensive soon ensued, which drove the Angevins out of the interior by 1281, the Sicilian Vespers further weakened the position of Charles, and the Kingdom was soon reduced by the Epirotes to a small area around Durrës. The Angevins held out here, however, until 1368, when the city was captured by Karl Thopia, in 1392 Karl Thopias son surrendered the city and his domains to the Republic of Venice. The Late Medieval Balkans, A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press. A History of the Crusades, Volume III, The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, madison, Wisconsin, University of Wisconsin Press
Capetian House of Anjou
–
The seated
Charles I of Sicily is crowned by
Pope Clement IV.
Capetian House of Anjou
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Arms of the Capetian House of Anjou
Capetian House of Anjou
–
Artistic depiction of the
Sicilian Vespers.
Capetian House of Anjou
–
Charles I of Sicily
13.
Treaty of Karlowitz
–
On the basis of uti possidetis, the treaty confirmed the then-current territorial holdings of each power. The Habsburgs received from the Ottomans the Eğri Eyalet, Varat Eyalet, much of the Budin Eyalet and this corresponded to much of Hungary, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slavonia. The Principality of Transylvania remained nominally independent but was subject to the rule of Austrian governors. Poland recovered Podolia, including the fortress at Kamaniçe. Venice obtained most of Dalmatia along with the Morea, though the Morea was restored to the Turks within 20 years by the Treaty of Passarowitz, there was no agreement about the Holy Sepulchre, although it was discussed in Karlowitz. The Ottomans retained Belgrade, the Banat of Temesvár, as well as suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia. Negotiations with Muscovy for a year under a truce agreed at Karlowitz culminated in the Treaty of Constantinople of 1700. Commissions were set up to devise the new borders between the Austrians and the Turks, with some parts disputed until 1703, Treaty of Karlowitz, Encyclopædia Britannica English text of treaty
Treaty of Karlowitz
–
Negotiation of the Peace of Karlowitz (note the way the Ottoman ambassadors sit with their legs crossed)
Treaty of Karlowitz
Treaty of Karlowitz
14.
Kuruc
–
The kuruc, also spelled kurutz, were the armed anti-Habsburg rebels in Royal Hungary between 1671 and 1711. The kuruc army was made up of serfs, including Hungarian Protestant peasants. According to Matthias Bel, an 18th-century scholar, the word was first used in 1514 for the armed peasants led by György Dózsa, today etymologists do not accept Bels theory and consider the word—emerging in the 1660s in the forms kurus, kuroc or kurudsch—to be of unknown origin. Its original meaning was understood as rebel, partisan, dissident, in 1671 the name was used by Meni, the beglerbeg pasha of Eger in what is today Hungary, to denote the predominantly noble refugees from Royal Hungary. The leader of the last of the rebellions, Francis II Rákóczi. Contemporary sources often used the term malcontents to denote the rebels, the opposite term was labanc, denoting Austrians and their loyalist supporters. According to the chronicle of Silahdar Fındıklılı Mehmed Ağa, a seventeenth-century Ottoman chronicler, the first kuruc uprising occurred in 1672. The kuruc army gathered in the Partium where many refugees of different origins took shelter from the religious and their weapons were mostly pistols, light sabres and fokos. Their tactics and style of war were typical of light cavalry, the main subgroups were Protestants, who were disgruntled by Habsburg ambitions of the Counter-Reformation, nobles and soldiers from the végvárs who were sacked by Habsburg generals. Later, when the Turks lost ground to the armies and Austrian despotism intensified. Initially, in August 1672 the kuruc army invaded Upper Hungary where they conquered the castles of Diósgyőr, Ónod, Szendrő, the two leaders of the army of fugitives were Pál Szepesi and Mátyás Szuhay, members of the minor nobility who previously took part in other anti-Habsburg movements. According to the recollections of Pál Szepesi the fugitives began looting in the northern countries and we began killing the plunderers but to no avail—they didnt respect any officers. The Hofkriegsrat of Vienna immediately took measures, strengthened the Habsburg troops, called more soldiers from Lower Hungary. On 26 October 1672 the Habsburg army defeated the fugitives at Gyurke, the rebels retreated across the line of the Tisza. After this initial success the Habsburg government began systematic religious and political persecution in Royal Hungary. The most infamous case was the trial of 300 Protestant pastors who were sentenced to death in 1674, in 1675 the Fugitives occupied Debrecen. Later in that year the town was sacked again by three different armies as was not uncommon that time in troubled Upper Hungary, the fugitives tried to organise themselves as an independent community called universitas or communitas. They issued decrees, sent envoys to foreign powers, made a seal and that time they were already called kuruc although they never called themselves so
Kuruc
–
Kuruc-Labanc battle
Kuruc
–
Kuruc, c. 1700
Kuruc
–
Kuruc soldiers
Kuruc
–
The capitulation of the Kuruc army in 1711
15.
Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia
–
It was associated with the Hungarian Kingdom within the dual Austro-Hungarian state, being within the Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen or Transleithania. The kingdom was ruled by the Habsburg Emperor-King of Austria-Hungary under his title as King of Croatia and Slavonia, the Kings appointed steward was the Ban of Croatia and Slavonia. Although it was under the suzerainty of the Crown of Saint Stephen, in 1918, the kingdom declared independence and reformed into the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. The claim was, for most of the time, supported by the Hungarian government, the union between the two primarily Croatian lands of Austria-Hungary never took place, however. The laws passed in Croatia-Slavonia used the phrase Kingdom of Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia, in Hungarian, Croatia is referred to as Horvátország and Slavonia as Szlavónia. The combined polity was known by the name of Horvát-Szlavón Királyság. The short form of the name was Horvát-Szlavónország and, less frequently Horvát-Tótország, the order of mentioning Dalmatia was a contentious issue, as it was ordered differently in the Croatian and Hungarian language versions of the 1868 Settlement. The Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia was created in 1868, when the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were joined into one single kingdom. The Croatian parliament, elected in a manner, confirmed the subordination of Croatia-Slavonia to Hungary in 1868 with signing of Hungarian-Croatian union constitution called the Nagodba. This kingdom included parts of present-day Croatia and Serbia, in the end, fifty-five per cent of the total income of Croatia-Slavonia were assigned to the Joint Treasury. The kingdom existed until 1918 when it joined the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, the new Serb-Croat-Slovene Kingdom was divided into counties between 1918 and 1922 and into oblasts between 1922 and 1929. With the formation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, most of the territory of the former Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia became a part of the Sava Banate, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 created the Dual Monarchy. Under the Compromise, Austria and Hungary each had separate parliaments that passed and maintained separate laws, each region had its own government, headed by its own prime minister. The common monarchy consisted of the emperor-king and the ministers of foreign affairs, defense. At Franz Josephs insistence, Hungary and Croatia reached the Compromise in 1868, the agreement granted the Croats autonomy over their internal affairs. The Croatian ban would now be nominated by the Hungarian prime minister, areas of common concern to Hungarians and Croats included finance, currency matters, commercial policy, the post office, and the railroad. Croatian became the language of Croatias government, and Croatian representatives discussing common affairs before the Hungarian diet were permitted to speak Croatian. A ministry of Croatian Affairs was created within the Hungarian government, although the Nagodba provided a measure of political autonomy to Croatia-Slavonia, it was subordinated politically and economically to Hungary
Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia
–
Ivan Mažuranić, Ban (viceroy) of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia (in office 1873-1880)
Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia
–
Flag
Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia
–
Banski dvori (Ban's Court), the palace of the Ban of Croatia, in
Zagreb.
Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia
–
The Coat of Arms of Croatia-Slavonia on the building of the
Croatian Parliament
16.
Hungarian Revolution of 1848
–
The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 was one of the many European Revolutions of 1848 and closely linked to other revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas. The revolution in the Kingdom of Hungary grew into a war for independence from the Austrian Empire, Czar Nicholas I answered, and sent a 200,000 men strong army with 80,000 auxiliary forces. Finally, the joint army of Russian and Austrian forces defeated the Hungarian forces, after the restoration of Habsburg power, Hungary was placed under brutal martial law. The anniversary of the Revolutions outbreak,15 March, is one of Hungarys three national holidays, the Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, even after the Austrian Empire was created in 1804. The administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire, Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the imperial government. The country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary - located in Pozsony and later in Pest -, ignác Martinovics worked as a secret agent for the new Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold II, until 1792. In another of his works, Catechism of People and Citizens, he argued that citizens tend to oppose any repression and he also became a Freemason, and was in favour of the adoption of a federal republic in Hungary. As a member of the Hungarian Jacobins, he was considered a forerunner of revolutionary thought by some. He was in charge of stirring up a revolt against the nobility among the Hungarian serfs, for these subversive acts, Francis II, the Holy Roman Emperor, dismissed Martinovics and his boss, Ferenc Gotthardi, the former chief of the secret police. He was executed, together with six other prominent Jacobins, in May 1795, the Diet of Hungary had not convened since 1811. The frequent diets held in the part of the reign occupied themselves with little else but war subsidies. In the latter years of Francis I. the dark shadow of Metternichs policy of stability fell across the kingdom, but beneath the surface a strong popular current was beginning to run in a contrary direction. Hungarian society, not unaffected by western Liberalism, but without any help from abroad, was preparing for the future emancipation. In 1825 Emperor Francis II convened the Diet in response to growing concerns amongst the Hungarian nobility about taxes and this – and the reaction to the reforms of Joseph II – started what is known as the Reform Period. But the Nobles still retained their privileges of paying no taxes, the influential Hungarian politician Count István Széchenyi recognized the need to bring the country the advances of the more developed West European countries, such as England. It was an attack upon the constitution which, to use the words of István Széchenyi. In 1823, when the powers were considering joint action to suppress the revolution in Spain. The county assemblies instantly protested against this act, and Francis I was obliged, at the diet of 1823
Hungarian Revolution of 1848
–
Artist
Mihály Zichy 's painting of
Sándor Petőfi reciting the
National Poem to a crowd on March 15, 1848
Hungarian Revolution of 1848
–
The entrance room of the Pilvax coffee palace at
Pest in the 1840s
Hungarian Revolution of 1848
–
The recitation of the National Song at the National Museum
Hungarian Revolution of 1848
–
Members of the Batthyány government
17.
