1.
Dibutyl phthalate
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Dibutyl phthalate is a commonly used plasticizer. It is also used as an additive to adhesives or printing inks and it is soluble in various organic solvents, e. g. in alcohol, ether and benzene. DBP is also used as an ectoparasiticide, DBP is also a putative endocrine disruptor The use of this substance in cosmetics, including nail polishes, is banned in the European Union under Directive 76/768/EEC1976. The use of DBP has been restricted in the European Union for use in childrens toys since 1999, an EU Risk Assessment has been conducted on DBP and the final outcome has now been published in the EU Official Journal. DBP was added to the California Proposition 65 list of suspected teratogens in November 2006 and it is a suspected endocrine disruptor. It was used in nail polishes, all major producers began eliminating this chemical from nail polishes in the Fall of 2006. DBP was permanently banned in childrens toys, in concentrations of 1000 ppm or greater, under section 108 of the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008, DBP is produced by the reaction of n-butanol with phthalic anhydride. It is or was produced in the United States by Eastman Chemical Company, the white rot fungus Polyporus brumalis degrades DBP
2.
Xylene
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Xylene, xylol or dimethylbenzene is any one of three isomers of dimethylbenzene, or a combination thereof. With the formula 2C6H4, each of the three compounds has a benzene ring with two methyl groups attached at substituents. They are all colorless, flammable liquids, some of which are of great industrial value, the mixture is referred to as both xylene and, more precisely, xylenes. Xylenes are an important petrochemical produced by reforming and also by coal carbonisation in the manufacture of coke fuel. They also occur in oil in concentrations of about 0. 5–1%. Small quantities occur in gasoline and aircraft fuels, xylenes are produced mainly as part of the BTX aromatics extracted from the product of catalytic reforming known as reformate. The xylene mixture is a greasy, colorless liquid commonly encountered as a solvent. Several million tons are produced annually, in 2011, a global consortium began construction of one of the world’s largest xylene plants in Singapore. Xylene was first isolated and named in 1850 by the French chemist Auguste Cahours, Xylene exists in three isomeric forms. The isomers can be distinguished by the designations ortho-, meta-, and para-, of the three isomers, the p-isomer is the most industrially sought after since it can be oxidized to terephthalic acid. Xylenes are produced by the methylation of toluene and benzene, commercial or laboratory grade xylene produced usually contains about 40-65% of m-xylene and up to 20% each of o-xylene, p-xylene and ethylbenzene. The ratio of isomers can be shifted to favor the highly valued p-xylene via the patented UOP-Isomar process or by transalkylation of xylene with itself or trimethylbenzene and these conversions are catalyzed by zeolites. The chemical and physical properties of xylene differ according to the respective isomers, the melting point ranges from −47.87 °C to 13.26 °C. The boiling point for each isomer is around 140 °C, the density of each isomer is around 0.87 g/mL and thus is less dense than water. Xylene in air can be smelled at concentrations as low as 0.08 to 3.7 ppm, xylenes form azeotropes with water and a variety of alcohols. With water the azeotrope consists of 60% xylenes and boils at 94.5 °C, as with many alkylbenzene compounds, xylenes form complexes with various halocarbons. The complexes of different isomers often have different properties from each other. P-Xylene is the precursor to terephthalic acid and dimethyl terephthalate
3.
Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers
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SMPTE Membership is open to any individual or organization with interest in the subject matter. SMPTE standards documents are copyrighted and may be purchased from the SMPTE website, standard documents may be purchased by the general public. Significant standards promulgated by SMPTE include, All film and television formats and media. The society sponsors many awards, the oldest of which are the SMPTE Progress Medal, the Samuel Warner Memorial Medal, SMPTE also has a number of student Chapters and sponsors scholarships for college students in the motion imaging disciplines. A group within the standards committees has begun to work on the definition of the SMPTE 3D Home Master. SMPTE, instituted in 1999, a committee for the foundations of Digital Cinema. The SMPTE presents awards to individuals for outstanding contributions in fields of the society, James Cameron Edwin Catmull Birney Dayton Clyde D. Smith Roderick Snell Dr. Kees Immink Stanley N. Baron William C. Miller Bernard J. Lechner Ray Dolby Harold E. Edgerton Vladimir K. Zworykin John G. Frayne Walt Disney Chuck Pagano James M. DeFilippis Bernard J. Lechner Stanley N. Baron William F. Schreiber Adrian Ettlinger Joseph A. Flaherty, goldmark W. R. G. Baker Albert Rose Charles Ginsburg Robert E. Shelby Arthur V. Loughren Otto H. Recent recipients are Andrew Laszlo James MacKay Dr. Roderick T. Swartz
4.
Software release life cycle
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Usage of the alpha/beta test terminology originated at IBM. As long ago as the 1950s, IBM used similar terminology for their hardware development, a test was the verification of a new product before public announcement. B test was the verification before releasing the product to be manufactured, C test was the final test before general availability of the product. Martin Belsky, a manager on some of IBMs earlier software projects claimed to have invented the terminology, IBM dropped the alpha/beta terminology during the 1960s, but by then it had received fairly wide notice. The usage of beta test to refer to testing done by customers was not done in IBM, rather, IBM used the term field test. Pre-alpha refers to all activities performed during the project before formal testing. These activities can include requirements analysis, software design, software development, in typical open source development, there are several types of pre-alpha versions. Milestone versions include specific sets of functions and are released as soon as the functionality is complete, the alpha phase of the release life cycle is the first phase to begin software testing. In this phase, developers generally test the software using white-box techniques, additional validation is then performed using black-box or gray-box techniques, by another testing team. Moving to black-box testing inside the organization is known as alpha release, alpha software can be unstable and could cause crashes or data loss. Alpha software may not contain all of the features that are planned for the final version, in general, external availability of alpha software is uncommon in proprietary software, while open source software often has publicly available alpha versions. The alpha phase usually ends with a freeze, indicating that no more features will be added to the software. At this time, the software is said to be feature complete, Beta, named after the second letter of the Greek alphabet, is the software development phase following alpha. Software in the stage is also known as betaware. Beta phase generally begins when the software is complete but likely to contain a number of known or unknown bugs. Software in the phase will generally have many more bugs in it than completed software, as well as speed/performance issues. The focus of beta testing is reducing impacts to users, often incorporating usability testing, the process of delivering a beta version to the users is called beta release and this is typically the first time that the software is available outside of the organization that developed it. Beta version software is useful for demonstrations and previews within an organization
5.
