1.
Size
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Size is the magnitude or dimensions of a thing, or how big something is. Size can be measured as length, width, height, diameter, perimeter, area, volume, in mathematical terms, size is a concept abstracted from the process of measuring by comparing a longer to a shorter. Size is determined by the process of comparing or measuring objects, such a magnitude is usually expressed as a numerical value of units on a previously established spatial scale, such as meters or inches. The sizes with which humans tend to be most familiar are body dimensions, which include such as human height. Humans most frequently perceive the size of objects through visual cues, one common means of perceiving size is to compare the size of a newly observed object with the size of a familiar object whose size is already known. The perception of size can be distorted by manipulating these cues, some measures of size may also be determined by sound. Visually impaired humans use echolocation to determine features of their surroundings, such as the size of spaces, however, even humans who lack this ability can tell if a space that they are unable to see is large or small from hearing sounds echo in the space. Size can also be determined by touch, which is a process of haptic perception, the sizes of objects that can not readily be measured merely by sensory input may be evaluated with other kinds of measuring instruments. However, even very advanced measuring devices may still present a field of view. Objects are also described as tall or short specifically relative to their vertical height. Although the size of an object may be reflected in its mass or its weight, in scientific contexts, mass refers loosely to the amount of matter in an object, whereas weight refers to the force experienced by an object due to gravity. An object with a mass of 1.0 kilogram will weigh approximately 9.81 newtons on the surface of the Earth. Its weight will be less on Mars, more on Saturn, and negligible in space far from any significant source of gravity. Two objects of equal size, however, may have very different mass and weight, depending on the composition, the concept of size is often applied to ideas that have no physical reality. In mathematics, magnitude is the size of a mathematical object, magnitude is a property by which the object can be compared as larger or smaller than other objects of the same kind. More formally, a magnitude is an ordering of the class of objects to which it belongs. In astronomy, the magnitude of brightness or intensity of a star is measured on a logarithmic scale, such a scale is also used to measure the intensity of an earthquake, and this intensity is often referred to as the size of the event. In computing, file size is a measure of the size of a computer file, the actual amount of disk space consumed by the file depends on the file system
2.
Dimensional analysis
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Converting from one dimensional unit to another is often somewhat complex. Dimensional analysis, or more specifically the method, also known as the unit-factor method, is a widely used technique for such conversions using the rules of algebra. The concept of physical dimension was introduced by Joseph Fourier in 1822, Physical quantities that are measurable have the same dimension and can be directly compared to each other, even if they are originally expressed in differing units of measure. If physical quantities have different dimensions, they cannot be compared by similar units, hence, it is meaningless to ask whether a kilogram is greater than, equal to, or less than an hour. Any physically meaningful equation will have the dimensions on their left and right sides. Checking for dimensional homogeneity is an application of dimensional analysis. Dimensional analysis is routinely used as a check of the plausibility of derived equations and computations. It is generally used to categorize types of quantities and units based on their relationship to or dependence on other units. Many parameters and measurements in the sciences and engineering are expressed as a concrete number – a numerical quantity. Often a quantity is expressed in terms of other quantities, for example, speed is a combination of length and time. Compound relations with per are expressed with division, e. g.60 mi/1 h, other relations can involve multiplication, powers, or combinations thereof. A base unit is a unit that cannot be expressed as a combination of other units, for example, units for length and time are normally chosen as base units. Units for volume, however, can be factored into the units of length. Sometimes the names of units obscure that they are derived units, for example, an ampere is a unit of electric current, which is equivalent to electric charge per unit time and is measured in coulombs per second, so 1 A =1 C/s. Similarly, one newton is 1 kg⋅m/s2, percentages are dimensionless quantities, since they are ratios of two quantities with the same dimensions. In other words, the % sign can be read as 1/100, derivatives with respect to a quantity add the dimensions of the variable one is differentiating with respect to on the denominator. Thus, position has the dimension L, derivative of position with respect to time has dimension LT−1 – length from position, time from the derivative, the second derivative has dimension LT−2. In economics, one distinguishes between stocks and flows, a stock has units of units, while a flow is a derivative of a stock, in some contexts, dimensional quantities are expressed as dimensionless quantities or percentages by omitting some dimensions
3.
Square
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In geometry, a square is a regular quadrilateral, which means that it has four equal sides and four equal angles. It can also be defined as a rectangle in which two adjacent sides have equal length, a square with vertices ABCD would be denoted ◻ ABCD. e. A rhombus with equal diagonals a convex quadrilateral with sides a, b, c, d whose area is A =12 =12. Opposite sides of a square are both parallel and equal in length, all four angles of a square are equal. All four sides of a square are equal, the diagonals of a square are equal. The square is the n=2 case of the families of n-hypercubes and n-orthoplexes, a truncated square, t, is an octagon. An alternated square, h, is a digon, the perimeter of a square whose four sides have length ℓ is P =4 ℓ and the area A is A = ℓ2. In classical times, the power was described in terms of the area of a square. This led to the use of the square to mean raising to the second power. The area can also be calculated using the diagonal d according to A = d 22. In terms of the circumradius R, the area of a square is A =2 R2, since the area of the circle is π R2, in terms of the inradius r, the area of the square is A =4 r 2. Because it is a polygon, a square is the quadrilateral of least perimeter enclosing a given area. Dually, a square is the quadrilateral containing the largest area within a given perimeter. Indeed, if A and P are the area and perimeter enclosed by a quadrilateral, then the isoperimetric inequality holds,16 A ≤ P2 with equality if. The diagonals of a square are 2 times the length of a side of the square and this value, known as the square root of 2 or Pythagoras constant, was the first number proven to be irrational. A square can also be defined as a parallelogram with equal diagonals that bisect the angles, if a figure is both a rectangle and a rhombus, then it is a square. If a circle is circumscribed around a square, the area of the circle is π /2 times the area of the square, if a circle is inscribed in the square, the area of the circle is π /4 times the area of the square. A square has an area than any other quadrilateral with the same perimeter
4.