History of the Jews in Hungary
–
Jews have a long history in the country now known as Hungary, with some records even predating the 895 AD Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin by over 600 years. Written sources prove that Jewish communities lived in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary, Jewish officials served the king during the reign of Andrew II. From the second part of the 13th century the religious tolerance decreased. The Jews of Hungary were fairly well integrated into Hungarian society by the time of the First World War, by the early 20th century, the community had grown to constitute 5% of Hungarys total population and 23% of the population of the capital, Budapest. Jews became prominent in science, the arts and business, starting in 1938, Hungary under Miklós Horthy passed a series of anti-Jewish measures in emulation of Germanys Nürnberg Laws. The vast majority of Jews who were deported were massacred in Kameniec-Podolsk, in the massacres of Újvidék and villages nearby,2, 550–2,850 Serbs, 700–1,250 Jews and 60–130 others were murdered by the Hungarian Army and Csendőrség in January 1942. A Jew living in the Hungarian countryside in March 1944 had a less than 10% chance of surviving the following 12 months, in Budapest, a Jews chance of survival of the same 12 months was about 50%. Jews from the Hungarian provinces outside Budapest and its suburbs were rounded up, the first transports to Auschwitz began in early May 1944 and continued even as Soviet troops approached. During the last years of World War II, they suffered severely, the 2011 Hungary census data had 10,965 people who self-identified religious Jews, of whom 10,553 declared themselves as ethnic Hungarian. Other media sources estimate an Hungarian population with Jewish ethnicity of around 48,200 mostly concentrated in Budapest, the intermarriage rates for Hungarian Jews is around 60%. It is not definitely known when Jews first settled in Hungary, According to tradition, King Decebalus permitted the Jews who aided him in his war against Rome to settle in his territory. Dacia included part of modern-day Hungary as well as Romania and Moldova and smaller areas of Bulgaria, Ukraine, prisoners of the Jewish Wars may have been brought back by the victorious Roman legions normally stationed in Provincia Pannonia. Marcus Aurelius ordered the transfer of some of his rebellious troops from Syria to Pannonia in 175 A. D and these troops had been recruited partly in Antioch and Hemesa, which still had a sizable Jewish population at that time. The Antiochian troops were transferred to Ulcisia Castra, while the Hemesian troops settled in Intercisa, stone inscriptions referring to Jews were found in Brigetio, Solva, Aquincum, Intercisa, Triccinae, Savaria, Sopianae and elsewhere in Pannonia. A Latin inscription, the epitaph of Septima Maria, discovered in Siklós, the Intercisa tablet was inscribed on behalf of Cosmius, chief of the Spondilla customhouse, archisynagogus Iudeorum during the reign of Alexander Severus. In 2008, a team of archeologists discovered a 3rd-century AD amulet in the form of a scroll with the words of the Jewish prayer Shema Yisrael inscribed on it in Féltorony. Hungarian tribes settled the territory 650 years later, in the Hungarian language, the word for Jew is zsidó, which was adopted from one of the Slavic languages. The first historical document relating to the Jews of Hungary is the letter written about 960 A. D, about the same time Ibrahim ibn Jacob says that Jews went from Hungary to Prague for business purposes
History of the Jews in Hungary
–
Sík Mózes
History of the Jews in Hungary
History of the Jews in Hungary
–
Neumann János
History of the Jews in Hungary
–
Szabó István
18.
Kingdom of Hungary
–
The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed from the Middle Ages into the twentieth century. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the coronation of the first king Stephen I at Esztergom in about the year 1000, by the 12th century, the kingdom became a European middle power within the Western world. The House of Habsburg held the Hungarian throne after the Battle of Mohács until 1918, from 1867 territories connected to the Hungarian crown were incorporated into Austria-Hungary under the name of Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen. The monarchy ended with the deposition of the last king Charles IV in 1918, the kingdom was nominally restored during the Regency of 1920–46, ending with the Soviet occupation in 1946. From 1102 it also included Croatia, being in union with it. Today, the feast day of the first king Stephen I is a holiday in Hungary. The Latin forms Regnum Hungariae or Ungarie, Regnum Marianum, or simply Hungaria, were the used in official documents in Latin from the beginning of the kingdom to the 1840s. The German name Königreich Ungarn was used officially from 1784 to 1790, the Hungarian name was used in the 1840s, and then again from the 1860s to 1946. The non-official Hungarian name of the kingdom was Magyarország, which is still the colloquial, in Austria-Hungary, the unofficial name Transleithania was sometimes used to denote the regions of the Kingdom of Hungary. Officially, the term Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen was included for the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary, the Hungarians led by Árpád settled the Carpathian Basin in 895, established Principality of Hungary. The Hungarians led several successful incursions to Western Europe, until they were stopped by Otto I, the principality was succeeded by the Christian Kingdom of Hungary with the coronation of St Stephen I at Esztergom on Christmas Day 1000. The first kings of the kingdom were from the Árpád dynasty and he fought against Koppány and in 998, with Bavarian help, defeated him near Veszprém. The Catholic Church received powerful support from Stephen I, who with Christian Hungarians, Stephen I of Hungary was canonized as a Catholic saint in 1083 and an Orthodox saint in 2000. After his death, a period of revolts and conflict for supremacy ensued between the royalty and the nobles, in 1051 armies of the Holy Roman Empire tried to conquer Hungary, but they were defeated at Vértes Mountain. The armies of the Holy Roman Empire continued to suffer defeats, before 1052 Peter Orseolo, a supporter of the Holy Roman Empire, was overthrown by king Samuel Aba of Hungary. This period of revolts ended during the reign of Béla I, Hungarian chroniclers praised Béla I for introducing new currency, such as the silver denarius, and for his benevolence to the former followers of his nephew, Solomon. The second greatest Hungarian king, also from the dynasty, was Ladislaus I of Hungary. He was also canonized as a saint, however, kingship over all of Croatia would not be achieved until the reign of his successor Coloman
Kingdom of Hungary
–
King
Stephen I of Hungary
Kingdom of Hungary
–
Flag (1867-1918)
Kingdom of Hungary
–
The
Holy Crown of Hungary along with other
regalia
Kingdom of Hungary
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Hungary (including
Croatia) in 1190, during the rule of
Béla III
19.
Total Fertility Rate
–
It is obtained by summing the single-year age-specific rates at a given time. The TFR is a rate, not based on the fertility of any real group of women since this would involve waiting until they had completed childbearing. Nor is it based on counting up the number of children actually born over their lifetime. Instead, the TFR is based on the fertility rates of women in their child-bearing years. When the NRR is exactly one, then each generation of women is exactly reproducing itself, the NRR is less widely used than the TFR, and the United Nations stopped reporting NRR data for member nations after 1998. But the NRR is particularly relevant where the number of babies born is very high due to gender imbalance. This is a significant factor in population, due to the high level of gender imbalance in the very populous nations of China. The gross reproduction rate, is the same as the NRR, in particular, the TFR does not necessarily predict how many children young women now will eventually have, as their fertility rates in years to come may change from those of older women now. However, the TFR is a summary of current fertility levels. In other words, the TPFR is a measure of life cycle fertility when childbearing age is changing. This is a significant factor in some countries, such as the Czech Republic, some measures seek to adjust for this timing effect to gain a better measure of life-cycle fertility. Replacement fertility is the fertility rate at which women give birth to enough babies to sustain population levels. If there were no mortality in the population until the end of the childbearing years then the replacement level of TFR would be very close to 2.0. The replacement fertility rate is roughly 2.0 births per woman for most industrialized countries, taken globally, the total fertility rate at replacement is 2.33 children per woman. At this rate, global population growth would tend towards zero, a log-transformation of the data gives an alternative view of the relation. The coefficients taken literally imply that for each 1% advance in GDP, the term lowest-low fertility is defined as TFR at or below 1.3. This is characteristic of some Eastern European, Southern European and East Asian countries, in 2001, more than half of the population of Europe lived in countries with lowest-low TFR, but the situation has since slightly improved. However, it may take several generations for a change in the fertility rate to be reflected in birth rate
Total Fertility Rate
–
Total fertility rate rate by region
20.
Baranya County
–
Baranya, is the name of an administrative county in Hungary, in the Baranya region, and also in the former Kingdom of Hungary. The county lies in southern Hungary, on the border with Croatia, the River Drava forms part of its southern border, and the River Danube its eastern border. It shares borders with the Hungarian counties Somogy, Tolna, the capital of Baranya county is Pécs. In German, it is known as Komitat Branau, and in Croatian as Baranjska županija, the county is name after the Slavic word bara, which means marsh, bog, thus the name of Baranya means marshland. Even today large parts of the region are swamps, such as the natural reservation Kopački Rit in its southeast, another theory states that the name of the region come from the Slavic and Hungarian word bárány, which means lamb. This county has an area of 4,430 km2 –4. The northern part of the county is an area with large forests. The central areas are shared between the Baranya Hills and Villány Mountains, the very eastern and southern parts are flat. The highest point in the county is Zengő in the Mecsek Mountains and this is also the highest point of the mountain range. The climate is Mediterranean, with a number of sunshine hours. Baranya has the highest amount of rainfall in the country, Baranya is rich in mineral and thermal water, and also in other resources. 98% of Hungarys coal resources are found here, Croatia in the South – Osijek-Baranja County and Virovitica-Podravina County Somogy County in the Northwest. The area has been inhabited since ancient times, before the Hungarian tribes conquered the area, it was inhabited by Slavs and Avars. Stephen I founded a seat here. In 1526, the county was occupied by Ottomans and was freed in 1689 and its medieval borders remained unchanged until 1919. According to the treaty of Trianon, the southern part of the county reverted to Slavic rule. The re-organizing of the counties brought only minor changes, Baranya has the largest number of minorities in Hungary, providing home to 34% of the German minority and 32% of the Southern Slav minorities in Hungary. In 2015, it had a population of 371,110, besides the Hungarian majority, the main minorities are the Germans, Roma, Croats, and Serbs
Baranya County
–
Baranya County
Baranya County
Baranya County
Baranya County
–
Hosszúhetény - Temple from above
21.
Heves County
–
Heves county lies in northern Hungary. It lies between the bank of the river Tisza and the Mátra and Bükk mountains. It shares borders with the Hungarian counties Pest, Nógrád, Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén, from south it is bordered by Lake Tisza, the largest artificial lake in Hungary. The average temperature is between 8 and 10 °C, zagyva Tarna Tisza Laskó Kékestető, Mátra Mountains Kisköre In 2015, it had a population of 301,296 and the population density was 83/km². Besides the Hungarian majority, the minorities are the Roma, Germans Slovaks. Total population,308,882 Ethnic groups, Identified themselves,279714 persons, Hungarians,257659 Gypsies,19312 Others,43,000 persons in Heves County did not declare their ethnic group at the 2011 census. Religious adherence in the county according to 2011 census, Catholic –52. 5%, Reformed –4. 8%, Evangelical –0. 4%, Other religions –1. 5%, Non-religious –14. 0%, Atheism –1. 1%, Undeclared –25. 8%. Heves County has a relationship with, Official site in Hungarian Heves Megyei Hírlap - The county portal
Heves County
–
Heves County
Heves County
–
Eger, the capital of the county
Heves County
–
Saint Bartholomew Church,
Gyöngyös
Heves County
–
Romanesque church,
Bélapátfalva
22.