International standard
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International standards are standards developed by international standards organizations. International standards are available for consideration and use worldwide, the most prominent organization is the International Organization for Standardization. International standards may be used either by application or by a process of modifying an international standard to suit local conditions. Technical barriers arise when different groups together, each with a large user base. Establishing international standards is one way of preventing or overcoming this problem, the implementation of standards in industry and commerce became highly important with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the need for high-precision machine tools and interchangeable parts. Henry Maudslay developed the first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe in 1800, maudslays work, as well as the contributions of other engineers, accomplished a modest amount of industry standardization, some companies in-house standards spread a bit within their industries. Joseph Whitworths screw thread measurements were adopted as the first national standard by companies around the country in 1841 and it came to be known as the British Standard Whitworth, and was widely adopted in other countries. By the end of the 19th century differences in standards between companies were making trade increasingly difficult and strained, the Engineering Standards Committee was established in London in 1901 as the worlds first national standards body. After the First World War, similar national bodies were established in other countries, by the mid to late 19th century, efforts were being made to standardize electrical measurement. An important figure was R. E. B, Crompton, who became concerned by the large range of different standards and systems used by electrical engineering companies and scientists in the early 20th century. Many companies had entered the market in the 1890s and all chose their own settings for voltage, frequency, current, adjacent buildings would have totally incompatible electrical systems simply because they had been fitted out by different companies. Crompton could see the lack of efficiency in this system and began to consider proposals for a standard for electric engineering. In 1904, Crompton represented Britain at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in Saint Louis as part of a delegation by the Institute of Electrical Engineers. He presented a paper on standardisation, which was so well received that he was asked to look into the formation of a commission to oversee the process. By 1906 his work was complete and he drew up a permanent constitution for the first international standards organization, the body held its first meeting that year in London, with representatives from 14 countries. In honour of his contribution to electrical standardisation, Lord Kelvin was elected as the bodys first President, the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations was founded in 1926 with a broader remit to enhance international cooperation for all technical standards and specifications. The body was suspended in 1942 during World War II, after the war, ISA was approached by the recently formed United Nations Standards Coordinating Committee with a proposal to form a new global standards body. List of international common standards List of technical standard organisations Global Frameworks and standards organized along function lines, accessed 2014 ^ Cordova
6.
American National Standards Institute
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The organization also coordinates U. S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide. ANSI accredits standards that are developed by representatives of other organizations, government agencies, consumer groups, companies. These standards ensure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent, that use the same definitions and terms. ANSI also accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards, the organizations headquarters are in Washington, DC. ANSIs operations office is located in New York City, the ANSI annual operating budget is funded by the sale of publications, membership dues and fees, accreditation services, fee-based programs, and international standards programs. ANSI was originally formed in 1918, when five engineering societies, in 1928, the AESC became the American Standards Association. In 1966, the ASA was reorganized and became United States of America Standards Institute, the present name was adopted in 1969. At the behest of the AIEE, they invited the U. S. government Departments of War, Navy, according to Adam Stanton, the first permanent secretary and head of staff in 1919, AESC started as an ambitious program and little else. Staff for the first year consisted of one executive, Clifford B, lePage, who was on loan from a founding member, ASME. An annual budget of $7,500 was provided by the founding bodies, aNSIs members are government agencies, organizations, corporations, academic and international bodies, and individuals. In total, the Institute represents the interests of more than 125,000 companies and 3.5 million professionals, though ANSI itself does not develop standards, the Institute oversees the development and use of standards by accrediting the procedures of standards developing organizations. ANSI accreditation signifies that the used by standards developing organizations meet the Institutes requirements for openness, balance, consensus. Voluntary consensus standards quicken the market acceptance of products while making clear how to improve the safety of products for the protection of consumers. There are approximately 9,500 American National Standards that carry the ANSI designation, the Institute is the official U. S. S. ANSI participates in almost the entire program of both the ISO and the IEC, and administers many key committees and subgroups. In many instances, U. S. standards are taken forward to ISO and IEC, through ANSI or the USNC, in 2009, ANSI and the National Institute of Standards and Technology formed the Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative. NESCC is a joint initiative to identify and respond to the current need for standards in the nuclear industry. The ASA photographic exposure system, originally defined in ASA Z38.2.1 and ASA PH2.5, together with the DIN system, became the basis for the ISO system, a standard for the set of values used to represent characters in digital computers
7.
Logarithmic scale
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A logarithmic scale is a nonlinear scale used when there is a large range of quantities. Common uses include the strength, sound loudness, light intensity. It is based on orders of magnitude, rather than a linear scale. In particular our sense of hearing perceives equal ratios of frequencies as equal differences in pitch, the top left graph is linear in the X and Y axis, and the Y-axis ranges from 0 to 10. A base-10 log scale is used for the Y axis of the left graph. The top right graph uses a scale for just the X axis. A slide rule has logarithmic scales, and nomograms often employ logarithmic scales, the geometric mean of two numbers is midway between the numbers. Before the advent of graphics, logarithmic graph paper was a commonly used scientific tool. If both the vertical and horizontal axes of a plot are scaled logarithmically, the plot is referred to as a log–log plot, if only the ordinate or abscissa is scaled logarithmically, the plot is referred to as a semi-logarithmic plot. Bit Byte Decade John Napier Level Logarithm Logarithmic mean Preferred number Dehaene, Stanislas, Izard, Véronique, Spelke, Elizabeth, Pica, distinct intuitions of the number scale in Western and Amazonian indigene cultures. American Association for the Advancement of Science, why using logarithmic scale to display share prices
8.
Gamma correction
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Gamma correction, or often simply gamma, is the name of a nonlinear operation used to encode and decode luminance or tristimulus values in video or still image systems. In the common case of A =1, inputs and outputs are typically in the range 0–1, Gamma encoding of floating-point images is not required, because the floating-point format already provides a piecewise linear approximation of a logarithmic curve. Although gamma encoding was developed originally to compensate for the characteristic of cathode ray tube displays. In CRT displays, the intensity varies nonlinearly with the electron-gun voltage. Altering the input signal by gamma compression can cancel this nonlinearity, the similarity of CRT physics to the inverse of gamma encoding needed for video transmission was a combination of luck and engineering, which simplified the electronics in early television sets. The concept of gamma can be applied to any nonlinear relationship, for a power-law curve, this slope is constant, but the idea can be extended to any type of curve, in which case gamma is defined as the slope of the curve in any particular region. For a given film formulation and processing method, this curve is its characteristic or Hurter–Driffield curve, since both axes use logarithmic units, the slope of the linear section of the curve is called the gamma of the film. Negative film typically has a less than 1, positive film typically has a gamma greater than 1. Photographic film has a greater ability to record fine differences in shade than can be reproduced on photographic paper. Similarly, most video screens are not capable of displaying the range of brightnesses that can be captured by typical electronic cameras, for this reason, considerable artistic effort is invested in choosing the reduced form in which the original image should be presented. The gamma correction, or contrast selection, is part of the repertoire used to adjust the reproduced image. Analogously, digital cameras record light using electronic sensors that usually respond linearly, in the process of rendering linear raw data to conventional RGB data, color space transformations and rendering transformations will be performed. In most computer systems, images are encoded with a gamma of about 0.45. A notable exception, until the release of Mac OS X10.6 in September 2009, were Macintosh computers, in any case, binary data in still image files are explicitly encoded, as are motion picture files. The system can optionally further manage both cases, through management, if a better match to the output device gamma is required. Below a compressed value of 0.04045 or a linear intensity of 0.00313, the dashed black curve behind the red curve is a standard γ =2.2 power-law curve, for comparison. For television signals, the actual values are defined by the video standards. A gamma characteristic is a relationship that approximates the relationship between the encoded luma in a television system and the actual desired image luminance
9.