Cube
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In geometry, a cube is a three-dimensional solid object bounded by six square faces, facets or sides, with three meeting at each vertex. The cube is the only regular hexahedron and is one of the five Platonic solids and it has 6 faces,12 edges, and 8 vertices. The cube is also a square parallelepiped, an equilateral cuboid and it is a regular square prism in three orientations, and a trigonal trapezohedron in four orientations. The cube is dual to the octahedron and it has cubical or octahedral symmetry. The cube has four special orthogonal projections, centered, on a vertex, edges, face, the first and third correspond to the A2 and B2 Coxeter planes. The cube can also be represented as a tiling. This projection is conformal, preserving angles but not areas or lengths, straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane. In analytic geometry, a surface with center and edge length of 2a is the locus of all points such that max = a. For a cube of length a, As the volume of a cube is the third power of its sides a × a × a, third powers are called cubes, by analogy with squares. A cube has the largest volume among cuboids with a surface area. Also, a cube has the largest volume among cuboids with the same linear size. They were unable to solve this problem, and in 1837 Pierre Wantzel proved it to be impossible because the root of 2 is not a constructible number. The cube has three uniform colorings, named by the colors of the faces around each vertex,111,112,123. The cube has three classes of symmetry, which can be represented by coloring the faces. The highest octahedral symmetry Oh has all the faces the same color, the dihedral symmetry D4h comes from the cube being a prism, with all four sides being the same color. The lowest symmetry D2h is also a symmetry, with sides alternating colors. Each symmetry form has a different Wythoff symbol, a cube has eleven nets, that is, there are eleven ways to flatten a hollow cube by cutting seven edges. To color the cube so that no two adjacent faces have the color, one would need at least three colors
5.
Tesseract
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In geometry, the tesseract is the four-dimensional analog of the cube, the tesseract is to the cube as the cube is to the square. Just as the surface of the consists of six square faces. The tesseract is one of the six convex regular 4-polytopes, the tesseract is also called an 8-cell, C8, octachoron, octahedroid, cubic prism, and tetracube. It is the four-dimensional hypercube, or 4-cube as a part of the family of hypercubes or measure polytopes. In this publication, as well as some of Hintons later work, the tesseract can be constructed in a number of ways. As a regular polytope with three cubes folded together around every edge, it has Schläfli symbol with hyperoctahedral symmetry of order 384, constructed as a 4D hyperprism made of two parallel cubes, it can be named as a composite Schläfli symbol ×, with symmetry order 96. As a 4-4 duoprism, a Cartesian product of two squares, it can be named by a composite Schläfli symbol ×, with symmetry order 64, as an orthotope it can be represented by composite Schläfli symbol × × × or 4, with symmetry order 16. Since each vertex of a tesseract is adjacent to four edges, the dual polytope of the tesseract is called the hexadecachoron, or 16-cell, with Schläfli symbol. The standard tesseract in Euclidean 4-space is given as the hull of the points. That is, it consists of the points, A tesseract is bounded by eight hyperplanes, each pair of non-parallel hyperplanes intersects to form 24 square faces in a tesseract. Three cubes and three squares intersect at each edge, there are four cubes, six squares, and four edges meeting at every vertex. All in all, it consists of 8 cubes,24 squares,32 edges, the construction of a hypercube can be imagined the following way, 1-dimensional, Two points A and B can be connected to a line, giving a new line segment AB. 2-dimensional, Two parallel line segments AB and CD can be connected to become a square, 3-dimensional, Two parallel squares ABCD and EFGH can be connected to become a cube, with the corners marked as ABCDEFGH. 4-dimensional, Two parallel cubes ABCDEFGH and IJKLMNOP can be connected to become a hypercube and it is possible to project tesseracts into three- or two-dimensional spaces, as projecting a cube is possible on a two-dimensional space. Projections on the 2D-plane become more instructive by rearranging the positions of the projected vertices, the scheme is similar to the construction of a cube from two squares, juxtapose two copies of the lower-dimensional cube and connect the corresponding vertices. Each edge of a tesseract is of the same length, the regular complex polytope 42, in C2 has a real representation as a tesseract or 4-4 duoprism in 4-dimensional space. 42 has 16 vertices, and 8 4-edges and its symmetry is 42, order 32. It also has a lower construction, or 4×4, with symmetry 44
6.
Two-dimensional space
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In physics and mathematics, two-dimensional space is a geometric model of the planar projection of the physical universe. The two dimensions are commonly called length and width, both directions lie in the same plane. A sequence of n numbers can be understood as a location in n-dimensional space. When n =2, the set of all locations is called two-dimensional space or bi-dimensional space. Each reference line is called an axis or just axis of the system. The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as signed distances from the origin. The idea of system was developed in 1637 in writings by Descartes and independently by Pierre de Fermat. Both authors used a single axis in their treatments and have a length measured in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and these commentators introduced several concepts while trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes work. Later, the plane was thought of as a field, where any two points could be multiplied and, except for 0, divided and this was known as the complex plane. The complex plane is called the Argand plane because it is used in Argand diagrams. These are named after Jean-Robert Argand, although they were first described by Norwegian-Danish land surveyor, Argand diagrams are frequently used to plot the positions of the poles and zeroes of a function in the complex plane. In mathematics, analytic geometry describes every point in space by means of two coordinates. Two perpendicular coordinate axes are given which cross each other at the origin and they are usually labeled x and y. Another widely used system is the polar coordinate system, which specifies a point in terms of its distance from the origin. In two dimensions, there are infinitely many polytopes, the polygons, the first few regular ones are shown below, The Schläfli symbol represents a regular p-gon. The regular henagon and regular digon can be considered degenerate regular polygons and they can exist nondegenerately in non-Euclidean spaces like on a 2-sphere or a 2-torus. There exist infinitely many non-convex regular polytopes in two dimensions, whose Schläfli symbols consist of rational numbers and they are called star polygons and share the same vertex arrangements of the convex regular polygons
7.