Pest County
–
Pest County is a county in central Hungary. It covers an area of 6,393.14 square kilometres and it surrounds the national capital Budapest and the majority of the countys population live in the suburbs of Budapest. It shares borders with Slovakia and the Hungarian counties Nógrád, Heves, Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok, Bács-Kiskun, Fejér, the River Danube flows through the county. The present county Pest was formed after World War II, when the former county Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun was split in two parts, Pest County also existed in the early days of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary. Its territory comprised approximately the north-eastern part of present Pest County and it was combined with adjacent Pilis county before the 15th century. More information can be found at the entry of former Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun county, in 2015, it had a population of 1,226,115 and the population density was 192/km². Besides the Hungarian majority, the minorities are the Germans, Roma, Slovaks, Romanians. Total population,1,217,476 Ethnic groups, Identified themselves,1,090,882 persons, Hungarians,1,024,768 Germans,24,994 Gypsies,20,065 Others and indefinable,21,055 Approx. 178,000 persons in Pest County did not declare their ethnic group at the 2011 census. The Pest County Council, elected at the 2014 local government elections, is made up of 43 counselors, with the party composition. Pest County has a relationship with, Official site in Hungarian
Pest County
–
Pest County
Pest County
Pest County
Pest County
–
View of
Szentendre
23.
Somogy County
–
Somogy is an administrative county in present Hungary, and also in the former Kingdom of Hungary. Somogy county lies in south-western Hungary, on the border with Croatia and it stretches between the river Dráva and the southern shore of Lake Balaton. It shares borders with the Hungarian counties Zala, Veszprém, Fejér, Tolna and it is the most sparsely populated county in Hungary. The capital of Somogy county is Kaposvár, Somogy was also the name of a historic administrative county of the Kingdom of Hungary. Its territory, which was larger than that of present Somogy county, is now in south-western Hungary. The capital of the county was Kaposvár, in 2015, it had a population of 312,084 and the population density was 52/km². Besides the Hungarian majority, the minorities are the Roma, Germans. Total population,316,137 Ethnic groups, Identified themselves,287,692 persons, Hungarians,265,464 Romani Gypsies,16,167 Germans,3,039 Others and indefinable,3,022 Approx. 46,000 persons in Somogy County did not declare their ethnic group at the 2011 census, slovenes in Somogy Official site in Hungarian Somogyi Hírlap - The county portal Hungary at GeoHive
Somogy County
–
Somogy County
Somogy County
Somogy County
Somogy County
–
Aerial photography of Kaposvár.
24.
Tolna County
–
Tolna, is an administrative county in present Hungary and in the former Kingdom of Hungary. It lies in central Hungary, on the west bank of the river Danube and it shares borders with the Hungarian counties Somogy, Fejér, Bács-Kiskun, and Baranya. The capital of Tolna county is Szekszárd, Tolna was also the name of a historic administrative county of the Kingdom of Hungary. Its territory, which was about the same as that of present Tolna county, is now in central Hungary, the capital of the county was Szekszárd. In 2015, it had a population of 225,936, besides the Hungarian majority, the main minorities are the Germans and Roma. Total population,230,361 Ethnic groups, Identified themselves,214953 persons, Hungarians,194685 Germans,10195 Gypsies,8768 Others,32,000 persons in Tolna County did not declare their ethnic group at the 2011 census. Religious adherence in the county according to 2011 census, Catholic –47. 2% Reformed –8. 0%, Evangelical –3. 0%, Other religions –1. 1%, Non-religious –15. 5%, Atheism –1. 0%, Undeclared –24. 1%. Official site in Hungarian and German Tolnai Népújság - The county portal
Tolna County
–
Tolna County
Tolna County
–
Szekszárd, the capital of the county
Tolna County
–
Holy Spirit Church in
Paks
Tolna County
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Pipo de Ozora Castle in
Ozara
25.
Vas County
–
Vas is the name of an administrative county in present Hungary, and also in the former Kingdom of Hungary. The county is a part of the Centrope Project, Vas county lies in western Hungary. It shares borders with Austria and Slovenia and the Hungarian counties Győr-Moson-Sopron, Veszprém, the capital of Vas county is Szombathely. Vas is also the name of an administrative county of the Kingdom of Hungary. Its territory is now in western Hungary, eastern Austria and eastern Slovenia, the capital of the county was Szombathely. Vas county arose as one of the first comitatus of the Kingdom of Hungary, in the Vendvidék in 1919 was founded an unrecognized state the Prekmurje Republic, alike in Burgenland the Lajtabánság. The remainder stayed in Hungary, as the present Hungarian county Vas, a small part of former Sopron county went to Vas county. Some villages north of Zalaegerszeg went to Zala county, and a region west of Pápa went to Veszprém county. Since 1991, when Slovenia became independent from Yugoslavia, the Yugoslavian part of former Vas county is part of Slovenia, the Vas county is home to a small Slovene minority, which lives in the area between the town of Szentgotthárd and the Slovenian border. In 2015, it had a population of 253,997, besides the Hungarian majority, the main minorities are the Croats, Roma, Germans and Slovenes. Total population,256,629 Ethnic groups, Identified themselves,225052 persons, Hungarians,214512 Croats,3102 Gypsies,2559 Others,39,000 persons in Vas County did not declare their ethnic group at the 2011 census. Religious adherence in the county according to 2011 census, Catholic –58. 8%, Evangelical –5. 9%, Reformed –2. 8%, other religions –0. 8%, Non-religious –5. 3%, Atheism –0. 7%, Undeclared –25. 7%
Vas County
–
Vas County
Vas County
–
Aerial photography: Szombathely - Hungary
Vas County
–
Aerial photography: Ikervár - Palace
Vas County
–
Ják - temple from above
26.
Zala County
–
Zala is an administrative county in south-western Hungary. It is named after the Zala River and it shares borders with Croatia and Slovenia and the Hungarian counties Vas, Veszprém and Somogy. The capital of Zala county is Zalaegerszeg and its area is 3,784 square kilometres. Lake Balaton lies partly in the county, in the 10th century, the Hungarian Nyék tribe occupied the region around Lake Balaton. Their occupation was mainly in the areas known today as Zala, parts of the western territory of the former county of Zala are now part of Slovenia. In 1919 it was part of the state of the Republic of Prekmurje. In 2015, it had a population of 277,290, besides the Hungarian majority, the main minorities are the Roma, Croats and Germans. Total population,282,179 Ethnic groups, Identified themselves,255069 persons, Hungarians,241408 Gypsies,6981 Croats,3248 Others,38,000 persons in Zala County did not declare their ethnic group at the 2011 census. Religious adherence in the county according to 2011 census, Catholic –62. 8%, Reformed –2. 5%, Evangelical –1. 4%, other religions –0. 8%, Non-religious –8. 2%, Atheism –0. 8%, Undeclared –23. 5%. Official site in Hungarian and German Zalai Hírlap - The county portal
Zala County
–
Zala County
Zala County
Zala County
Zala County
–
Zala County on an old map
27.
Budapest
–
Budapest is the capital and most populous city of Hungary, one of the largest cities in the European Union and sometimes described as the primate city of Hungary. It has an area of 525 square kilometres and a population of about 1.8 million within the limits in 2016. Budapest became a single city occupying both banks of the Danube river with the unification of Buda and Óbuda on the west bank, the history of Budapest began with Aquincum, originally a Celtic settlement that became the Roman capital of Lower Pannonia. Hungarians arrived in the territory in the 9th century and their first settlement was pillaged by the Mongols in 1241–1242. The re-established town became one of the centres of Renaissance humanist culture by the 15th century, following the Battle of Mohács and nearly 150 years of Ottoman rule, the region entered a new age of prosperity, and Budapest became a global city after its unification in 1873. It also became the co-capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a power that dissolved in 1918. Budapest was the point of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the Hungarian Republic of Councils in 1919, the Battle of Budapest in 1945. Budapest is an Alpha- global city, with strengths in arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts the Budapest Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks and it is the highest ranked Central and Eastern European city on Innovation Cities Top 100 index. Budapest attracts 4.4 million international tourists per year, making it the 25th most popular city in the world, further famous landmarks include Andrássy Avenue, St. It has around 80 geothermal springs, the worlds largest thermal water system, second largest synagogue. Budapest is home to the headquarters of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology, the European Police College, over 40 colleges and universities are located in Budapest, including the Eötvös Loránd University, Central European University and Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Budapest is the combination of the city names Buda and Pest, One of the first documented occurrences of the combined name Buda-Pest was in 1831 in the book Világ, written by Count István Széchenyi. The origins of the names Buda and Pest are obscure, according to chronicles from the Middle Ages, the name Buda comes from the name of its founder, Bleda, brother of the Hunnic ruler Attila. The theory that Buda was named after a person is also supported by modern scholars, an alternative explanation suggests that Buda derives from the Slavic word вода, voda, a translation of the Latin name Aquincum, which was the main Roman settlement in the region. There are also theories about the origin of the name Pest. One of the states that the word Pest comes from the Roman times. According to another theory, Pest originates from the Slavic word for cave, or oven, the first settlement on the territory of Budapest was built by Celts before 1 AD
Budapest
Budapest
–
From top, left to right:
Hungarian Parliament,
Fisherman's Bastion,
Sándor Palace guard,
Heroes' Square,
National Theatre,
St. Stephen's Basilica and
Széchenyi Chain Bridge by night
Budapest
Budapest
28.
German people
–
Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe, who share a common German ancestry, culture and history. German is the mother tongue of a substantial majority of ethnic Germans. The English term Germans has historically referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages, before the collapse of communism and the reunification of Germany in 1990, Germans constituted the largest divided nation in Europe by far. Ever since the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire, of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world, roughly 80 million consider themselves Germans. Thus, the number of Germans lies somewhere between 100 and more than 150 million, depending on the criteria applied. Today, people from countries with German-speaking majorities most often subscribe to their own national identities, the German term Deutsche originates from the Old High German word diutisc, referring to the Germanic language of the people. It is not clear how commonly, if at all, the word was used as an ethnonym in Old High German, used as a noun, ein diutscher in the sense of a German emerges in Middle High German, attested from the second half of the 12th century. The Old French term alemans is taken from the name of the Alamanni and it was loaned into Middle English as almains in the early 14th century. The word Dutch is attested in English from the 14th century, denoting continental West Germanic dialects, while in most Romance languages the Germans have been named from the Alamanni, the Old Norse, Finnish and Estonian names for the Germans were taken from that of the Saxons. In Slavic languages, the Germans were given the name of němьci, originally with a meaning foreigner, the English term Germans is only attested from the mid-16th century, based on the classical Latin term Germani used by Julius Caesar and later Tacitus. It gradually replaced Dutch and Almains, the latter becoming mostly obsolete by the early 18th century, the Germans are a Germanic people, who as an ethnicity emerged during the Middle Ages. Originally part of the Holy Roman Empire, around 300 independent German states emerged during its decline after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and these states eventually formed into modern Germany in the 19th century. The concept of a German ethnicity is linked to Germanic tribes of antiquity in central Europe, the early Germans originated on the North German Plain as well as southern Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the number of Germans was significantly increasing and they began expanding into eastern Europe, during antiquity these Germanic tribes remained separate from each other and did not have writing systems at that time. In the European Iron Age the area that is now Germany was divided into the La Tène horizon in Southern Germany and the Jastorf culture in Northern Germany. By 55 BC, the Germans had reached the Danube river and had either assimilated or otherwise driven out the Celts who had lived there, and had spread west into what is now Belgium and France. Conflict between the Germanic tribes and the forces of Rome under Julius Caesar forced major Germanic tribes to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine, in Roman-held territories with Germanic populations, the Germanic and Roman peoples intermarried, and Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions intermingled. The adoption of Christianity would later become an influence in the development of a common German identity
German people
German people
–
Germanic Kingdoms in Europe c. 500 AD
German people
–
Extent of
Holy Roman Empire in 972 (red line) and 1035 (red dots) with
Kingdom of Germany marked in blue
German people
–
18 January 1871: The proclamation of the
German Empire in the
Hall of Mirrors of the
Palace of Versailles.