Film scanner
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A film scanner is a device made for scanning photographic film directly into a computer without the use of any intermediate printmaking. Film scanners can accept either strips of 35 mm or 120 film, low-end scanners typically only take 35mm film strips, while medium- and high-end film scanners often have interchangeable film loaders. This allows the one scanning platform to be used for different sizes, for example, some allow microscope slides to be loaded for scanning, while mechanised slide loaders allow many individual slides to be batch scanned unattended. Dust and scratches on the film can be a big problem for scanning, because of their reduced size the scanners are capable of resolutions much higher than a regular flatbed scanner, typically at least 2000 samples per inch, up to 4000 spi or more. At these resolutions dust and scratches take on gigantic proportions, even small specks of dust, invisible to the naked eye, can obscure a cluster of several pixels. For this reason, techniques have developed to remove their appearance from a scan. The simplest is the filter, often called despeckle in many graphic manipulation programs, e. g. in Adobe Photoshop. It works by examining a pixel in relation to the pixels surrounding it and this and other methods can be quite effective, but have the disadvantage that the filter cannot know what actually is dust or noise. It will also degrade fine detail in the scan, infrared cleaning works by collecting an infrared channel from the scan at the same time as the visible colour channels. This is done by using a source that also produces infrared radiation. Photographic film is mostly transparent to infrared radiation but dust and scratches arent and this information can then be used to automatically remove the appearance of dust and scratches in the visible channels and replace them with something similar to their surroundings. A major limitation of this technique is that it can only be used on dye-based films, scanner manufacturers usually have their own name attached to this technique. Kodak developed Digital ICE at their Austin development centre, and is licensed by Epson, Konica Minolta, Microtek, Minolta, Nikon, canon developed its own FARE system. LaserSoft Imaging developed the iSRD dust and scratch removal, on which among others Plustek is relying
10.
Kodak
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Eastman Kodak Company, commonly referred to as Kodak, is an American technology company that produces imaging products with its historic basis on photography. The company is headquartered in Rochester, New York and is incorporated in New Jersey, Kodak provides packaging, functional printing, graphic communications and professional services for businesses around the world. Its main business segments are Print Systems, Enterprise Inkjet Systems, Micro 3D Printing and Packaging, Software and Solutions and it is best known for photographic film products. Kodak was founded by George Eastman and Henry A, during most of the 20th century, Kodak held a dominant position in photographic film. The companys ubiquity was such that its Kodak moment tagline entered the lexicon to describe a personal event that was demanded to be recorded for posterity. Kodak began to struggle financially in the late 1990s, as a result of the decline in sales of photographic film, as a part of a turnaround strategy, Kodak began to focus on digital photography and digital printing, and attempted to generate revenues through aggressive patent litigation. In January 2012, Kodak filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. In February 2012, Kodak announced that it would stop making digital cameras, pocket video cameras and digital picture frames, in January 2013, the Court approved financing for Kodak to emerge from bankruptcy by mid 2013. Kodak sold many of its patents for approximately $525,000,000 to a group of companies under the names Intellectual Ventures, on September 3,2013, the company emerged from bankruptcy having shed its large legacy liabilities and exited several businesses. Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging are now part of Kodak Alaris, on March 12,2014, it announced that the board of directors elected Jeffrey J. Clarke as chief executive officer and a member of its board of directors. As late as 1976, Kodak commanded 90% of film sales, Japanese competitor Fujifilm entered the U. S. market with lower-priced film and supplies, but Kodak did not believe that American consumers would ever desert its brand. Kodak passed on the opportunity to become the film of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, Fuji won these sponsorship rights. Fuji opened a plant in the U. S. and its aggressive marketing. Fuji went from a 10% share in the early 1990s to 17% in 1997, fujis films soon also found a competitive edge in higher-speed negative films, with a tighter grain structure. The complaint was lodged by the United States with the World Trade Organization, on January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the film market in Japan. Although Kodak developed a camera in 1975, the first of its kind. In the 1990s, Kodak planned a journey to move to digital technology. CEO George M. C. Fisher reached out to Microsoft, Apples pioneering QuickTake consumer digital cameras, introduced in 1994, had the Apple label but were produced by Kodak
11.
Color space
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A color space is a specific organization of colors. In combination with physical device profiling, it allows for reproducible representations of color, for example, Adobe RGB and sRGB are two different absolute color spaces, both based on the RGB color model. When defining a color space, the reference standard is the CIELAB or CIEXYZ color spaces. For example, although several specific color spaces are based on the RGB color model, colors can be created in printing with color spaces based on the CMYK color model, using the subtractive primary colors of pigment. The resulting 3-D space provides a position for every possible color that can be created by combining those three pigments. Colors can be created on computer monitors with color spaces based on the RGB color model, a three-dimensional representation would assign each of the three colors to the X, Y, and Z axes. Note that colors generated on given monitor will be limited by the medium, such as the phosphor or filters. Another way of creating colors on a monitor is with an HSL or HSV color space, based on hue, saturation, with such a space, the variables are assigned to cylindrical coordinates. Many color spaces can be represented as three-dimensional values in this manner, but some have more, or fewer dimensions, Color space conversion is the translation of the representation of a color from one basis to another. The RGB color model is implemented in different ways, depending on the capabilities of the system used, by far the most common general-used incarnation as of 2006 is the 24-bit implementation, with 8 bits, or 256 discrete levels of color per channel. Any color space based on such a 24-bit RGB model is limited to a range of 256×256×256 ≈16.7 million colors. Some implementations use 16 bits per component for 48 bits total and this is especially important when working with wide-gamut color spaces, or when a large number of digital filtering algorithms are used consecutively. The same principle applies for any color space based on the color model. CIE1931 XYZ color space was one of the first attempts to produce a space based on measurements of human color perception. The CIERGB color space is a companion of CIE XYZ. Additional derivatives of CIE XYZ include the CIELUV, CIEUVW, RGB uses additive color mixing, because it describes what kind of light needs to be emitted to produce a given color. RGB stores individual values for red, green and blue, RGBA is RGB with an additional channel, alpha, to indicate transparency. Common color spaces based on the RGB model include sRGB, Adobe RGB, ProPhoto RGB, scRGB, one starts with a white substrate, and uses ink to subtract color from white to create an image
12.
Copyright
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Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time, the exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that copyright protects only the expression of ideas. Copyright is a form of property, applicable to certain forms of creative work. Some, but not all jurisdictions require fixing copyrighted works in a tangible form and it is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders. These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, copyrights are considered territorial rights, which means that they do not extend beyond the territory of a specific jurisdiction. While many aspects of copyright laws have been standardized through international copyright agreements. Typically, the duration of a copyright spans the authors life plus 50 to 100 years, some countries require certain copyright formalities to establishing copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions. Most jurisdictions recognize copyright limitations, allowing fair exceptions to the exclusivity of copyright. Copyright came about with the invention of the press and with wider literacy. As a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers monopolies at the beginning of the 18th century, Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, however, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se. Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the rights for a fixed period. The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist and it began, Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing. Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors. to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families
13.