One-dimensional space
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In physics and mathematics, a sequence of n numbers can be understood as a location in n-dimensional space. When n =1, the set of all locations is called a one-dimensional space. An example of a space is the number line, where the position of each point on it can be described by a single number. In algebraic geometry there are structures which are technically one-dimensional spaces. For a field k, it is a vector space over itself. Similarly, the line over k is a one-dimensional space. In particular, if k = ℂ, the complex plane, then the complex projective line P1 is one-dimensional with respect to ℂ. More generally, a ring is a module over itself. Similarly, the line over a ring is a one-dimensional space over the ring. In case the ring is an algebra over a field, these spaces are one-dimensional with respect to the algebra, the only regular polytope in one dimension is the line segment, with the Schläfli symbol. The hypersphere in 1 dimension is a pair of points, sometimes called a 0-sphere as its surface is zero-dimensional and its length is L =2 r where r is the radius. The most popular systems are the number line and the angle
8.
Three-dimensional space
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Three-dimensional space is a geometric setting in which three values are required to determine the position of an element. This is the meaning of the term dimension. In physics and mathematics, a sequence of n numbers can be understood as a location in n-dimensional space, when n =3, the set of all such locations is called three-dimensional Euclidean space. It is commonly represented by the symbol ℝ3 and this serves as a three-parameter model of the physical universe in which all known matter exists. However, this space is one example of a large variety of spaces in three dimensions called 3-manifolds. Furthermore, in case, these three values can be labeled by any combination of three chosen from the terms width, height, depth, and breadth. In mathematics, analytic geometry describes every point in space by means of three coordinates. Three coordinate axes are given, each perpendicular to the two at the origin, the point at which they cross. They are usually labeled x, y, and z, below are images of the above-mentioned systems. Two distinct points determine a line. Three distinct points are either collinear or determine a unique plane, four distinct points can either be collinear, coplanar or determine the entire space. Two distinct lines can intersect, be parallel or be skew. Two parallel lines, or two intersecting lines, lie in a plane, so skew lines are lines that do not meet. Two distinct planes can either meet in a line or are parallel. Three distinct planes, no pair of which are parallel, can meet in a common line. In the last case, the three lines of intersection of each pair of planes are mutually parallel, a line can lie in a given plane, intersect that plane in a unique point or be parallel to the plane. In the last case, there will be lines in the plane that are parallel to the given line, a hyperplane is a subspace of one dimension less than the dimension of the full space. The hyperplanes of a space are the two-dimensional subspaces, that is
9.
Four-dimensional space
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For example, the volume of a rectangular box is found by measuring its length, width, and depth. More than two millennia ago Greek philosophers explored in detail the implications of this uniformity, culminating in Euclids Elements. However, it was not until recent times that a handful of insightful mathematical innovators generalized the concept of dimensions to more than three. The idea of adding a fourth dimension began with Joseph-Louis Lagrange in the mid 1700s, in 1880 Charles Howard Hinton popularized these insights in an essay titled What is the Fourth Dimension. Which was notable for explaining the concept of a cube by going through a step-by-step generalization of the properties of lines, squares. The simplest form of Hintons method is to draw two ordinary cubes separated by a distance, and then draw lines between their equivalent vertices. This form can be seen in the accompanying animation whenever it shows a smaller inner cube inside a larger outer cube, the eight lines connecting the vertices of the two cubes in that case represent a single direction in the unseen fourth dimension. Higher dimensional spaces have become one of the foundations for formally expressing modern mathematics and physics. Large parts of these topics could not exist in their current forms without the use of such spaces, calendar entries for example are usually 4D locations, such as a meeting at time t at the intersection of two streets on some building floor. In list form such a meeting place at the 4D location. Einsteins concept of spacetime uses such a 4D space, though it has a Minkowski structure that is a bit more complicated than Euclidean 4D space, when dimensional locations are given as ordered lists of numbers such as they are called vectors or n-tuples. It is only when such locations are linked together into more complicated shapes that the richness and geometric complexity of 4D. A hint of that complexity can be seen in the animation of one of simplest possible 4D objects. Lagrange wrote in his Mécanique analytique that mechanics can be viewed as operating in a four-dimensional space — three dimensions of space, and one of time, the possibility of geometry in higher dimensions, including four dimensions in particular, was thus established. An arithmetic of four dimensions called quaternions was defined by William Rowan Hamilton in 1843 and this associative algebra was the source of the science of vector analysis in three dimensions as recounted in A History of Vector Analysis. Soon after tessarines and coquaternions were introduced as other four-dimensional algebras over R, one of the first major expositors of the fourth dimension was Charles Howard Hinton, starting in 1880 with his essay What is the Fourth Dimension. Published in the Dublin University magazine and he coined the terms tesseract, ana and kata in his book A New Era of Thought, and introduced a method for visualising the fourth dimension using cubes in the book Fourth Dimension. Hintons ideas inspired a fantasy about a Church of the Fourth Dimension featured by Martin Gardner in his January 1962 Mathematical Games column in Scientific American, in 1886 Victor Schlegel described his method of visualizing four-dimensional objects with Schlegel diagrams
10.