Bismarck appears in white. The Grand Duke of Baden stands beside Wilhelm, leading the cheers. Crown Prince Friedrich, later
Friedrich III, stands on his father's right.
29.
Slovaks
–
The Slovaks or Slovak people are a nation and West Slavic ethnic group native to Slovakia who share a common ancestry, culture, history and are native speakers of the Slovak language. Most Slovaks today live within the borders of the independent Slovakia, there are Slovak minorities in Czech Republic, Croatia, Poland, Hungary, Serbia and sizeable populations of immigrants and their descendants in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom. The name Slovak is derived from *Slověninъ, plural *Slověně, the old name of the Slavs, in the Slovak language, only the masculine noun Slověninъ, Slověn changed to Slovän, Slovan and finally to Slovák around 1400. The older form Sloven is preserved in all words in the Slovak language – the adjective Slovak is still slovenský, the feminine noun Slovak is still Slovenka. In 1029 St. Emeric, ruler of the Nitrian principality is called Henricus dux Sclavonie, in 1113 Nestor calls the territory of Slovakia - Slověnskaja zemlja. The first written mention about usage of the new form Slovak in the territory of present-day Slovakia is from Bardejov – Nicoulaus Cossibor hauptman, Nicolaus Czech et Slowak, the mentions in Czech sources are older –1375 and 1385. The change is not related to ethnogenesis of Slovaks, but exclusively to linguistic changes in the West Slavic languages, the word Slovak was also used later as a common name for all Slavs in Czech, Polish and also Slovak language in parallel with other forms. The Slovaks and Slovenes are the only current Slavic nations that have preserved the original name, for Slovenes, the adjective is still slovenski and the feminine noun Slovene is still also Slovenka, but the masculine noun has since changed to Slovenec. The Slovak name for their language is slovenčina and the Slovene name for theirs is slovenščina, the Slovak term for the Slovene language is slovinčina, and the Slovenes call Slovak slovaščina. The name is derived from proto-Slavic form slovo word, talk, thus Slovaks as well as Slovenians would mean people who speak, i. e. people who understand each other. In Hungarian Slovak is Tót, an exonym and it was originally used to refer to all Slavs including Slovenes and Croats, but eventually came to refer primarily to Slovaks. Many place names in Hungary such as Tótszentgyörgy, Tótszentmárton, tóth is a common Hungarian surname. The Slovaks have also historically been referred to as Slovyenyn, Slowyenyny, Sclavus, Sclavi, Slavus, Slavi, Winde, Wende. The final three terms are variations of the Germanic term Wends, which was used to refer to any Slavs living close to Germanic settlements. The early Slavs came to the territory of Slovakia in several waves from the 5th and 6th centuries and were organized on a tribal level, original tribal names are not known due to the lack of written sources before their integration into higher political units. In the 7th century, Slavs founded larger tribal union, Samos empire, regardless of Samos empire, the integration process continued in other territories with various intensities. The final fall of the Avar Khaganate allowed new political entities to arise, the first such political unit documented by written sources is the Principality of Nitra, one of the foundations of later common ethnic consciousness. At this stage in history it is not yet possible to assume a common identity of all Slovak ancestors in the territory of eastern Slovakia, the Principality of Nitra become a part of Great Moravia, a common state of Moravians and Slovaks
Slovaks
–
Anton Bernolák,
Ľudovít Štúr,
Andrej Hlinka,
Štefan Banič,
Jozef Miloslav Hurban,
Aurel Stodola,
Adam František Kollár,
Milan Hodža,
Pavol Országh Hviezdoslav,
Milan Rastislav Štefánik,
Gustáv Husák,
Alexander Dubček
Slovaks
–
Ján Hollý (portrait from 1885)
Slovaks
–
The statue of
Svätopluk I
Slovaks
–
Pribina, ruler of Principality of Nitra, established and ruled the
Balaton Principality from 839/840 to 861.
30.
Rusyns
–
Rusyns, also known as Ruthenes, are a primarily diasporic ethnic group who speak an East Slavic language known as Rusyn. The Rusyns descend from Ruthenian peoples who did not adopt the use of the ethnonym Ukrainian in the early 20th century, as residents of Carpathian Mountains region, Rusyns are also sometimes associated with Slovak highlander community of Gorals. The endonym Rusyn has frequently not been recognised by various governments, Rusyn is an endonym of Ruthenian. In official Ukrainian contexts, the subgroups of Carpatho-Rusyns are often known collectively as Verkhovyntsi literally meaning Highlanders. Today, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, most contemporary self-identified ethnic Rusyns live outside of Ukraine. Of the estimated 1.2 million people of Rusyn origins, as few as 90,000 individuals have been identified as such. This is due, in part, to the refusal of governments to count Rusyns and/or allow them to self-identify on census forms. The ethnic classification of Rusyns as a separate East Slavic ethnicity distinct from Russians, Ukrainians, or Belarusians is, however, the majority of Ukrainian scholars consider Rusyns to be an ethnic subgroup of the Ukrainian people. This is disputed by some Lemko scholars and the majority of Czech, Slovak, according to the 2001 Ukrainian Census about a third of Rusyns in Ukraine speak the Ukrainian language, while others stick to their native form. Until the middle of the 19th century, ethnic Ukrainians referred to themselves as Ruthenians and this term continues to be used today and is found in Ukrainian folk songs. Today a minority continues to use the ethnonym Rusyn for self-identification. Having eschewed the ethnonym Ukrainian, the Rusyns are asserting a local and their distinctiveness as an ethnicity is, however, disputed. Those Rusyns who self-identify today have come from or had ancestors who came from the Eastern Carpathian Mountain region. This region is referred to as Carpathian Ruthenia. There are resettled Rusyn communities located in the Pannonian Plain, parts of present-day Serbia, Rusyns also migrated and settled in Prnjavor, a town in the northern region of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina. Analysis of population genetics shows statistical differences between Lemkos, Boykos, Hutzuls, and other Slavic or European populations, many Rusyns emigrated to the United States and Canada. With the advent of communications such as the Internet, they are able to reconnect as a community. Concerns are being voiced regarding the preservation of their unique ethnic, Rusyns formed two ephemeral states after World War I, the Lemko-Rusyn Republic and Komancza Republic
Rusyns
–
Michael Strank
Rusyns
–
Flag of Carpathian Ruthenia
Rusyns
–
Bill Evans
Rusyns
–
Lemkos from
Sanok in stylized highland folk-costumes from Mokre (Poland).
31.
Romanians
–
Romanians are natives of Romania that share a common Romanian culture, ancestry, and speak the Romanian language as a mother tongue, as well as by citizenship or by being subjects to the same country. Just under 89% of Romanias population identified as Romanian in the 2011 Romanian Census, in one interpretation of the census results in Moldova, Moldovans are counted as Romanians, which would mean that the latter form part of the majority in that country as well. Romanians are also a minority in several nearby countries. Inhabited by the ancient Dacians, todays territory of Romania was conquered by the Roman Empire in 106, the Roman administration withdrew two centuries later, under the pressure of the Goths and Carpi. Two theories account for the origin of the Romanian people, according to the first theory, the Romanians are descended from indigenous populations that inhabited what is now Romania and its immediate environs, Thracians and Roman legionnaires and colonists. This process was concluded by the 10th century when the assimilation of the Slavs by the Daco-Romanians was completed. The south-of-the Danube theory usually favours northern Albania and/or Moesia as the specific places of Romanian ethnogenesis. Small genetic differences were found among Southeastern European populations and especially those of the Dniester–Carpathian region. The genetic affinities among Dniester–Carpathian and southeastern European populations do not reflect their linguistic relationships, according to the report, the results indicate that the ethnic and genetic differentiations occurred in these regions to a considerable extent independently of each other. The entire Balkan peninsula was annexed by the Ottoman Empire, however, Moldavia and Wallachia were allowed a certain degree of temporary autonomy. Transylvania, a region inhabited by a slight majority of Romanian speakers had been part of the Austro-Hungarian empire until 1918. The three principalities were united for several months in 1600 under the authority of Wallachian Prince Michael the Brave and this area fell to the Ottoman Turks by the 15th century. Up until 1541, Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary, in 1699 it became a part of the Habsburg lands. By the 19th century, the Austrian Empire was awarded by the Ottomans with the region of Bukovina and, in 1812, in 1821 and 1848, two rebellions occurred, and both failed, but they had an important role in the spreading of the liberal ideology. In 1859, Moldavia and Wallachia elected the same ruler – Alexander John Cuza and were thus unified de facto, the newly founded Kingdom of Romania—led by the Hohenzollern prince Carol I—fought a War of Independence against the Ottomans, and was recognised in 1878. Although allied with Austria-Hungary, Romania refused to go to enter World War I on the side of the Central Powers, in 1916, Romania joined the war on the side of the Triple Entente. As a result, at the end of the war, Transylvania, Bessarabia and Bukovina were awarded to Romania, resulting in Greater Romania. As of 1920, Romanian people were believed to number over 15 million in the Romania region, larger than the populations of Sweden, Denmark, the eastern territory losses were facilitated by the Molotov-Ribbentrop German-Soviet non-aggression pact
Romanians
–
Territories inhabited by Eastern Romance peoples before World War I.
Romanians
Romanians
–
Romanians from Câmpulung Moldovenesc in national costumes
Romanians
–
Peasants of Transylvania
32.