35 mm film
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35 mm film is the film gauge most commonly used for motion pictures and chemical still photography. The name of the gauge refers to the width of the photographic film, the standard negative pulldown for movies is four perforations per frame along both edges, which results in 16 frames per foot of film. For still photography, the frame has eight perforations on each side. This resulted in cameras, projectors, and other equipment having to be calibrated to each gauge, the 35 mm width, originally specified as 1.375 inches, was introduced in 1892 by William Dickson and Thomas Edison, using film stock supplied by George Eastman. The gauge has been versatile in application, Eastman Kodak, Fujifilm and Agfa-Gevaert are some companies which offered 35 mm films. Today Kodak is the last remaining manufacturer of motion picture film and it is difficult to compare the quality of film to digital media but a good estimate would be about 20.8 million total pixels would equal one 35 millimeter high quality color frame of film. In 1880, George Eastman began to manufacture gelatin dry plates in Rochester. Along with W. H. Walker, Eastman invented a holder for a roll of picture-carrying gelatin layer coated paper, hannibal Goodwins invention of nitrocellulose film base in 1887 was the first transparent, flexible film. With the advent of film, Thomas Alva Edison quickly set out on his invention, the Kinetoscope. The Kinetoscope was a loop system intended for one-person viewing. Edison, along with assistant W. K. L. Dickson, followed that up with the Kinetophone, beginning in March 1892, Eastman and then, from April 1893 into 1896, New Yorks Blair Camera Co. supplied Edison with film stock. Edisons aperture defined a single frame of film at 4 perforations high, a court judgment in March 1902 invalidated Edisons claim, allowing any producer or distributor to use the Edison 35 mm film design without license. Filmmakers were already doing so in Britain and Europe, where Edison had failed to file patents, at the time, film stock was usually supplied unperforated and punched by the filmmaker to their standards with perforation equipment. A variation developed by the Lumière Brothers used a circular perforation on each side of the frame towards the middle of the horizontal axis.33 aspect ratio. Spehr describes the importance of these developments, The early acceptance of 35 mm as a standard had momentous impact on the development and spread of cinema. The film format was introduced into still photography as early as 1913 but first became popular with the launch of the Leica camera, created by Oskar Barnack in 1925. The costly image-forming silver compounds in a film stocks emulsion meant from the start that 35 mm filmmaking was to be a hobby with a high barrier to entry for the public at large. Furthermore, the film base of all early film stock was highly flammable
14.
Keykode
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Keykode is a variation of time code used in the post-production process which is designed to uniquely identify film frames in a film stock. Edge numbers are a series of numbers with key lettering printed along the edge of a 35 mm negative at intervals of one foot and on a 16 mm negative at intervals of six inches. The numbers are placed on the negative at the time of manufacturing by one of two methods, Latent image exposes the edge of the film while it passes through the perforation machine and this method is primarily utilized for color negative films. Visible ink is sometimes utilized to imprint on the edge of the film - again in manufacturing - at the time of perforations, the ink, which is not affected by photographic chemicals, is normally printed onto the base surface of the film. The numbers are visible on both the raw stock and processed film and this method is primarily utilized for black & white negative film. The edge numbers serve a number of purposes, every key frame is numbered with a multi-digit identifier that may be referred to later. In addition, a date of manufacturing is imprinted, then the type of emulsion and this information is transferred from the negative to the positive prints. The print may be edited and handled while the original negative remains safely untouched, laboratories can also imprint their own edge numbers on the processed film negative or print to identify the film for their own means. This is normally done in yellow ink, to do this, Kodak utilized the USS-128 barcode alongside the human-readable edge numbers. They also improved the quality and readability of the information to make it easier to identify. The Keykode consists of 12 characters in human-readable form followed by the information in barcode form. Keykode is a form of metadata identifier for film negatives, the next six numbers in the Keykode are the identification number for that roll of film. On Kodak film stocks, it remains consistent for the entire roll, fuji Stocks will increment this number when the frame number advances past 9999. Computers read the frame offset by adding digits to the Keykode after the plus sign, in this case, a frame offset of two frames is specified. The number of frames within a film foot depends on both the width and the frame pulldown itself, and can also be uneven within the same roll. EASTMAN52791673301122 KD These numbers are consistent for a batch of film. EASTMAN is the manufacturer,5279 is the stock type identifier. The next three numbers is the batch number
15.
SMPTE timecode
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SMPTE revised the standard in 2008, turning it into a two-part document, SMPTE 12M-1 and SMPTE 12M-2, including new explanations and clarifications. Timecodes are added to film, video or audio material, and have also adapted to synchronize music. They provide a reference for editing, synchronization and identification. Timecode is a form of media metadata, the invention of timecode made modern videotape editing possible, and led eventually to the creation of non-linear editing systems. SMPTE timecodes contain binary coded decimal hour, minute, second, there are also drop-frame and color framing flags and three extra binary group flag bits used for defining the use of the user bits. The formats of other varieties of SMPTE time codes are derived from that of the longitudinal timecode, Time codes may use a number of frame rates. The interpretation of several bits, including the framing and drop frame bits. In particular, the drop frame bit is only valid for a frame rate of 30 frame/s. More complex timecodes such as vertical interval timecode can also include extra information in a variety of encodings, timecodes are generated as a continuous stream of sequential data values. In some applications wall clock time is used, in others the time encoded is a notional time, after making a series of recordings, or after crude editing, recorded timecodes may consist of discontinuous segments. In general it is not possible to know the linear timecode of the current frame until the frame has already gone by, by time it is too late to make an edit. Practical systems watch the sequence of the timecode, and infer the time of the current frame from that. Thus, a boundary between discontinuous timecode ranges cannot be determined exactly until several subsequent frames or discontinuous sequences of them have passed. For this reason, most videotape editing attempts to keep the timecode of the recorded material continuous, drop frame timecode originates from a compromise invented when color NTSC video was invented. The NTSC designers wanted to retain compatibility with existing monochrome televisions, to minimise subcarrier visibility on a monochrome receiver it was necessary to make the color subcarrier an odd multiple of half the line scan frequency, the multiple originally chosen was 495. With a 30 Hz frame rate the line frequency is =15750 Hz. So the subcarrier frequency would have been =3.898125 MHz and this latter change could have been achieved by raising the sound intercarrier by 0. 1% to 4. 1% instead. Thus the NTSC color subcarrier ended up as 3.57954545 MHz, the line scan frequency as 15734.27 Hz, to correct this, drop frame SMPTE timecode was invented
16.
International Commission on Illumination
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The International Commission on Illumination is the international authority on light, illumination, colour, and colour spaces. It was established in 1913 as a successor to the Commission Internationale de Photométrie and is based in Vienna. The President from 2015 is Yoshihiro Ohno from the US, in 1976, the commission developed the CIELAB and CIELUV colour spaces, which are widely used today. Based on CIELAB, colour difference formulas CIEDE94 and CIEDE2000 were recommended in the corresponding years
17.