Projection (linear algebra)
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In linear algebra and functional analysis, a projection is a linear transformation P from a vector space to itself such that P2 = P. That is, whenever P is applied twice to any value, though abstract, this definition of projection formalizes and generalizes the idea of graphical projection. One can also consider the effect of a projection on an object by examining the effect of the projection on points in the object. For example, the function maps the point in three-dimensional space R3 to the point is an orthogonal projection onto the x–y plane. This function is represented by the matrix P =, the action of this matrix on an arbitrary vector is P =. To see that P is indeed a projection, i. e. P = P2, a simple example of a non-orthogonal projection is P =. Via matrix multiplication, one sees that P2 = = = P. proving that P is indeed a projection, the projection P is orthogonal if and only if α =0. Let W be a finite dimensional space and P be a projection on W. Suppose the subspaces U and V are the range and kernel of P respectively, then P has the following properties, By definition, P is idempotent. P is the identity operator I on U ∀ x ∈ U, P x = x and we have a direct sum W = U ⊕ V. Every vector x ∈ W may be decomposed uniquely as x = u + v with u = P x and v = x − P x = x, the range and kernel of a projection are complementary, as are P and Q = I − P. The operator Q is also a projection and the range and kernel of P become the kernel and range of Q and we say P is a projection along V onto U and Q is a projection along U onto V. In infinite dimensional spaces, the spectrum of a projection is contained in as −1 =1 λ I +1 λ P. Only 0 or 1 can be an eigenvalue of a projection, the corresponding eigenspaces are the kernel and range of the projection. Decomposition of a space into direct sums is not unique in general. Therefore, given a subspace V, there may be many projections whose range is V, if a projection is nontrivial it has minimal polynomial x 2 − x = x, which factors into distinct roots, and thus P is diagonalizable. The product of projections is not, in general, a projection, if projections commute, then their product is a projection. When the vector space W has a product and is complete the concept of orthogonality can be used
11.
Line segment
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In geometry, a line segment is a part of a line that is bounded by two distinct end points, and contains every point on the line between its endpoints. A closed line segment includes both endpoints, while a line segment excludes both endpoints, a half-open line segment includes exactly one of the endpoints. Examples of line include the sides of a triangle or square. More generally, when both of the end points are vertices of a polygon or polyhedron, the line segment is either an edge if they are adjacent vertices. When the end points both lie on a such as a circle, a line segment is called a chord. Sometimes one needs to distinguish between open and closed line segments, thus, the line segment can be expressed as a convex combination of the segments two end points. In geometry, it is defined that a point B is between two other points A and C, if the distance AB added to the distance BC is equal to the distance AC. Thus in R2 the line segment with endpoints A = and C = is the collection of points. A line segment is a connected, non-empty set, if V is a topological vector space, then a closed line segment is a closed set in V. However, an open line segment is an open set in V if and only if V is one-dimensional. More generally than above, the concept of a segment can be defined in an ordered geometry. A pair of segments can be any one of the following, intersecting, parallel, skew. The last possibility is a way that line segments differ from lines, in an axiomatic treatment of geometry, the notion of betweenness is either assumed to satisfy a certain number of axioms, or else be defined in terms of an isometry of a line. Segments play an important role in other theories, for example, a set is convex if the segment that joins any two points of the set is contained in the set. This is important because it transforms some of the analysis of sets to the analysis of a line segment. The Segment Addition Postulate can be used to add congruent segment or segments with equal lengths and consequently substitute other segments into another statement to make segments congruent. A line segment can be viewed as a case of an ellipse in which the semiminor axis goes to zero, the foci go to the endpoints. A complete orbit of this ellipse traverses the line segment twice, as a degenerate orbit this is a radial elliptic trajectory. In addition to appearing as the edges and diagonals of polygons and polyhedra, some very frequently considered segments in a triangle include the three altitudes, the three medians, the perpendicular bisectors of the sides, and the internal angle bisectors
12.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
13.
Mathematics
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
14.
Space (mathematics)
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In mathematics, a space is a set with some added structure. Mathematical spaces often form a hierarchy, i. e. one space may inherit all the characteristics of a parent space, modern mathematics treats space quite differently compared to classical mathematics. In the ancient mathematics, space was an abstraction of the three-dimensional space observed in the everyday life. The axiomatic method had been the research tool since Euclid. The method of coordinates was adopted by René Descartes in 1637, two equivalence relations between geometric figures were used, congruence and similarity. Translations, rotations and reflections transform a figure into congruent figures, homotheties — into similar figures, for example, all circles are mutually similar, but ellipses are not similar to circles. The relation between the two geometries, Euclidean and projective, shows that objects are not given to us with their structure. Rather, each mathematical theory describes its objects by some of their properties, distances and angles are never mentioned in the axioms of the projective geometry and therefore cannot appear in its theorems. The question what is the sum of the three angles of a triangle is meaningful in the Euclidean geometry but meaningless in the projective geometry. A different situation appeared in the 19th century, in some geometries the sum of the three angles of a triangle is well-defined but different from the classical value. The non-Euclidean hyperbolic geometry, introduced by Nikolai Lobachevsky in 1829, eugenio Beltrami in 1868 and Felix Klein in 1871 obtained Euclidean models of the non-Euclidean hyperbolic geometry, and thereby completely justified this theory. This discovery forced the abandonment of the pretensions to the truth of Euclidean geometry. It showed that axioms are not obvious, nor implications of definitions, to what extent do they correspond to an experimental reality. This important physical problem no longer has anything to do with mathematics, even if a geometry does not correspond to an experimental reality, its theorems remain no less mathematical truths. These Euclidean objects and relations play the non-Euclidean geometry like contemporary actors playing an ancient performance, relations between the actors only mimic relations between the characters in the play. Likewise, the relations between the chosen objects of the Euclidean model only mimic the non-Euclidean relations. It shows that relations between objects are essential in mathematics, while the nature of the objects is not, according to Nicolas Bourbaki, the period between 1795 and 1872 can be called the golden age of geometry. Analytic geometry made a progress and succeeded in replacing theorems of classical geometry with computations via invariants of transformation groups
15.