Serbs
–
The Serbs are a South Slavic ethnic group that formed in the Balkans. The majority of Serbs inhabit the state of Serbia, as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina. They form significant minorities in Croatia, Macedonia and Slovenia, there is a large Serb diaspora in Western Europe, and outside Europe there are significant communities in North America and Australia. The Serbs share many traits with the rest of the peoples of Southeast Europe. They are predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christians by religion, the Serbian language is official in Serbia, co-official in Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and is spoken by the majority in Montenegro. The modern identity of Serbs is rooted in Eastern Orthodoxy and traditions, in the 19th century, the Serbian national identity was manifested, with awareness of history and tradition, medieval heritage, cultural unity, despite living under different empires. When the Principality of Serbia gained independence from the Ottoman Empire, Orthodoxy became crucial in defining the national identity, instead of language which was shared by other South Slavs. The tradition of slava, the family saint feast day, is an important ethnic marker of Serb identity, the origin of the ethnonym is unclear. Serbia has among the tallest people in the world, after Montenegro and Netherlands, Slavs invaded and settled the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries. Up until the late 560s their activity was raiding, crossing from the Danube, the Danube and Sava frontier was overwhelmed by large-scale Slavic settlement in the late 6th and early 7th century. What is today central Serbia was an important geo-strategical province, through which the Via Militaris crossed and this area was frequently intruded by barbarians in the 5th and 6th centuries. The numerous Slavs mixed with and assimilated the descendants of the indigenous population, numerous small Serbian states were created, located in modern Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia. With the decline of the Serbian state of Duklja in the late 11th century, Raška separated from it, prince Stefan Nemanja conquered the neighbouring territories of Kosovo, Duklja and Zachlumia. The Nemanjić dynasty ruled over Serbia until the 14th century, over the next 140 years, Serbia expanded its borders. Its cultural model remained Byzantine, despite political ambitions directed against the empire, the medieval power and influence of Serbia culminated in the reign of Stefan Dušan, who ruled the state from 1331 until his death in 1355. Ruling as Emperor from 1346, his territory included Macedonia, northern Greece, Montenegro, when Dušan died, his son Stephen Uroš V became Emperor. With the death of two important Serb leaders in the battle, and with the death of Stephen Uroš that same year, hrebeljanović was subsequently accepted as the titular leader of the Serbs because he was married to a member of the Nemanjić dynasty. In 1389, the Serbs faced the Ottomans at the Battle of Kosovo on the plain of Kosovo Polje, both Lazar and Sultan Murad I were killed in the fighting
Serbs
Serbs
–
The 1389
Battle of Kosovo is considered as one of the most influential events in the history of the Serbs.
Serbs
–
Serbian Army during its retreat towards Albania; more than a million Serbs died during
World War I.
Serbs
–
Serbian civilians interned in
Jasenovac concentration camp, 1942
33.
Croats
–
Croats are a nation and South Slavic ethnic group at the crossroads of Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean Sea. Croats mainly live in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, but are a recognized minority in Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia. Responding to political, social and economic pressure, many Croats have migrated throughout Europe, evidence is rather scarce for the period between the 7th and 8th centuries, CE. Archaeological evidence shows population continuity in coastal Dalmatia and Istria, in contrast, much of the Dinaric hinterland appears to have been depopulated, as virtually all hilltop settlements, from Noricum to Dardania, were abandoned in the early 7th century. Although the dating of the earliest Slavic settlements is still disputed, the origin, timing and nature of the Slavic migrations remain controversial, however, all available evidence points to the nearby Danubian and Carpathian regions. Much uncertainty revolves around the circumstances of their appearance given the scarcity of literary sources during the 7th and 8th century Dark Ages. Traditionally, scholarship has placed the arrival of the Croats in the 7th century, as such, the arrival of the Croats was seen as a second wave of Slavic migrations, which liberated Dalmatia from Avar hegemony. However, as early as the 1970s, scholars questioned the reliability of Porphyrogenitus work, rather than being an accurate historical account, De Administrando Imperio more accurately reflects the political situation during the 10th century. The major basis for this connection was the similarity between Hrvat and inscriptions from the Tanais dated to the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, mentioning the name Khoroathos. Similar arguments have been made for an alleged Gothic-Croat link and they appear to have been based around Nin and Klis, down to the Cetina and south of Liburnia. Here, concentrations of the Old Croat culture abound, marked by very wealthy warrior burials dating to the 9th century CE. Other, distinct polities also existed near the Croat duchy and these included the Guduscans, the Narentines and the Sorabi who ruled some other eastern parts of ex-Roman Dalmatia. Also prominent in the territory of future Croatia was the polity of Prince Liutevid, however, soon, the Croats became the dominant local power in northern Dalmatia, absorbing Liburnia and expanding their name by conquest and prestige. In the south, while having periods of independence, the Naretines also merged with Croats later under control of Croatian Kings, with such expansion, Croatia soon became dominant power and absorb other polities between Frankish, Bulgarian and Byzantine empire. Each vied for control of the Northwest Balkan regions, nevertheless, two independent Slavic dukedoms emerged sometime during the 9th century, the Croat Duchy and Principality of Lower Pannonia. Having been under Avar control, lower Pannonia became a march of the Carolingian Empire around 800, aided by Vojnomir in 796, the first named Slavic Duke of Pannonia, the Franks wrested control of the region from the Avars before totally destroying the Avar realm in 803. After the death of Charlemagne in 814, Frankish influence decreased on the region, the Frankish margraves sent armies in 820,821 and 822, but each time they failed to crush the rebels. Aided by Borna the Guduscan, the Franks eventually defeated Ljudevit, for much of the subsequent period, Savia was probably directly ruled by the Carinthian Duke Arnulf, the future East Frankish King and Emperor
Croats
–
Goran Ivanišević
Croats
–
The current
flag of Croatia, including the current coat of arms.
Croats
–
The Coming of the Croats to the Adriatic by
Oton Iveković.
Croats
–
Coronation of King Tomislav by
Oton Iveković.
34.
Treaty of Trianon
–
The treaty regulated the status of an independent Hungarian state and defined its borders. It left Hungary as a state covering 93,073 square kilometres. Its population was 7.6 million, only 36% of the kingdoms population of 20.9 million. The areas that were allocated to neighbouring countries in total possessed a majority of non-Hungarian population, five of the pre-war kingdoms ten largest cities were drawn into other countries. The treaty limited Hungarys army to 35,000 officers and men, the principal beneficiaries of territorial division of pre-war Kingdom of Hungary were the Kingdom of Romania, the Czechoslovak Republic, and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. One of the elements of the treaty was the doctrine of self-determination of peoples. In addition, Hungary had to pay war reparations to its neighbours, the treaty was dictated by the Allies rather than negotiated and the Hungarians had no option but to accept its terms. The Hungarian delegation signed the treaty under protest on 4 June 1920 at the Grand Trianon Palace in Versailles, the treaty was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on 24 August 1921. The modern boundaries of Hungary are the same as those defined by the Treaty of Trianon except for three villages that were transferred to Czechoslovakia in 1947, the Hungarian government terminated its union with Austria on 31 October 1918, officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian state. The de facto borders of independent Hungary were defined by the ceasefire lines in November–December 1918. On 1 December 1918, the National Assembly of Romanians in Transylvania declared union with the Kingdom of Romania, Slovakia, which became part of Czechoslovakia. That was signed on 6 December 1918, territories of Banat, Bačka and Baranja came under military control of the Kingdom of Serbia and political control of local South Slavs. The Great Peoples Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevci and other Slavs from Banat, Bačka, the ceasefire line had a character of temporary international border until the treaty. The city of Fiume was occupied by the Italian Army and its affiliation was a matter of international dispute between the Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Croatian-populated territories in modern Međimurje remained under Hungarian control after the agreement of Belgrade from 13 November 1918. After the Romanian Army advanced beyond this line, the Entente powers asked Hungary to acknowledge the new Romanian territory gains by a new line set along the Tisza river. Unable to reject these terms and unwilling to accept them, the leaders of the Hungarian Democratic Republic resigned, in spite of the country being under Allied blockade, the Hungarian Soviet Republic was formed and the Hungarian Red Army was rapidly set up. In the end, this invitation was not issued
Treaty of Trianon
–
Signing the Treaty on 4 June 1920 at the Grand Trianon Palace in
Versailles, arrival of the two signatories, Ágost Benárd and Alfréd Drasche-Lázár
Treaty of Trianon
–
The
Grand Trianon Palace at
Versailles is the site of the signing.
Treaty of Trianon
–
Linguistic map of the
Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen, i. e.
Kingdom of Hungary and
Croatia-Slavonia according to the 1880 census
Treaty of Trianon
–
Hungarian
35.
Austria-Hungary
–
The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
Austria-Hungary
–
Franz Joseph I. (1885)
Austria-Hungary
–
Civil Ensign
Austria-Hungary
–
Austrian Parliament Building
Austria-Hungary
–
Hungarian Parliament Building
36.
Croatia-Slavonia
–
It was associated with the Hungarian Kingdom within the dual Austro-Hungarian state, being within the Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen or Transleithania. The kingdom was ruled by the Habsburg Emperor-King of Austria-Hungary under his title as King of Croatia and Slavonia, the Kings appointed steward was the Ban of Croatia and Slavonia. Although it was under the suzerainty of the Crown of Saint Stephen, in 1918, the kingdom declared independence and reformed into the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. The claim was, for most of the time, supported by the Hungarian government, the union between the two primarily Croatian lands of Austria-Hungary never took place, however. The laws passed in Croatia-Slavonia used the phrase Kingdom of Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia, in Hungarian, Croatia is referred to as Horvátország and Slavonia as Szlavónia. The combined polity was known by the name of Horvát-Szlavón Királyság. The short form of the name was Horvát-Szlavónország and, less frequently Horvát-Tótország, the order of mentioning Dalmatia was a contentious issue, as it was ordered differently in the Croatian and Hungarian language versions of the 1868 Settlement. The Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia was created in 1868, when the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were joined into one single kingdom. The Croatian parliament, elected in a manner, confirmed the subordination of Croatia-Slavonia to Hungary in 1868 with signing of Hungarian-Croatian union constitution called the Nagodba. This kingdom included parts of present-day Croatia and Serbia, in the end, fifty-five per cent of the total income of Croatia-Slavonia were assigned to the Joint Treasury. The kingdom existed until 1918 when it joined the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, the new Serb-Croat-Slovene Kingdom was divided into counties between 1918 and 1922 and into oblasts between 1922 and 1929. With the formation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, most of the territory of the former Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia became a part of the Sava Banate, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 created the Dual Monarchy. Under the Compromise, Austria and Hungary each had separate parliaments that passed and maintained separate laws, each region had its own government, headed by its own prime minister. The common monarchy consisted of the emperor-king and the ministers of foreign affairs, defense. At Franz Josephs insistence, Hungary and Croatia reached the Compromise in 1868, the agreement granted the Croats autonomy over their internal affairs. The Croatian ban would now be nominated by the Hungarian prime minister, areas of common concern to Hungarians and Croats included finance, currency matters, commercial policy, the post office, and the railroad. Croatian became the language of Croatias government, and Croatian representatives discussing common affairs before the Hungarian diet were permitted to speak Croatian. A ministry of Croatian Affairs was created within the Hungarian government, although the Nagodba provided a measure of political autonomy to Croatia-Slavonia, it was subordinated politically and economically to Hungary
Croatia-Slavonia
–
Ivan Mažuranić, Ban (viceroy) of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia (in office 1873-1880)
Croatia-Slavonia
–
Flag
Croatia-Slavonia
–
Banski dvori (Ban's Court), the palace of the Ban of Croatia, in
Zagreb.