CIE 1931 color space
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The CIE1931 color spaces were the first defined quantitative links between physical pure colors in the electromagnetic visible spectrum, and physiological perceived colors in human color vision. The CIE1931 RGB color space and CIE1931 XYZ color space were created by the International Commission on Illumination in 1931 and they resulted from a series of experiments done in the late 1920s by William David Wright and John Guild. The experimental results were combined into the specification of the CIE RGB color space, the CIE1931 color spaces are still widely used, as is the 1976 CIELUV color space. The human eye with normal vision has three kinds of cells, which sense light, with spectral sensitivity peaks in short, middle. These cone cells underlie human color perception under medium- and high-brightness conditions, thus, three parameters, corresponding to levels of stimulus of the three types of cone cells, can in principle describe any color sensation. The tristimulus values associated with a space can be conceptualized as amounts of three primary colors in a tri-chromatic additive color model. In some color spaces, including LMS and XYZ spaces, the colors used are not real colors. The CIE XYZ color space encompasses all color sensations that a person can experience. That is why CIE XYZ is a device invariant color representation and it serves as a standard reference against which many other color spaces are defined. Consider two light sources made up of different mixtures of various wavelengths, such light sources may appear to be the same color, this effect is called metamerism. Such light sources have the apparent color to an observer when they produce the same tristimulus values. Most wavelengths stimulate two or all three types of cell, because the spectral sensitivity curves of the three types of cone cells overlap. Certain tristimulus values are thus physically impossible, to avoid these negative RGB values, and to have one component that describes the perceived brightness, imaginary primary colors and corresponding color-matching functions have been formulated. The resulting tristimulus values are defined by the CIE1931 color space, in which they are denoted X, Y, and Z. When judging the relative luminance of different colors in well-lit situations, humans tend to perceive light within the green parts of the spectrum as brighter than red or blue light of equal power. The luminosity function that describes the perceived brightnesses of different wavelengths is thus analogous to the spectral sensitivity of M cones. The CIE model capitalises on this fact by defining Y as luminance, Z is quasi-equal to blue stimulation, or the S cone response, and X is a mix of cone response curves chosen to be nonnegative. The XYZ tristimulus values are thus analogous to, but different from, defining Y as luminance has the useful result that for any given Y value, the XZ plane will contain all possible chromaticities at that luminance
18.
Bayer filter
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A Bayer filter mosaic is a color filter array for arranging RGB color filters on a square grid of photosensors. Its particular arrangement of color filters is used in most single-chip digital image used in digital cameras, camcorders. The filter pattern is 50% green, 25% red and 25% blue, hence is also called RGBG, GRGB and it is named after its inventor, Bryce Bayer of Eastman Kodak. Bayer is also known for his recursively defined matrix used in ordered dithering, Bryce Bayers patent in 1976 called the green photosensors luminance-sensitive elements and the red and blue ones chrominance-sensitive elements. He used twice as many elements as red or blue to mimic the physiology of the human eye. The luminance perception of the human retina uses M and L cone cells combined, during daylight vision and these elements are referred to as sensor elements, sensels, pixel sensors, or simply pixels, sample values sensed by them, after interpolation, become image pixels. At the time Bayer registered his patent, he proposed to use a cyan-magenta-yellow combination. This arrangement was unpractical at the time because the necessary dyes did not exist, the big advantage of the new CMY dyes is that they have an improved light absorption characteristic, that is, their quantum efficiency is higher. The raw output of Bayer-filter cameras is referred to as a Bayer pattern image, since each pixel is filtered to record only one of three colors, the data from each pixel cannot fully specify each of the red, green, and blue values on its own. To obtain an image, various demosaicing algorithms can be used to interpolate a set of complete red, green. These algorithms make use of the pixels of the corresponding colors to estimate the values for a particular pixel. Different algorithms requiring various amounts of computing power result in varying-quality final images and this can be done in-camera, producing a JPEG or TIFF image, or outside the camera using the raw data directly from the sensor. Demosaicing can be performed in different ways, simple methods interpolate the color value of the pixels of the same color in the neighborhood. For example, once the chip has been exposed to an image, a pixel with a green filter provides an exact measurement of the green component. The red and blue components for this pixel are obtained from the neighbors, for a green pixel, two red neighbors can be interpolated to yield the red value, also two blue pixels can be interpolated to yield the blue value. Because of this, other demosaicing methods attempt to identify high-contrast edges and only interpolate along these edges, therefore, the green channel is interpolated at first then the red and afterwards the blue channel, so that the color ratio red-green respective blue-green are constant. There are other methods that make different assumptions about the image content, images with small-scale detail close to the resolution limit of the digital sensor can be a problem to the demosaicing algorithm, producing a result which is not looking like the model. Typically this artifact manifests itself along edges, where abrupt or unnatural shifts in color occur as a result of misinterpolating across, rather than along, for preventing and removing this false coloring various methods exist
19.
XnView
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XnView is an image organizer and general-purpose file manager used for viewing, converting, organizing and editing raster images, as well as general purpose file management. It comes with built-in hex inspection, batch renaming and screen capture tools and it is licensed as freeware for private, educational and non-profit uses. For other uses, it is licensed as commercial software and it is now available for Windows, Windows Mobile and Pocket PC but was previously available for Unix-like systems as well. An extended version of XnView, called XnViewMP, is available for Windows, macOS, XnView has received five cows from Tucows. In 2006 Sveriges Television recommended XnView in their High Definition Multi Format Test Set, research papers about DICOM and digital watermarking used XnView for image processing. XnView can read more than 500 image file formats, some audio and video file formats, XnView also supports ICC profiles in JPEG, PNG and TIFF files. Classic XnView can read image formats resulting in more than 32 bits per pixel, XnView can show IPTC, Exif and XMP metadata, and write IPTC metadata. XnView can search files that have the filename or data. The display of the histogram of a picture is possible, scripts can be created to convert, manipulate and rename a batch of images in one go. Creation of advanced slide shows is also possible, lossless turning, flipping and cropping of JPEG files is supported. Typical image editing tools are included, for color and size manipulation, several filters. XnView supports. 8bf Photoshop plugins such as the Harrys Filters 3.0 included in the full version, support for most raw image formats is based on dcraw. Support for vector graphics can be integrated with Ghostscript, classic XnView does not support Unicode, and SVG requires a commercial CAD plugin. These features are available in the multi-platform edition XnView MP based on Qt, classic XnView is also distributed in the PortableApps format. XnView 2.13 was the last version for Windows platforms older than Windows XP, version 2.30 released in 2015 supports the Netpbm PAM format, can read Better Portable Graphics, and offers an add-on for Imgur uploads
20.
FFmpeg
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FFmpeg is a free software project that produces libraries and programs for handling multimedia data. FFmpeg is published under the GNU Lesser General Public License 2. 1+ or GNU General Public License 2+, the name of the project is inspired by the MPEG video standards group, together with FF for fast forward. The logo uses a pattern that shows how MPEG video codecs handle entropy encoding. The project was started by Fabrice Bellard in 2000, and was led by Michael Niedermayer from 2004 until 2015, some FFmpeg developers were also part of the MPlayer project. The project publishes a new release every three months on average, on January 10,2014, two Google employees announced that over 1000 bugs had been fixed in FFmpeg during the previous two years by means of fuzz testing. Two video coding formats with corresponding codecs and one container format have been created within the FFmpeg project so far, the two video codecs are the lossless FFV1, and the lossless and lossy Snow codec. Development of Snow has stalled, while its bit-stream format has not been finalized yet, the multimedia container format called NUT is no longer being actively developed, but still maintained. In summer 2010, Fiona Glaser, Ronald Bultje, and David Conrad of the FFmpeg Team announced the ffvp8 decoder, through testing, they determined that ffvp8 was faster than Googles own libvpx decoder. Starting with version 0.6, FFmpeg also supported WebM, in October 2013, a native VP9 and the OpenHEVC decoder, an open source High Efficiency Video Coding decoder, were added to FFmpeg. In 2016 the native AAC encoder was considered stable, removing support for the two external AAC encoders from VisualOn and FAAC, FFmpeg 3.0 retained build support for the Fraunhofer FDK AAC encoder. Ffmpeg is a tool that converts audio or video formats. It can also capture and encode in real-time from various hardware and software such as a TV capture card. Ffserver is an HTTP and RTSP multimedia streaming server for live and it can also be used to time shift live broadcasts. Ffplay is a media player utilizing SDL and the FFmpeg libraries. Ffprobe is a tool to display media information, see also Mediainfo. Libswresample is a library containing audio resampling routines, libavresample is a library containing audio resampling routines from the Libav project, similar to libswresample from ffmpeg. Libavcodec is a library containing all of the native FFmpeg audio/video encoders and decoders, most codecs were developed from scratch to ensure best performance and high code reusability. Libavformat is a library containing demuxers and muxers for audio/video container formats, libavutil is a helper library containing routines common to different parts of FFmpeg
21.