Coordinates
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The order of the coordinates is significant, and they are sometimes identified by their position in an ordered tuple and sometimes by a letter, as in the x-coordinate. The coordinates are taken to be real numbers in elementary mathematics, the use of a coordinate system allows problems in geometry to be translated into problems about numbers and vice versa, this is the basis of analytic geometry. The simplest example of a system is the identification of points on a line with real numbers using the number line. In this system, an arbitrary point O is chosen on a given line. The coordinate of a point P is defined as the distance from O to P. Each point is given a unique coordinate and each number is the coordinate of a unique point. The prototypical example of a system is the Cartesian coordinate system. In the plane, two lines are chosen and the coordinates of a point are taken to be the signed distances to the lines. In three dimensions, three perpendicular planes are chosen and the three coordinates of a point are the distances to each of the planes. This can be generalized to create n coordinates for any point in n-dimensional Euclidean space, depending on the direction and order of the coordinate axis the system may be a right-hand or a left-hand system. This is one of many coordinate systems, another common coordinate system for the plane is the polar coordinate system. A point is chosen as the pole and a ray from this point is taken as the polar axis, for a given angle θ, there is a single line through the pole whose angle with the polar axis is θ. Then there is a point on this line whose signed distance from the origin is r for given number r. For a given pair of coordinates there is a single point, for example, and are all polar coordinates for the same point. The pole is represented by for any value of θ, there are two common methods for extending the polar coordinate system to three dimensions. In the cylindrical coordinate system, a z-coordinate with the meaning as in Cartesian coordinates is added to the r and θ polar coordinates giving a triple. Spherical coordinates take this a further by converting the pair of cylindrical coordinates to polar coordinates giving a triple. A point in the plane may be represented in coordinates by a triple where x/z and y/z are the Cartesian coordinates of the point
16.
Point (geometry)
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In modern mathematics, a point refers usually to an element of some set called a space. More specifically, in Euclidean geometry, a point is a primitive notion upon which the geometry is built, being a primitive notion means that a point cannot be defined in terms of previously defined objects. That is, a point is defined only by some properties, called axioms, in particular, the geometric points do not have any length, area, volume, or any other dimensional attribute. A common interpretation is that the concept of a point is meant to capture the notion of a location in Euclidean space. Points, considered within the framework of Euclidean geometry, are one of the most fundamental objects, Euclid originally defined the point as that which has no part. This idea is easily generalized to three-dimensional Euclidean space, where a point is represented by a triplet with the additional third number representing depth. Further generalizations are represented by an ordered tuplet of n terms, many constructs within Euclidean geometry consist of an infinite collection of points that conform to certain axioms. This is usually represented by a set of points, As an example, a line is a set of points of the form L =. Similar constructions exist that define the plane, line segment and other related concepts, a line segment consisting of only a single point is called a degenerate line segment. In addition to defining points and constructs related to points, Euclid also postulated a key idea about points, in spite of this, modern expansions of the system serve to remove these assumptions. There are several inequivalent definitions of dimension in mathematics, in all of the common definitions, a point is 0-dimensional. The dimension of a space is the maximum size of a linearly independent subset. In a vector space consisting of a point, there is no linearly independent subset. The zero vector is not itself linearly independent, because there is a non trivial linear combination making it zero,1 ⋅0 =0, if no such minimal n exists, the space is said to be of infinite covering dimension. A point is zero-dimensional with respect to the covering dimension because every open cover of the space has a refinement consisting of a open set. The Hausdorff dimension of X is defined by dim H , = inf, a point has Hausdorff dimension 0 because it can be covered by a single ball of arbitrarily small radius. Although the notion of a point is considered fundamental in mainstream geometry and topology, there are some systems that forgo it, e. g. noncommutative geometry. More precisely, such structures generalize well-known spaces of functions in a way that the operation take a value at this point may not be defined
17.