Croatia-Slavonia
–
The Coat of Arms of Croatia-Slavonia on the building of the
Croatian Parliament
37.
Upper Hungary
–
Upper Hungary is the usual English translation of Felvidék, the Hungarian term for the area that was historically the northern part of the Kingdom of Hungary, now mostly present-day Slovakia. The region has also been called Felső-Magyarország, during the Ottoman wars, Upper Hungary meant only the northeastern parts of the Hungarian Kingdom. The northwestern regions belonged to Lower Hungary, sometime during the 18th or 19th centuries, Upper Hungary began to imply the whole northern regions of the kingdom. The population of Upper Hungary was mixed and mainly consisted of Slovaks, the first complex demographic data are from the 18th century, in which Slovaks constituted the majority population in Upper Hungary. Historically there are different meanings,1, at the same time, the word felvidék remains a common Hungarian noun applied to areas at higher elevations, e. g. Balaton-felvidék, a hilly region and national park adjacent to Lake Balaton. After World War I, the meaning of Felvidék in the Hungarian language was restricted to Slovakia, the three counties of the region that remained in Hungary after World War I, however, are never called Upper Hungary today, only Northern Hungary. Some of them call themselves felvidéki magyarok, i. e. the Upland Hungarians, the word felvidék is also used as a component of the toponym Balaton-felvidék, describing the hilly area north of Lake Balaton, with no connection to the historical Upper Hungary. The term Upper Hungary often occurs in publications on history as a somewhat anachronistic translation of other, earlier designations denoting approximately the same territory and these other terms were, for example, Partes Danubii septentrionales or Partes regni superiores. The actual name Upper Hungary arose later from the latter phrase. In the 15th century, the Šamorín, Trnava, Hlohovec, Nitra, Levice, Lučenec, Rimavská Sobota, Rožňava, Jasov, Košice, Sečovce, Michalovce line was the northern boundary of the Hungarian ethnic area. The Principality of Nitra emerged in the 8th century and developed into an independent Slavic state, in the early 9th century, the polity was situated on the north-western territories of present-day Slovakia. That territory formed a military district within Royal Hungary. At that time, present-day western Slovakia, and sometimes also the territories of Royal Hungary to the south of it, were called Lower Hungary. It was briefly a separate state of the Ottoman Empire under Imre Thököly in the 1680s. Although not strictly defined, the name Felvidék became commonplace to the point that at least one publication concerning the area used it as its title, other nations used the terms Upper Hungary, Slovakia, and Ruthenia in parallel. The Slovaks themselves called the territories of the Kingdom of Hungary to the south of Slovakia Dolná zem, in the course of the creation of Czechoslovakia at the end of World War I, Czechoslovakia originally demanded that all of the so-called Upper Hungary be added to Czechoslovak territory. The claim for its acquisition, however, was not based on the area having a single common name, Upper Hungary. In 1720 of the 63 largest towns on the territory of present-day Slovakia with at least 100 taxpaying households 40 had Slovak majority,14 German and 9 Hungarian majority, the first ethnic data of whole Hungarian Kingdom by county was published in 1842
Upper Hungary
–
"
Cassovia: Superioris Hungariae Civitas Primaria", the prospect from
Civitates orbis terrarum. Cassovia (Slovak: Košice, German: Kaschau, Hungarian: Kassa), the "capital" of Upper Hungary in 1617.
38.
Slovakia
–
Slovakia, officially the Slovak Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Austria to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Slovakias territory spans about 49,000 square kilometres and is mostly mountainous. The population is over 5 million and comprises mostly ethnic Slovaks, the capital and largest city is Bratislava. The Slavs arrived in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th and 6th centuries, in the 7th century, they played a significant role in the creation of Samos Empire and in the 9th century established the Principality of Nitra. In the 10th century, the territory was integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary, which became part of the Habsburg Empire. After World War I and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a separate Slovak Republic existed in World War II as a client state of Nazi Germany. In 1945, Czechoslovakia was reëstablished under Communist rule as a Soviet satellite, in 1989 the Velvet Revolution ended authoritarian Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Slovakia became an independent state on 1 January 1993 after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. The country maintains a combination of economy with universal health care. The country joined the European Union in 2004 and the Eurozone on 1 January 2009, Slovakia is also a member of the Schengen Area, NATO, the United Nations, the OECD, the WTO, CERN, the OSCE, the Council of Europe and the Visegrád Group. The Slovak economy is one of the fastest growing economies in Europe and its legal tender, the Euro, is the worlds 2nd most traded currency. Although regional income inequality is high, 90% of citizens own their homes, in 2016, Slovak citizens had visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 165 countries and territories, ranking the Slovak passport 11th in the world. Slovakia is the world’s biggest per-capita car producer with a total of 1,040,000 cars manufactured in the country in 2016 alone, the car industry represents 43 percent of Slovakia’s industrial output, and a quarter of its exports. Radiocarbon datingputs the oldest surviving archaeological artefacts from Slovakia – found near Nové Mesto nad Váhom – at 270,000 BC and these ancient tools, made by the Clactonian technique, bear witness to the ancient habitation of Slovakia. Other stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic era come from the Prévôt cave near Bojnice, the most important discovery from that era is a Neanderthal cranium, discovered near Gánovce, a village in northern Slovakia. The most well-known finds include the oldest female statue made of mammoth-bone, the statue was found in the 1940s in Moravany nad Váhom near Piešťany. Numerous necklaces made of shells from Cypraca thermophile gastropods of the Tertiary period have come from the sites of Zákovská, Podkovice, Hubina and these findings provide the most ancient evidence of commercial exchanges carried out between the Mediterranean and Central Europe. The Bronze Age in the territory of modern-day Slovakia went through three stages of development, stretching from 2000 to 800 BC
Slovakia
–
A
Venus from
Moravany nad Váhom, which dates back to 22,800 BC.
Slovakia
–
Flag
Slovakia
–
Left: A
Celtic Biatec coin Right: Five
Slovak crowns
Slovakia
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A Roman inscription at the castle hill of
Trenčín (178–179 AD).
39.
Transylvania
–
Transylvania is a historical region located in what is today the central part of Romania. Bound on the east and south by its borders, the Carpathian mountain range. The term sometimes encompasses not only Transylvania proper, but also the regions of Crișana, Maramureș. The region of Transylvania is known for the beauty of its Carpathian landscape. It also contains major cities such as Cluj-Napoca, Brașov, Sibiu, in the English-speaking world it has been commonly associated with vampires, due to the influence of Bram Stokers famous novel Dracula and its many film adaptations. Transylvania was first referred to in a Medieval Latin document in 1075 as ultra silvam, Transylvania, with an alternative Latin prepositional prefix, means on the other side of the woods. Hungarian historians claim that the Medieval Latin form Ultrasylvania, later Transylvania, was a translation from the Hungarian form Erdő-elve. That also was used as an name in German überwald. The German name Siebenbürgen means seven fortresses, after the seven Transylvanian Saxons cities in the region and this is also the origin of the regions name in many other languages, such as the Bulgarian Седмиградско, Polish Siedmiogród and the Ukrainian Семигород. The Hungarian form Erdély was first mentioned in the 12th-century Gesta Hungarorum as Erdeuleu or Erdő-elve, the word Erdő means forest in Hungarian, and the word Elve denotes a region in connection with this, similarly to the Hungarian name for Muntenia. Erdel, Erdil, Erdehstan, the Turkish equivalents, or the Romanian Ardeal were borrowed from this form as well, the first known written occurrence of the Romanian name Ardeal appeared in a document in 1432 as Ardeliu. Transylvania has been dominated by different peoples and countries throughout its history. It was once the nucleus of the Kingdom of Dacia, in 106 AD the Roman Empire conquered the territory, systematically exploiting its resources. After the Roman legions withdrew in 271 AD, it was overrun by a succession of tribes, bringing it under the control of the Carpi, Visigoths, Huns, Gepids, Avars. From 9th to 11th century Bulgarians ruled Transylvania, there is an ongoing scholarly debate over the ethnicity of Transylvanias population before the Hungarian conquest. The Magyars conquered much of Central Europe at the end of the 9th century, according to Gesta Hungarorum, Transylvania was ruled by the Vlach voivode Gelou before the Hungarians arrived. The Kingdom of Hungary established a control over Transylvania in 1003. Between 1003 and 1526, Transylvania was a voivodeship in the Kingdom of Hungary, after the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Transylvania became part of the Kingdom of János Szapolyai
Transylvania
–
Apuseni Mountains near
Arieșeni,
Alba County
Transylvania
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Romanian Orthodox wooden church in Geogel, Alba County
Transylvania
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Sirnea in
Brașov County
Transylvania
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Saxon fortified church of
Biertan, part of
a UNESCO World Heritage Site
40.
Romania
–
Romania is a sovereign state located in Southeastern Europe. It borders the Black Sea, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia and it has an area of 238,391 square kilometres and a temperate-continental climate. With over 19 million inhabitants, the country is the member state of the European Union. Its capital and largest city, Bucharest, is the sixth-largest city in the EU, the River Danube, Europes second-longest river, rises in Germany and flows in a general southeast direction for 2,857 km, coursing through ten countries before emptying into Romanias Danube Delta. The Carpathian Mountains, which cross Romania from the north to the southwest are marked by one of their tallest peaks, Moldoveanu, modern Romania was formed in 1859 through a personal union of the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877, at the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the sovereign Kingdom of Romania. Romania lost several territories, of which Northern Transylvania was regained after the war, following the war, Romania became a socialist republic and member of the Warsaw Pact. After the 1989 Revolution, Romania began a transition towards democracy and it has been a member of NATO since 2004, and part of the European Union since 2007. A strong majority of the population identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox Christians and are speakers of Romanian. The cultural history of Romania is often referred to when dealing with artists, musicians, inventors. For similar reasons, Romania has been the subject of notable tourist attractions, Romania derives from the Latin romanus, meaning citizen of Rome. The first known use of the appellation was attested in the 16th century by Italian humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia, after the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the word rumân gradually fell out of use and the spelling stabilised to the form român. Tudor Vladimirescu, a leader of the early 19th century. The use of the name Romania to refer to the homeland of all Romanians—its modern-day meaning—was first documented in the early 19th century. The name has been officially in use since 11 December 1861, in English, the name of the country was formerly spelt Rumania or Roumania. Romania became the predominant spelling around 1975, Romania is also the official English-language spelling used by the Romanian government. The Neolithic-Age Cucuteni area in northeastern Romania was the region of the earliest European civilization. Evidence from this and other sites indicates that the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture extracted salt from salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage
Romania
–
Neacșu's letter from 1521, the oldest surviving document written in
Romanian.