ImageMagick
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ImageMagick is a free and open-source software suite for displaying, converting, and editing raster image and vector image files. It can read and write over 200 image file formats, ImageMagick was created in 1987 by John Cristy when working at DuPont, to convert 24-bit images to 8-bit images, so they could be displayed on most screens. It was freely released in 1990 when DuPont agreed to copyright to ImageMagick Studio LLC. In May 2016, it was reported that ImageMagick had a vulnerability through which an attacker can execute code on servers that use the application to edit user-uploaded images. Security experts including CloudFlare researchers observed actual use of the vulnerability in active hacking attempts, the software mainly consists of a number of command-line interface utilities for manipulating images. Execute the following on Linux or UNIX to launch the GUI, $ display Otherwise, the program uses magic numbers to identify image file formats. ImageMagick is also used by programs, such as LyX. One of the basic and thoroughly-implemented features of ImageMagick is its ability to efficiently and accurately convert images between different file formats. The number of colors in an image can be reduced to an arbitrary number, note that many other image handling applications do not support a color palette of an arbitrary number of colors. If, for example, one reduces an image to 13 colors via ImageMagick, some applications will open it, a related capability is the posterization artistic effect, which also reduces the number of colors represented in an image. A fine control is provided for the dithering that occurs during color and shading alterations, in 2008, support for liquid rescaling was added. This feature allows, for example, rescaling 4,3 images into 16,9 images without distorting the image, the Q8 version supports up-to 8 bits-per-pixel component. The Q16 version supports up-to 16 bits-per-pixel component, below are some other features of ImageMagick, Format conversion, convert an image from one format to another. Transform, resize, rotate, crop, flip or trim an image, transparency, render portions of an image invisible. Draw, add shapes or text to an image, decorate, add a border or frame to an image. Special effects, blur, sharpen, threshold, or tint an image, animation, assemble a GIF animation file from a sequence of images. Text & comments, insert descriptive or artistic text in an image, Image identification, describe the format and attributes of an image. Composite, overlap one image over another, montage, juxtapose image thumbnails on an image canvas
22.
Display resolution
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The display resolution or display modes of a digital television, computer monitor or display device is the number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed. It is usually quoted as width × height, with the units in pixels, for example,1024 ×768 means the width is 1024 pixels and this example would normally be spoken as ten twenty-four by seven sixty-eight or ten twenty-four by seven six eight. A consequence of having a display is that, for multi-format video inputs. Note that for broadcast television standards the use of the word here is a misnomer. In digital measurement, the resolution would be given in pixels per inch. In analog measurement, if the screen is 10 inches high, in the case of television inputs, many manufacturers will take the input and zoom it out to overscan the display by as much as 5% so input resolution is not necessarily display resolution. The eyes perception of display resolution can be affected by a number of factors – see image resolution, one factor is the display screens rectangular shape, which is expressed as the ratio of the physical picture width to the physical picture height. This is known as the aspect ratio, a screens physical aspect ratio and the individual pixels aspect ratio may not necessarily be the same. An array of 1280 ×720 on a 16,9 display has square pixels, an example of pixel shape affecting resolution or perceived sharpness, displaying more information in a smaller area using a higher resolution makes the image much clearer or sharper. Most television display manufacturers overscan the pictures on their displays, so that the effective on-screen picture may be reduced from 720 ×576 to 680 ×550, the size of the invisible area somewhat depends on the display device. HD televisions do this as well, to a similar extent, Computer displays including projectors generally do not overscan although many models allow it. CRT displays tend to be underscanned in stock configurations, to compensate for the distortions at the corners. As of July 2002,1024 ×768 eXtended Graphics Array was the most common display resolution, many web sites and multimedia products were re-designed from the previous 800 ×600 format to the layouts optimized for 1024 ×768. The availability of inexpensive LCD monitors has made the 5,4 aspect ratio resolution of 1280 ×1024 more popular for desktop usage during the first decade of the 21st century. Many computer users including CAD users, graphic artists and video game players ran their computers at 1600 ×1200 resolution or higher such as 2048 ×1536 QXGA if they had the necessary equipment. A new more-than-HD resolution of 2560 ×1600 WQXGA was released in 30-inch LCD monitors in 2007, as of March 2012,1366 ×768 was the most common display resolution. In 2010, 27-inch LCD monitors with the 2560 × 1440-pixel resolution were released by manufacturers including Apple. Panels for professional environments, such as use and air traffic control
23.
Film-out
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Film-out is the process in the computer graphics, video production and filmmaking disciplines of transferring images or animation from videotape or digital files to a traditional film print. Film-out is a term that encompasses the conversion of frame rates, color correction, as well as the actual printing. Many modern documentaries and low-budget films are shot on videotape or other digital media, instead of film stock. Video production means substantially lower costs than 16 mm or 35 mm film production on all levels, until recently, the relatively low cost of video ended when the issue of a theatrical presentation was raised, which required a print for film projection. With the growing presence of digital projection, this is becoming less of a factor, film-out of standard-definition video – or any source that has an incompatible frame rate – is the up-conversion of video media to film for theatrical viewing. To understand these two steps, it is important to understand how video and film differ, Film has remained unchanged for almost a century and creates the illusion of moving images through the rapid projection of still images, frames, upon a screen, typically 24 per second. Traditional interlaced SD video has no frame rate. Since visual movement in video is infused in this cascade of scans lines. Therefore, when transferring video to film, it is necessary to invent individual film frames,24 for every second of elapsed time, the bulk of the work done by a film-out company is this first step, creating film frames out of the stream of interlaced video. Each company employs its own technology for turning interlaced video into high-resolution digital video files of 24 discrete images every second, the technology must filter out all the visually unappealing artifacting that results from the inherent mismatch between video and film movement. Moreover, the process usually requires human intervention at every edit point of a video program. The use of footage in video especially calls for extra attention. Step two, the scanning to film, is the part of the process. This is the step where lasers print each of the newly created frames of the 24p video, stored on computer files or HD videotape. Most companies that do film-out, do all the stages of the process themselves for a lump sum, the job includes converting interlaced video into 24p and often a color correction session –, before scanning to physical film, – is offered. At the very least, film-out can be understood as the process of converting interlaced video to 24p, NTSC is the most challenging of the formats when it comes to standards conversion and, specifically, converting to film prints. NTSC runs at the rate of 29.97 video frames per second. In this way, NTSC resolves actual live action movement at almost –, because of this 29.97 rate, no direct correlation to film frames at 24 frames per second can be achieved
24.