Line (geometry)
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The notion of line or straight line was introduced by ancient mathematicians to represent straight objects with negligible width and depth. Lines are an idealization of such objects, the straight line is that which is equally extended between its points. In modern mathematics, given the multitude of geometries, the concept of a line is tied to the way the geometry is described. When a geometry is described by a set of axioms, the notion of a line is left undefined. The properties of lines are determined by the axioms which refer to them. One advantage to this approach is the flexibility it gives to users of the geometry, thus in differential geometry a line may be interpreted as a geodesic, while in some projective geometries a line is a 2-dimensional vector space. This flexibility also extends beyond mathematics and, for example, permits physicists to think of the path of a light ray as being a line, to avoid this vicious circle certain concepts must be taken as primitive concepts, terms which are given no definition. In geometry, it is frequently the case that the concept of line is taken as a primitive, in those situations where a line is a defined concept, as in coordinate geometry, some other fundamental ideas are taken as primitives. When the line concept is a primitive, the behaviour and properties of lines are dictated by the axioms which they must satisfy, in a non-axiomatic or simplified axiomatic treatment of geometry, the concept of a primitive notion may be too abstract to be dealt with. In this circumstance it is possible that a description or mental image of a notion is provided to give a foundation to build the notion on which would formally be based on the axioms. Descriptions of this type may be referred to, by some authors and these are not true definitions and could not be used in formal proofs of statements. The definition of line in Euclids Elements falls into this category, when geometry was first formalised by Euclid in the Elements, he defined a general line to be breadthless length with a straight line being a line which lies evenly with the points on itself. These definitions serve little purpose since they use terms which are not, themselves, in fact, Euclid did not use these definitions in this work and probably included them just to make it clear to the reader what was being discussed. In an axiomatic formulation of Euclidean geometry, such as that of Hilbert, for example, for any two distinct points, there is a unique line containing them, and any two distinct lines intersect in at most one point. In two dimensions, i. e. the Euclidean plane, two lines which do not intersect are called parallel, in higher dimensions, two lines that do not intersect are parallel if they are contained in a plane, or skew if they are not. Any collection of many lines partitions the plane into convex polygons. Lines in a Cartesian plane or, more generally, in affine coordinates, in two dimensions, the equation for non-vertical lines is often given in the slope-intercept form, y = m x + b where, m is the slope or gradient of the line. B is the y-intercept of the line, X is the independent variable of the function y = f
18.
Surface (topology)
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In topology and differential geometry, a surface is a two-dimensional manifold, and, as such, may be an abstract surface not embedded in any Euclidean space. For example, the Klein bottle is a surface, which cannot be represented in the three-dimensional Euclidean space without introducing self-intersections, in mathematics, a surface is a geometrical shape that resembles to a deformed plane. The most familiar examples arise as boundaries of solid objects in ordinary three-dimensional Euclidean space R3, the exact definition of a surface may depend on the context. Typically, in geometry, a surface may cross itself, while, in topology and differential geometry. A surface is a space, this means that a moving point on a surface may move in two directions. In other words, around almost every point, there is a patch on which a two-dimensional coordinate system is defined. For example, the surface of the Earth resembles a two-dimensional sphere, the concept of surface is widely used in physics, engineering, computer graphics, and many other disciplines, primarily in representing the surfaces of physical objects. For example, in analyzing the properties of an airplane. A surface is a space in which every point has an open neighbourhood homeomorphic to some open subset of the Euclidean plane E2. Such a neighborhood, together with the corresponding homeomorphism, is known as a chart and it is through this chart that the neighborhood inherits the standard coordinates on the Euclidean plane. These coordinates are known as coordinates and these homeomorphisms lead us to describe surfaces as being locally Euclidean. In most writings on the subject, it is assumed, explicitly or implicitly, that as a topological space a surface is also nonempty, second countable. It is also assumed that the surfaces under consideration are connected. The rest of this article will assume, unless specified otherwise, that a surface is nonempty, Hausdorff, second countable and these homeomorphisms are also known as charts. The boundary of the upper half-plane is the x-axis, a point on the surface mapped via a chart to the x-axis is termed a boundary point. The collection of points is known as the boundary of the surface which is necessarily a one-manifold, that is. On the other hand, a point mapped to above the x-axis is an interior point, the collection of interior points is the interior of the surface which is always non-empty. The closed disk is an example of a surface with boundary
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Cylinder
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In its simplest form, a cylinder is the surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given straight line called the axis of the cylinder. It is one of the most basic curvilinear geometric shapes, commonly the word cylinder is understood to refer to a finite section of a right circular cylinder having a finite height with circular ends perpendicular to the axis as shown in the figure. If the ends are open, it is called an open cylinder, if the ends are closed by flat surfaces it is called a solid cylinder. The formulae for the area and the volume of such a cylinder have been known since deep antiquity. The area of the side is known as the lateral area. An open cylinder does not include either top or bottom elements, the surface area of a closed cylinder is made up the sum of all three components, top, bottom and side. Its surface area is A = 2πr2 + 2πrh = 2πr = πd=L+2B, for a given volume, the closed cylinder with the smallest surface area has h = 2r. Equivalently, for a surface area, the closed cylinder with the largest volume has h = 2r. Cylindric sections are the intersections of cylinders with planes, for a right circular cylinder, there are four possibilities. A plane tangent to the cylinder meets the cylinder in a straight line segment. Moved while parallel to itself, the plane either does not intersect the cylinder or intersects it in two line segments. All other planes intersect the cylinder in an ellipse or, when they are perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, a cylinder whose cross section is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola is called an elliptic cylinder, parabolic cylinder, or hyperbolic cylinder respectively. Elliptic cylinders are also known as cylindroids, but that name is ambiguous, as it can also refer to the Plücker conoid. The volume of a cylinder with height h is V = ∫0 h A d x = ∫0 h π a b d x = π a b ∫0 h d x = π a b h. Even more general than the cylinder is the generalized cylinder. The cylinder is a degenerate quadric because at least one of the coordinates does not appear in the equation, an oblique cylinder has the top and bottom surfaces displaced from one another. There are other unusual types of cylinders. Let the height be h, internal radius r, and external radius R, the volume is given by V = π h
20.