Romania
–
Flag
Romania
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Writ issued on 14 October 1465 by
Radu cel Frumos, from his residence in
Bucharest, indicating
Ottoman victory.
Romania
–
A 1917 British map showing territories with majority Romanian populations.
41.
Vojvodina
–
Vojvodina, officially the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, is an autonomous province of Serbia, located in the northern part of the country, in the Pannonian Plain. Novi Sad is the largest city and administrative center of Vojvodina, Vojvodina has a population of almost 2 million. It has a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural identity, there are some 26 ethnic groups in the province, the term vojvodina in Serbian means a type of duchy – more specifically, a voivodeship. It derives from the word vojvoda which stems from the Proto-Slavic language word voevoda and those words are etymologically connected with modern-day words vojnik and voditi. Its original name was the Serbian Voivodeship which then became Voivodeship of Serbia, Indo-European peoples first settled in the territory of present-day Vojvodina in 4200 BC. Before the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC, Indo-European peoples of Illyrian, Thracian, the first states organized in this area were the Celtic State of the Scordisci with capital in Singidunum, and the Dacian Kingdom of Burebista. During Roman rule, Sirmium was one of the four cities of the Roman Empire. The city was also the capital of several Roman administrative units, including Pannonia Inferior, Pannonia Secunda, the Diocese of Pannonia, Roman rule lasted until the 5th century, after which the region came into the possession of various peoples and states. While Banat was a part of the Roman province of Dacia, Syrmia belonged to the Roman province of Pannonia, Bačka was not part of the Roman Empire and was populated and ruled by Sarmatian Iazyges. After the Romans were driven away from this region, various Indo-European and these peoples included Goths, Sarmatians, Huns, Gepids and Avars. For regional history, the largest in importance was a Gepid state, according to the 7th-century Miracles of Saint Demetrius, Avars gave the region of Syrmia to a Bulgar leader named Kuber circa 680. The Bulgars of Kuber moved south with Maurus to Macedonia where they co-operated with Tervel in the 8th century, Slavs settled todays Vojvodina in the 6th and 7th centuries, before some of them crossed the rivers Sava and Danube and settled in the Balkans. Slavic tribes that lived in the territory of present-day Vojvodina included Abodrites, Severans, Braničevci, in the 9th century, after the fall of the Avar state, the first forms of Slavic statehood emerged in this area. The first Slavic states that ruled over this region included the Bulgarian Empire, Great Moravia, during the Bulgarian administration, local Bulgarian dukes, Salan and Glad, ruled over the region. Salans residence was Titel, while that of Glad was possibly in the rampart of Galad or perhaps in the Kladovo in eastern Serbia. Glads descendant was the duke Ahtum, another ruler from the 11th century who opposed the establishment of Hungarian rule over the region. In the village of Čelarevo archaeologists have found traces of people who practised the Judaic religion. Bunardžić dated Avar-Bulgar graves excavated in Čelarevo, containing skulls with Mongolian features and Judaic symbols, erdely and Vilkhnovich consider the graves to belong to the Kabars who eventually broke ties with the Khazar Empire between the 830s and 862
Vojvodina
–
Novi Sad, the capital city of Vojvodina
Vojvodina
–
Flag
Vojvodina
–
Ruins of
Arača church
Vojvodina
–
Bač Fortress
42.
Serbia
–
Serbia, officially the Republic of Serbia, is a sovereign state situated at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. Relative to its territory, it is a diverse country distinguished by a transitional character, situated along cultural, geographic, climatic. Serbia numbers around 7 million residents, and its capital, Belgrade, following the Slavic migrations to the Balkans from the 6th century onwards, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and the Byzantine Empire in 1217, in the early 19th century, the Serbian Revolution established the nation-state as the regions first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro which dissolved peacefully in 2006, in 2008 the parliament of the province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence, with mixed responses from the international community. Serbia is a member of organizations such as the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC. An EU membership candidate since 2012, Serbia has been negotiating its EU accession since January 2014, the country is acceding to the WTO and is a militarily neutral state. Serbia is an income economy with dominant service sector, followed by the industrial sector. The country ranks high on the Social Progress Index as well as the Global Peace Index, relatively high on the Human Development Index, located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km2, which places it at 113th place in the world, with Kosovo excluded, the area is 77,474 km2. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km, all of Kosovos border with Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are under control of the Kosovo border police. The Pannonian Plain covers the third of the country while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of the part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart. Mountains dominate the third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest, following the flow of the rivers Drina, the Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in a north–south direction in eastern Serbia. Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to the Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system, elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 metres to the lowest point of just 17 metres near the Danube river at Prahovo. The largest lake is Đerdap Lake and the longest river passing through Serbia is the Danube, the climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea
Serbia
–
Clay figure from
Vinča culture, 4000–4500 BC, British Museum
Serbia
–
Flag
Serbia
–
Felix Romuliana,
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Serbia
–
Temnić inscription, is one of the oldest records of
Old Church Slavonic Cyrillic script from the territory of Serbia.
43.
Zakarpattia Oblast
–
The Zakarpattia Oblast is an administrative oblast located in southwestern Ukraine, coterminous with the historical region of Carpathian Ruthenia. Its administrative centre is the city of Uzhhorod, other major cities within the oblast include Mukachevo, Khust, Berehove and Chop which is home to railroad transport infrastructure. Some scholars say that during the Ukrainian independence referendum held in 1991, although a large majority favoured autonomy, it was not granted. However, this referendum was about self-government status, not about autonomy, situated in the Carpathian Mountains of western Ukraine, Zakarpattia Oblast is the only Ukrainian administrative division which borders upon four countries, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary and Romania. The Carpathian Mountains play a part in the oblasts economy, making the region an important tourist and travel destination housing many ski. With its almost 13,000 square kilometres, the oblast is ranked 23rd by area and 15th by population as according to the 2001 Ukrainian Census, the oblast is also referred to as the Transcarpathian Oblast, Transcarpathia, Zakarpattya, or historically as Subcarpathian Rus. In other languages the oblast is named, Rusyn, Подкарпатьска област, the Zakarpattia Oblast has a total area of 12,800 km2 and is located on southwestern slopes and foothills of the Carpathian Mountains covering around 80% of area in the region. The rest of the region is covered by the Transcarpathian Lowland which is part of the Pannonian plain, Zakarpattia is the only Ukrainian oblast to have boundaries with four countries, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary and Romania. The Zakarpattia Oblast mostly consists of mountains and small hills covered with deciduous and coniferous forests, Mountains cover about 80% of the oblasts area, and cross from North-East to South-East. The Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians, part of which are located within Zakarpattia Oblast, were recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007, the largest rivers that flow through the oblast include the Tysa, Borzhava, and the Tereblia. A high altitude lake is located in Rakhiv Raion, which is the highest in the region, the lake is located in the Hoverla preserve on the slopes of Turkul mountain. The lakes area is 3,000 square metres and it is located 1,750 metres above sea level, the regions climate is moderate and continental with about 700–1,000 mm of rainfall per year. The average temperature in summer is +21 °С and −4 °С in winter, with an elevation of 2,061 metres above sea level, Hoverla, part of the Chornohora mountain range, is the highest point in the oblast. The lowest point,101 m above sea level, is located in the village of Ruski Heyevtsi in the Uzhhorodskyi Raion, the lands of Transcarpathia were part of the Kingdom of Hungary since 896. As such, it formed part of Austria-Hungary until the latters demise at the end of World War I and it approximately consists of four Hungarian counties, Bereg, Ung, Ugocsa and Maramaros. This region was part of the short-lived West Ukrainian National Republic in 1918. The region was annexed by Romania by the end of year, mostly the eastern portion such as Rakhiv. It was later recaptured by Hungarian Soviet Republic in the summer of 1919. S, zatkovich was appointed governor by Czechoslovakias first president, T. G. Masaryk in 1920, and served for about one year until he resigned over differences regarding the regions autonomy
Zakarpattia Oblast
–
The forest-covered
mountainous landscape within the oblast.
Zakarpattia Oblast
Zakarpattia Oblast
–
Carpathian highlanders
Zakarpattia Oblast
–
The building of the Zakarpattia Oblast Council in
Uzhhorod.
44.
Ukraine
–
Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
Ukraine
–
Gold
Scythian pectoral, or neckpiece, from a royal
kurgan in
Ordzhonikidze, dated to the 4th century BC
Ukraine
–
Flag
Ukraine
–
Principalities of
Kievan Rus', 1054-1132
Ukraine
–
The baptism of the Grand Prince Vladimir led to the adoption of Christianity in
Kievan Rus'.
45.
Croatia
–
Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a sovereign state between Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean. Its capital city is Zagreb, which one of the countrys primary subdivisions. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres and has diverse, mostly continental, Croatias Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The countrys population is 4.28 million, most of whom are Croats, the Croats arrived in the area of present-day Croatia during the early part of the 7th century AD. They organised the state into two duchies by the 9th century, tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which seceded from Austria-Hungary, a fascist Croatian puppet state backed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany existed during World War II. After the war, Croatia became a member and a federal constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991 Croatia declared independence, which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year, the Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration. A unitary state, Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system, the International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high-income economy. Croatia is a member of the European Union, United Nations, the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the service sector dominates Croatias economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer, with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world, the state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government expenditure. The European Union is Croatias most important trading partner, since 2000, the Croatian government constantly invests in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia, the rest is imported, the origin of the name is uncertain, but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo-Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe. The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym *xъrvatъ is of variable stem, the first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir from the year 852. The original is lost, and just a 1568 copy is preserved—leading to doubts over the authenticity of the claim, the oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th-century Branimir Inscription, where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm. The inscription is not believed to be dated accurately, but is likely to be from during the period of 879–892, the area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period
Croatia
–
Branimir Inscription
Croatia
–
Flag
Croatia
–
Tanais Tablet B, name Khoroáthos highlighted
Croatia
–
The
walls of Dubrovnik helped to defend the city since
Middle Ages until the
1991–1992 siege.
46.