Film recorder
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A film recorder is a graphical output device for transferring digital images to photographic film. All film recorders typically work in the same manner, the image is fed from a host computer as a raster stream over a digital interface. The three filters are mounted on a motor-driven wheel. The filter wheel, as well as the shutter, aperture. Higher-quality LVT film recorders use a beam of light to write the image directly onto a film loaded spinning drum. The LVT will record pixel beyond grain, some machines can burn 120-res or 120 lines per millimeter. The LVT is basically a reverse drum scanner, the exposed film is developed and printed by regular photographic chemical processing. Film recorders are available for a variety of types and formats. The 35mm negative film and transparencies are popular because they can be processed by any photo shop, single-image 4x5 film and 8X10 is often used for high-quality, large format printing. Some models have detachable film holders to handle multiple formats with the same camera, Film recorders are used in digital printing to generate master negatives for offset and other bulk printing processes. They are also used to produce the master copies of movies that use computer animation or other special effects based on image processing. For preview, archiving, and small-volume reproduction, film recorders have been rendered obsolete by modern printers that produce photographic-quality hardcopies directly on plain paper. Film recorders were commonly used to produce slides for slide projectors. Film recorders were among the earliest computer graphics output devices, see, for example, nowadays, film recorders are primarily used in the motion picture film-out process for the ever increasing amount of digital intermediate work being done. This, combined with the increase in international and independent film production, traditional film recorder manufacturers have all but vanished from the scene or have evolved their product lines to cater to the motion picture industry. Dicomed was one such early provider of color film recorders. Polaroid, Management Graphics, Inc, MacDonald-Detwiler, Information International, Inc. one of the first laser recorders. Needed an engineering staff to set up, Kodak Lightning II film recorder used both gas and diode laser to record on to film
25.
Digital cinematography
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Digital cinematography is the process of capturing film using digital image sensors rather than through film stock. As digital technology has improved in recent years, this practice has become dominant, since the mid 2010s most of the movies across the world are captured as well as distributed digitally. Some filmmakers still prefer to use analogue picture formats to achieve the desired results, beginning in the late 1980s, Sony began marketing the concept of electronic cinematography, utilizing its analog Sony HDVS professional video cameras. The effort met with little success. However, this led to one of the earliest digitally shot feature movies, rainbow was the worlds first all digital film. The Digital High Definition image was transferred to 35mm negative via electron beam recorder for theatrical release, shot and released in 1998, The Last Broadcast is believed by some to be the first feature-length video shot and edited entirely on consumer-level digital equipment. The digital footage blended seamlessly with the shot on film. Also in 1999, digital projectors were installed in four theaters for the showing of The Phantom Menace, in June 2000, Star Wars, Episode II – Attack of the Clones began principal photography shot entirely using a Sony HDW-F900 camera as Lucas had previously stated. The film was released in May 2002, two lesser-known movies, Vidocq and Russian Ark, had also been shot with the same camera, the latter notably consisting of a single long take. Today, cameras from companies like Sony, Panasonic, JVC, at the high-end of the market, there has been an emergence of cameras aimed specifically at the digital cinema market. In late 2013, Paramount became the first major studio to distribute movies to theaters in digital format eliminating 35mm film entirely, anchorman 2 was the last Paramount production to include a 35mm film version, while The Wolf of Wall Street was the first major movie distributed entirely digitally. Digital cinematography captures motion pictures digitally in an analogous to digital photography. The term is applied when digital acquisition is substituted for video acquisition. Independent filmmakers have also pressed low-cost consumer and prosumer cameras into service for digital filmmaking, Digital cinematography cameras capture images using CMOS or CCD sensors, usually in one of two arrangements. Single chip cameras designed specifically for the digital cinematography market often use a single sensor and their large sensors also let these cameras achieve the same shallow depth of field as 35 or 65 mm motion picture film cameras, which many cinematographers consider an essential visual tool. Unlike other video formats, which are specified in terms of vertical resolution, here the K has a customary meaning corresponding to the binary prefix kibi. For instance, a 2K image is 2048 pixels wide, and this led to a plethora of motion-picture related video resolutions, which is quite confusing and often redundant with respect to nowadays few projection standards. All formats designed for digital cinematography are progressive scan, and capture usually occurs at the same 24 frame per second rate established as the standard for 35mm film
26.
Telecine
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Telecine is the process of transferring motion picture film into video and is performed in a color suite. The term is used to refer to the equipment used in the post-production process. Telecine enables a motion picture, captured originally on film stock, to be viewed with standard equipment, such as television sets, video cassette recorders, DVD. Within the film industry, it is referred to as a TK. With the advent of popular broadcast television, producers realized they needed more than live television programming, however, the difference in frame rates between film and television meant that simply playing a film into a television camera would result in flickering. Originally the kinescope was used to record the image from a display to film. This could then be re-played directly into a camera for re-display. Non-live programming could also be filmed using the cameras, edited mechanically as normal. As the film was run at the speed as the television. Color was supported by using a video camera, prisms. However, this still left film shot at cinema frame rates as a problem, the obvious solution is to simply speed up the film to match the television frame rates, but this, at least in the case of NTSC, is rather obvious to the eye and ear. This problem is not difficult to fix, however, the solution being to play a selected frame twice. For NTSC, the difference in rates can be corrected by showing every fourth frame of film twice. A more convincing technique is to use 2,3 pulldown, discussed below, PAL uses a similar system,2,2 pulldown. In recent decades, telecine has primarily been a film-to-videotape process, changes since the 1950s have primarily been in terms of equipment and physical formats, the basic concept remains the same. Home movies are video tapes of films that used this technique, the most complex part of telecine is the synchronization of the mechanical film motion and the electronic video signal. Every time the part of the telecine samples the light electronically. This is relatively easy when the film is photographed at the frame rate as the video camera will sample, but when this is not true
27.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
28.
O'Reilly Media
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OReilly Media is an American media company established by Tim OReilly that publishes books and Web sites and produces conferences on computer technology topics. Their distinctive brand features a woodcut of an animal on many of their book covers, the company began in 1978 as a private consulting firm doing technical writing, based in the Cambridge, Massachusetts area. In 1984, it began to retain publishing rights on manuals created for Unix vendors, a few 70-page Nutshell Handbooks were well-received, but the focus remained on the consulting business until 1988. After a conference displaying OReillys preliminary Xlib manuals attracted significant attention, in 1992, OReilly Media published one of the first popular books about the Internet, Ed Krols Whole Internet Users Guide and Catalog. OReilly Media also created the first web portal, the Global Network Navigator in 1993, it was sold to AOL in 1995, GNN was the first site on the World Wide Web to feature paid advertising. The firm is now recognized for the conferences and summits it organizes. In 1997, OReilly launched The Perl Conference to raise the profile of the Perl programming language, many of the companys other software bestsellers were also on topics that were off the radar of the commercial software industry. In 1998, OReilly invited many of the leaders of projects to a meeting. Originally called the summit, the meeting became known as the Open Source Summit. The OReilly Open Source Convention is now one of OReillys flagship events, other key events include the Strata Conference on big data, the Velocity Conference on Web Performance and Operations, and FOO Camp. Past events of note include the OReilly Emerging Technology Conference and the Web 2.0 Summit, overall, OReilly describes its business not as publishing or conferences, but as changing the world by spreading the knowledge of innovators. In 2001, O’Reilly launched Safari Books Online, a subscription based service providing access to ebooks as a joint venture with the Pearson Technology Group. In 2013, O’Reilly acquired Pearson’s interest in the joint venture, in 2003, after the dot com bust, O’Reilly’s corporate goal was to reignite enthusiasm in the computer industry. Dale Dougherty, an executive at O’Reilly, coined the phrase Web 2.0 during a brainstorming session and this then became the name for the Web 2.0 Summit run by OReilly Media and TechWeb. In May 2006 CMP Media learned of an event called the Web 2.0 Half day conference. Concerned over their obligation to take reasonable means to enforce their trade and service marks CMP sent a cease and this attempt to restrict through legal mechanisms the use of the term was criticized by some. In 2004, the named the Maker Movement with the launch of Make. Today, the flagship Maker Faire in San Mateo, CA, other Faires around the world collectively draw millions
29.