Sphere
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A sphere is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional space that is the surface of a completely round ball. This distance r is the radius of the ball, and the point is the center of the mathematical ball. The longest straight line through the ball, connecting two points of the sphere, passes through the center and its length is twice the radius. While outside mathematics the terms sphere and ball are used interchangeably. The ball and the share the same radius, diameter. The surface area of a sphere is, A =4 π r 2, at any given radius r, the incremental volume equals the product of the surface area at radius r and the thickness of a shell, δ V ≈ A ⋅ δ r. The total volume is the summation of all volumes, V ≈ ∑ A ⋅ δ r. In the limit as δr approaches zero this equation becomes, V = ∫0 r A d r ′, substitute V,43 π r 3 = ∫0 r A d r ′. Differentiating both sides of equation with respect to r yields A as a function of r,4 π r 2 = A. Which is generally abbreviated as, A =4 π r 2, alternatively, the area element on the sphere is given in spherical coordinates by dA = r2 sin θ dθ dφ. In Cartesian coordinates, the element is d S = r r 2 − ∑ i ≠ k x i 2 ∏ i ≠ k d x i, ∀ k. For more generality, see area element, the total area can thus be obtained by integration, A = ∫02 π ∫0 π r 2 sin θ d θ d φ =4 π r 2. In three dimensions, the volume inside a sphere is derived to be V =43 π r 3 where r is the radius of the sphere, archimedes first derived this formula, which shows that the volume inside a sphere is 2/3 that of a circumscribed cylinder. In modern mathematics, this formula can be derived using integral calculus, at any given x, the incremental volume equals the product of the cross-sectional area of the disk at x and its thickness, δ V ≈ π y 2 ⋅ δ x. The total volume is the summation of all volumes, V ≈ ∑ π y 2 ⋅ δ x. In the limit as δx approaches zero this equation becomes, V = ∫ − r r π y 2 d x. At any given x, a right-angled triangle connects x, y and r to the origin, hence, applying the Pythagorean theorem yields, thus, substituting y with a function of x gives, V = ∫ − r r π d x. Which can now be evaluated as follows, V = π − r r = π − π =43 π r 3
21.
Latitude
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In geography, latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north–south position of a point on the Earths surface. Latitude is an angle which ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the poles, lines of constant latitude, or parallels, run east–west as circles parallel to the equator. Latitude is used together with longitude to specify the location of features on the surface of the Earth. Without qualification the term latitude should be taken to be the latitude as defined in the following sections. Also defined are six auxiliary latitudes which are used in special applications, there is a separate article on the History of latitude measurements. Two levels of abstraction are employed in the definition of latitude and longitude, in the first step the physical surface is modelled by the geoid, a surface which approximates the mean sea level over the oceans and its continuation under the land masses. The second step is to approximate the geoid by a mathematically simpler reference surface, the simplest choice for the reference surface is a sphere, but the geoid is more accurately modelled by an ellipsoid. The definitions of latitude and longitude on such surfaces are detailed in the following sections. Lines of constant latitude and longitude together constitute a graticule on the reference surface, latitude and longitude together with some specification of height constitute a geographic coordinate system as defined in the specification of the ISO19111 standard. This is of importance in accurate applications, such as a Global Positioning System, but in common usage, where high accuracy is not required. In English texts the latitude angle, defined below, is denoted by the Greek lower-case letter phi. It is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds or decimal degrees, the precise measurement of latitude requires an understanding of the gravitational field of the Earth, either to set up theodolites or to determine GPS satellite orbits. The study of the figure of the Earth together with its field is the science of geodesy. These topics are not discussed in this article and this article relates to coordinate systems for the Earth, it may be extended to cover the Moon, planets and other celestial objects by a simple change of nomenclature. The primary reference points are the poles where the axis of rotation of the Earth intersects the reference surface, the plane through the centre of the Earth and perpendicular to the rotation axis intersects the surface at a great circle called the Equator. Planes parallel to the plane intersect the surface in circles of constant latitude. The Equator has a latitude of 0°, the North Pole has a latitude of 90° North, the latitude of an arbitrary point is the angle between the equatorial plane and the radius to that point. The latitude, as defined in this way for the sphere, is termed the spherical latitude
22.
Classical mechanics
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In physics, classical mechanics is one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, along with quantum mechanics. Classical mechanics is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the influence of a system of forces. The study of the motion of bodies is an ancient one, making classical mechanics one of the oldest and largest subjects in science, engineering and technology. Classical mechanics describes the motion of objects, from projectiles to parts of machinery, as well as astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars. Within classical mechanics are fields of study that describe the behavior of solids, liquids and gases, Classical mechanics also provides extremely accurate results as long as the domain of study is restricted to large objects and the speeds involved do not approach the speed of light. When both quantum and classical mechanics cannot apply, such as at the level with high speeds. Since these aspects of physics were developed long before the emergence of quantum physics and relativity, however, a number of modern sources do include relativistic mechanics, which in their view represents classical mechanics in its most developed and accurate form. Later, more abstract and general methods were developed, leading to reformulations of classical mechanics known as Lagrangian mechanics and these advances were largely made in the 18th and 19th centuries, and they extend substantially beyond Newtons work, particularly through their use of analytical mechanics. The following introduces the concepts of classical mechanics. For simplicity, it often models real-world objects as point particles, the motion of a point particle is characterized by a small number of parameters, its position, mass, and the forces applied to it. Each of these parameters is discussed in turn, in reality, the kind of objects that classical mechanics can describe always have a non-zero size. Objects with non-zero size have more complicated behavior than hypothetical point particles, because of the degrees of freedom. However, the results for point particles can be used to such objects by treating them as composite objects. The center of mass of a composite object behaves like a point particle, Classical mechanics uses common-sense notions of how matter and forces exist and interact. It assumes that matter and energy have definite, knowable attributes such as where an object is in space, non-relativistic mechanics also assumes that forces act instantaneously. The position of a point particle is defined with respect to a fixed reference point in space called the origin O, in space. A simple coordinate system might describe the position of a point P by means of a designated as r. In general, the point particle need not be stationary relative to O, such that r is a function of t, the time
23.