Prekmurje
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It maintains certain specific linguistic, cultural and religious features that differentiate it from other Slovenian traditional regions. It is named after the Mur river, which separates it from the rest of Slovenia, in Hungarian, the region is known as Muravidék, and in German as Übermurgebiet. The name Prekmurje was introduced in the century, although it is derived from an older term. Before 1919, the Slovenian-inhabited lands of the Vas County in the Kingdom of Hungary and Austria-Hungary were known under the name Slovene March or Vendic March, the part of modern Prekmurje that belonged to the Zala County was not considered to be part of the Slovenian March. After 1919, this name was rediscovered and introduced again, now for administrative purposes, by the new Yugoslav administration. It however did not gain popularity among the locals, the name Slovenian March was still used by the local inhabitants till the mid 1920s. The current Hungarian name for Prekmurje, Muravidék, dates from the period and is a translation of the Slovenian Murska krajina. From the mid 1930s onward, Prekmurje became widely used in the press, after World War II, this name replaced all previous denominations. North-east of Lendava, there is a small hilly sub-region, known as Lendava Hills, the administrative and commercial centre of the region is the town of Murska Sobota. The only other town is Lendava. Other larger rural centres are Dobrovnik, Turnišče, Beltinci, the majority of the inhabitants of the region are ethnic Slovenes. There are also a sizable Hungarian and Romani minorities in the region, in 1921, the total population of the area numbered 92,295 people, including 74,199 Slovene speakers,14,065 speakers of Hungarian, and 2,540 German speakers. Since then, the number of Hungarian speakers has been falling slowly but steadily, the German-speaking community, which used to be concentrated in three villages near the Austrian border and in Murska Sobota, was either expelled from the area or assimilated after World War II. Since the early 1950s, Hungarian has had co-official status in the areas of settlement of the Hungarian minority. Three municipalities are completely bilingual, while two are only partially, two municipalities, Hodoš and Dobrovnik, have a Hungarian majority. Prekmurje has traditionally been the most heterogeneous Slovene region regarding religious affiliation, besides a Roman Catholic majority, there is a significant Protestant minority, concentrated in the Goričko hills, which represents between one fourth and one fifth of the population of Prekmurje. Three municipalities have a Lutheran majority, while in Moravske Toplice, before World War II, there used to be a significant Jewish community, as well, mostly concentrated in the towns of Murska Sobota and Lendava. In the 1930s, two thirds of all Slovenian Jews lived in Prekmurje, most of them perished in the holocaust
Prekmurje
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The Lendava Hills (
Lendavske Gorice) in winter
Prekmurje
Prekmurje
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A traditional house in Prekmurje.
Prekmurje
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Mikloš Küzmič ′s Catechism in the Prekmurje dialect from 1804
47.
Slovenia
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Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia, is a nation state in southern Central Europe, located at the crossroads of main European cultural and trade routes. It is bordered by Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Croatia to the south and southeast, and it covers 20,273 square kilometers and has a population of 2.06 million. It is a republic and a member of the United Nations, European Union. The capital and largest city is Ljubljana, additionally, the Dinaric Alps and the Pannonian Plain meet on the territory of Slovenia. The country, marked by a significant biological diversity, is one of the most water-rich in Europe, with a river network, a rich aquifer system. Over half of the territory is covered by forest, the human settlement of Slovenia is dispersed and uneven. Slovenia has historically been the crossroads of South Slavic, Germanic, Romance, although the population is not homogeneous, the majority is Slovene. Slovene is the language throughout the country. Slovenia is a largely secularized country, but its culture and identity have been influenced by Catholicism as well as Lutheranism. The economy of Slovenia is small, open, and export-oriented and has strongly influenced by international conditions. It has been hurt by the Eurozone crisis, started in the late 2000s. The main economic field is services, followed by industry and construction, Historically, the current territory of Slovenia was part of many different state formations, including the Roman Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, followed by the Habsburg Monarchy. In October 1918, the Slovenes exercised self-determination for the first time by co-founding the State of Slovenes, Croats, in December 1918, they merged with the Kingdom of Serbia into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. During World War II, Slovenia was occupied and annexed by Germany, Italy, and Hungary, with a tiny area transferred to the Independent State of Croatia, in June 1991, after the introduction of multi-party representative democracy, Slovenia split from Yugoslavia and became an independent country. Present-day Slovenia has been inhabited since prehistoric times, and there is evidence of habitation from around 250,000 years ago. A pierced cave bear bone, dating from 43100 ±700 BP, in the 1920s and 1930s, artifacts belonging to the Cro-Magnon such as pierced bones, bone points, and needle were found by archaeologist Srečko Brodar in Potok Cave. It shows that wooden wheels appeared almost simultaneously in Mesopotamia and Europe, in the transition period between the Bronze age to the Iron age, the Urnfield culture flourished. Archaeological remains dating from the Hallstatt period have been found, particularly in southeastern Slovenia, among them a number of situlas in Novo Mesto, in the Iron Age, present-day Slovenia was inhabited by Illyrian and Celtic tribes until the 1st century BC
Slovenia
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A
pierced cave bear bone, possibly
flute, from
Divje Babe
Slovenia
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Flag
Slovenia
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Roman
Emona 's south wall (reconstruction) in present-day Ljubljana
Slovenia
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Prince's Stone, symbol of
duchy of Carantania
48.
Burgenland
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Burgenland is the easternmost and least populous state of Austria. It consists of two cities and seven rural districts, with in total 171 municipalities. It is 166 km long north to south but much narrower from west to east. The region is part of the Centrope Project, Burgenland is the seventh largest of Austrias nine states, or Bundesländer, at 3,962 km2. The highest point in the province is Geschriebenstein, at 884 metres above sea level, Burgenland borders the Austrian state of Styria to the southwest, and the state of Lower Austria to the northwest. To the east it borders Hungary, in the extreme north and south there are short borders with Slovakia and Slovenia respectively. Burgenland and Hungary share the Neusiedler See, a known for its reeds and shallowness. The Neusiedler See is Austrias largest lake, and is a great tourist attraction, bringing ornithologists, sailors, Burgenlands state assembly has 36 seats. The provincial government is a coalition of the SPÖ and the FPÖ, the voting age for regional elections in Burgenland was reduced to 16 in 2003. Burgenland consists of nine districts, two cities and seven rural districts. From north to south, These combine the attributes of district, Burgenland is the only Austrian state which has never been part of the Archduchy of Austria, Holy Roman Empire, German Confederation nor Austria-Hungarys Cisleithania. The first Indo-European peoples appeared in this region around 3300 BC, from the 4th century BC, the area was dominated by Celts and in the 1st century AD it became part of the Roman Empire. During Roman administration, it was part of the province of Pannonia, during the late Roman Empire, Pannonia Prima province was part of larger administrative units, such are Diocese of Pannonia, Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum and Praetorian prefecture of Italy. The first Germanic people to settle in this region were the Ostrogoths, the Ostrogoths became allies of Rome and were allowed to settle in Pannonia, being tasked to defend the Roman borders. In the 5th century, the area was conquered by the Huns, but after their defeat, in the 6th century, the territory was included in another Germanic state, the Kingdom of the Lombards. However, the Lombards subsequently left towards Italy and the area came under the control of the Avars, briefly in the 7th century, the area was part of the Slavic State of Samo, but was subsequently returned to Avar control. After the Avar defeat at the end of the 8th century, after the Battle of Lechfeld in 955, new Germanic settlers came to the area. On 20 September 1058 Agnes of Poitou and Andrew I of Hungary, whose son married a daughter of Agnes of Poitou
Burgenland
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Habsburg mortgages in Burgenland between 15th and 17th centuries
Burgenland
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Flag
Burgenland
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Austria 25 Schilling 1961 Silver Coin: 40 years Burgenland in Austria. It shows the Haydnkirche in the capital Eisenstadt
Burgenland
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A memorial to soldiers who died in the two World Wars.
Krensdorf in Burgenland.
49.
Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
Austria
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First appearance of the word "ostarrichi", circled in red. Modern Austria honours this document, dated 996, as the founding of the nation.
Austria
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Flag
Austria
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Venus of Willendorf, 28,000 to 25,000 BC.
Museum of Natural History Vienna
Austria
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"Heidentor" – Remains of the
Roman military city of
Carnuntum
50.
Carpathian Ruthenia
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Before World War I most of this region was part of the Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary. In the interwar period, it was part of the First, during World War II, the region was annexed by the Kingdom of Hungary once again. After the war, it part of Soviet Ukraine. It is a diverse region, inhabited by Ukrainian, Rusyn, Lemko, Hungarian, Slovak. It also has small Hutsul, Jewish, Romani, Szekler, the nomenclature of the region depends on nationality, language/dialect, geographical perspective and political point of view. The name Carpathian Ruthenia is sometimes used for a contiguous area of Ukraine, Slovakia. Most Rusyns, however, use the term Zakarpattia, under suppression of Ukraine some Ruthenians and Hungarians identified themselves as Ukrainians. Carpathian Ruthenia is usually known as Transcarpathia, during the period in which the region was administered by the Hungarian states it was officially referred to in Hungarian as Subcarpathia or North-Eastern Upper Hungary. The Romanian name of the region is Maramureş, Romania includes the southern Maramureş region, on the south bank of the Tisa river. The name of the mountains themselves is Carpații Păduroși which means Wooden Carpathians, the main city of the Romanian Maramureş region is Sighetu Marmației. In 1945, most of the region was annexed by Soviet Union, the region has subsequently been referred to as Zakarpattia or Transcarpathia, and on occasions as Carpathian Rus’, Transcarpathian Rus’, Subcarpathian Rus’. Uzhhorod Mukachevo Khust Berehovo Vynohradiv Chop Svaliava Rakhiv Tiachiv Irshava Slavic tribes began to migrate from their Transcarpathia homeland in the 4th century, in 896 the Hungarians crossed the Carpathian Range and migrated into the Pannonian Basin. Anonymus chronicle and Nestor chronicle wrote that Hungarian tribes had to fight against local Slavs, prince Laborec fell from power under the efforts of the Hungarians and the Kievan forces, many of these forces remained behind and were assimilated by the White Croats. As the Hungarians established the borders of Kingdom of Hungary along the Carpathian Mountains, local Slavic nobility often intermarried with the Hungarian nobles to the south. Prince Rostislav, a Ruthenian noble unable to continue his familys rule of Kiev, governed a great deal of Transcarpathia from 1243 to 1261 for his father-in-law, Béla IV of Hungary. Later, the county system was expanded to whole Transcarpathia. From 1280 to 1320, north-western part of Carpathian Ruthenia was part of the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, from 1526, the region was divided between Habsburg Monarchy and Eastern Hungarian Kingdom. Beginning in 1570, the region was divided between the Habsburg Monarchy and vassal Ottoman Principality of Transylvania, part of Transcarpathia under Habsburg administration was included into the Captaincy of Upper Hungary, which was one of the administrative units of the Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary
Carpathian Ruthenia
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Carpatho-Rusyn sub-groups -
Prešov area Lemkos (left side) and
Przemyśl area
Rusyns in stylised traditional folk-costumes. Photo: Village Mokre near
Sanok. 2007
Carpathian Ruthenia
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Flag of Carpathian Ruthenia
Carpathian Ruthenia
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A road to Yasinya from a ski centre
Carpathian Ruthenia
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View from Kamianka-Buzka-Skole-Volovets railroad
52,088
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73,555
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