Raster graphics
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Raster images are stored in image files with varying formats. A raster is technically characterized by the width and height of the image in pixels, the printing and prepress industries know raster graphics as contones. The opposite to contones is line work, usually implemented as vector graphics in digital systems, the word raster has its origins in the Latin rastrum, which is derived from radere. It originates from the scan of cathode ray tube video monitors. By association, it can refer to a rectangular grid of pixels. The word rastrum is now used to refer to a device for drawing musical staff lines, most modern computers have bitmapped displays, where each on-screen pixel directly corresponds to a small number of bits in memory. The screen is refreshed simply by scanning through pixels and coloring them according to set of bits. The refresh procedure, being speed critical, is implemented by dedicated circuitry. Most computer images are stored in raster graphics formats or compressed variations, including GIF, JPEG, and PNG, three-dimensional voxel raster graphics are employed in video games and are also used in medical imaging such as MRI scanners. GIS programs commonly use rasters that encode geographic data in the values as well as the pixel locations. Raster graphics are resolution dependent, meaning they cannot scale up to a resolution without loss of apparent quality. This property contrasts with the capabilities of graphics, which easily scale up to the quality of the device rendering them. Raster graphics deal more practically than vector graphics with photographs and photo-realistic images, typically, a resolution of 150 to 300 PPI works well for 4-color process printing. However, for printing technologies that perform color mixing through dithering rather than through overprinting, printer DPI and image PPI have a different meaning. Thus, for instance, printing an image at 250 PPI may actually require a printer setting of 1200 DPI, when an image is rendered in a raster-based image editor, the image is composed of millions of pixels. At its core, an image editor works by manipulating each individual pixel. Most pixel-based image editors work using the RGB color model, and this article is based on material taken from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the relicensing terms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or later
30.
APNG
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The Animated Portable Network Graphics file format is an extension to the Portable Network Graphics specification. It allows for animated PNG files that work similarly to animated GIF files, while supporting 24-bit images and it also retains backward compatibility with non-animated PNG files. The first frame of an APNG file is stored as a normal PNG stream, the frame speed data and extra animation frames are stored in extra chunks. APNG competes with Multiple-image Network Graphics, a format for bitmapped animations created by the same team as PNG. APNGs advantage is the library size and compatibility with older PNG implementations. The APNG specification was created in 2004 by Stuart Parmenter and Vladimir Vukićević of the Mozilla Corporation to allow for storing the animations needed for such as throbbers. Among users and maintainers of the PNG and MNG formats, APNG had a lukewarm reception, in particular, PNG was conceived to be a single-image format. The PNG group officially rejected APNG as an extension on April 20,2007. There have been several subsequent proposals for a simple animated graphics format based on PNG using several different approaches, Mozilla Firefox added support for APNG in version 3 trunk builds on March 23,2007. Iceweasel 3 supports APNG by using Mozillas unofficial variant of libpng, in 2008 WorldDMB adopted APNG as a backward compatible extension to enable animation as part of the MOT SlideShow user application for Digital Radio. APNG1.0 Specification - Animated Portable Network Graphics is included as normative Annex A in the ETSI standard TS101499 V2.2.1, in 2010 Commercial Radio Broadcasters in Sydney began to include APNG animations in DAB+ digital radio broadcasts. These APNG animations are carried by the MOT slideshow application which accompanies the audio services and it is expected that other cities in Australia will follow in early 2011. Mozillas role in extending the PNG format to APNG echoes Netscapes much earlier role in popularizing animated GIFs, in 2016, Apple adopted the APNG format as the preferred format for animated stickers in iOS10 iMessage apps. On March 15,2017 APNG support was added to Chromium and this leaves Microsoft Edges Rendering Engine as the only engine to not support the format. A server-side library exists that allows web browsers that support the canvas tag, examples of such browsers include Microsoft Edge and Internet Explorer 9. For image processing software that doesnt export to APNG, users can use a program called APNG Assembler and it creates highly optimized Animated PNG files from PNG/TGA image sequences. A PNG file consists of the PNG Signature, followed by a series of chunks, a chunk consists of four parts, Length, Chunk type, Chunk data and CRC. There are about 20 different chunk types, but for a minimal PNG, only 3 are required, The IHDR chunk, one or more IDAT chunks, the next graphic shows the contents of such a minimal PNG file, representing just one red pixel
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BMP file format
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The BMP file format is capable of storing two-dimensional digital images both monochrome and color, in various color depths, and optionally with data compression, alpha channels, and color profiles. The Windows Metafile specification covers the BMP file format, among others wingdi. h defines BMP constants and structures. They called these device-independent bitmaps or DIBs, and the format for them is called DIB file format or BMP image file format. According to Microsoft support, A device-independent bitmap is a used to define device-independent bitmaps in various color resolutions. The main purpose of DIBs is to allow bitmaps to be moved from one device to another, a DIB is an external format, in contrast to a device-dependent bitmap, which appears in the system as a bitmap object. A DIB is normally transported in metafiles, BMP files, the following sections discuss the data stored in the BMP file or DIB in detail. This is the standard BMP file format, some applications create bitmap image files which are not compliant with the Microsoft documentation. Also, not all fields are used, a value of 0 will be found in these unused fields, the bitmap image file consists of fixed-size structures as well as variable-size structures appearing in a predetermined sequence. Many different versions of some of these structures can appear in the file, the in-memory DIB data structure is almost the same as the BMP file format, but it does not contain the 14-byte bitmap file header and begins with the DIB header. For DIBs loaded in memory, the table can also consist of 16-bit entries that constitute indexes to the currently realized palette. In all cases, the array must begin at a memory address that is a multiple of 4 bytes. In non-packed DIBs loaded in memory, the optional color profile data should be located immediately after the table and before the gap1. In all cases, the array must begin at a memory address that is a multiple of 4 bytes. In some cases it may be necessary to adjust the number of entries in the table in order to force the memory address of the pixel array to a multiple of 4 bytes. For packed DIBs loaded in memory, the optional color profile data should immediately follow the pixel array, packed DIBs are required by Windows clipboard API functions as well as by some Windows patterned brush and resource functions. This block of bytes is at the start of the file and is used to identify the file, a typical application reads this block first to ensure that the file is actually a BMP file and that it is not damaged. The first 2 bytes of the BMP file format are the character B then the character M in ASCII encoding, all of the integer values are stored in little-endian format. This block of bytes tells the detailed information about the image