Space
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Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have relative position and direction. Physical space is conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider it, with time, to be part of a boundless four-dimensional continuum known as spacetime. The concept of space is considered to be of importance to an understanding of the physical universe. However, disagreement continues between philosophers over whether it is itself an entity, a relationship between entities, or part of a conceptual framework. Many of these classical philosophical questions were discussed in the Renaissance and then reformulated in the 17th century, in Isaac Newtons view, space was absolute—in the sense that it existed permanently and independently of whether there was any matter in the space. Other natural philosophers, notably Gottfried Leibniz, thought instead that space was in fact a collection of relations between objects, given by their distance and direction from one another. In the 18th century, the philosopher and theologian George Berkeley attempted to refute the visibility of spatial depth in his Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision. Kant referred to the experience of space in his Critique of Pure Reason as being a pure a priori form of intuition. In the 19th and 20th centuries mathematicians began to examine geometries that are non-Euclidean, in space is conceived as curved. According to Albert Einsteins theory of relativity, space around gravitational fields deviates from Euclidean space. Experimental tests of general relativity have confirmed that non-Euclidean geometries provide a model for the shape of space. In the seventeenth century, the philosophy of space and time emerged as an issue in epistemology. At its heart, Gottfried Leibniz, the German philosopher-mathematician, and Isaac Newton, unoccupied regions are those that could have objects in them, and thus spatial relations with other places. For Leibniz, then, space was an abstraction from the relations between individual entities or their possible locations and therefore could not be continuous but must be discrete. Space could be thought of in a way to the relations between family members. Although people in the family are related to one another, the relations do not exist independently of the people, but since there would be no observational way of telling these universes apart then, according to the identity of indiscernibles, there would be no real difference between them. According to the principle of sufficient reason, any theory of space that implied that there could be two possible universes must therefore be wrong. Newton took space to be more than relations between objects and based his position on observation and experimentation
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Time
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Time is the indefinite continued progress of existence and events that occur in apparently irreversible succession from the past through the present to the future. Time is often referred to as the dimension, along with the three spatial dimensions. Time has long been an important subject of study in religion, philosophy, and science, nevertheless, diverse fields such as business, industry, sports, the sciences, and the performing arts all incorporate some notion of time into their respective measuring systems. Two contrasting viewpoints on time divide prominent philosophers, one view is that time is part of the fundamental structure of the universe—a dimension independent of events, in which events occur in sequence. Isaac Newton subscribed to this realist view, and hence it is referred to as Newtonian time. This second view, in the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz and Immanuel Kant, holds that time is neither an event nor a thing, Time in physics is unambiguously operationally defined as what a clock reads. Time is one of the seven fundamental physical quantities in both the International System of Units and International System of Quantities, Time is used to define other quantities—such as velocity—so defining time in terms of such quantities would result in circularity of definition. The operational definition leaves aside the question there is something called time, apart from the counting activity just mentioned, that flows. Investigations of a single continuum called spacetime bring questions about space into questions about time, questions that have their roots in the works of early students of natural philosophy. Furthermore, it may be there is a subjective component to time. Temporal measurement has occupied scientists and technologists, and was a motivation in navigation. Periodic events and periodic motion have long served as standards for units of time, examples include the apparent motion of the sun across the sky, the phases of the moon, the swing of a pendulum, and the beat of a heart. Currently, the unit of time, the second, is defined by measuring the electronic transition frequency of caesium atoms. Time is also of significant social importance, having economic value as well as value, due to an awareness of the limited time in each day. In day-to-day life, the clock is consulted for periods less than a day whereas the calendar is consulted for periods longer than a day, increasingly, personal electronic devices display both calendars and clocks simultaneously. The number that marks the occurrence of an event as to hour or date is obtained by counting from a fiducial epoch—a central reference point. Artifacts from the Paleolithic suggest that the moon was used to time as early as 6,000 years ago. Lunar calendars were among the first to appear, either 12 or 13 lunar months, without intercalation to add days or months to some years, seasons quickly drift in a calendar based solely on twelve lunar months
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Absolute space and time
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Absolute space and time is a concept in physics and philosophy about the properties of the universe. In physics, absolute space and time may be a preferred frame, a version of the concept of absolute space can be seen in Aristotelian physics. Westman writes that whiff of absolute space can be observed in Copernicus De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, according to Newton, absolute time exists independently of any perceiver and progresses at a consistent pace throughout the universe. Unlike relative time, Newton believed absolute time was imperceptible and could only be understood mathematically, according to Newton, humans are only capable of perceiving relative time, which is a measurement of perceivable objects in motion. From these movements, we infer the passage of time, absolute space, in its own nature, without regard to anything external, remains always similar and immovable. Relative space is some movable dimension or measure of the spaces, which our senses determine by its position to bodies. Absolute motion is the translation of a body from one place into another, and relative motion. These notions imply that absolute space and time do not depend upon physical events, thus, every object has an absolute state of motion relative to absolute space, so that an object must be either in a state of absolute rest, or moving at some absolute speed. Historically, there have been differing views on the concept of absolute space, gottfried Leibniz was of the opinion that space made no sense except as the relative location of bodies, and time made no sense except as the relative movement of bodies. A more recent form of objections was made by Ernst Mach. Machs principle proposes that mechanics is entirely about relative motion of bodies and, in particular, so, for example, a single particle in a universe with no other bodies would have zero mass. According to Mach, Newtons examples simply illustrate relative rotation of spheres, when, accordingly, we say that a body preserves unchanged its direction and velocity in space, our assertion is nothing more or less than an abbreviated reference to the entire universe. —Ernst Mach, as quoted by Ciufolini and Wheeler, Gravitation and Inertia, even within the context of Newtonian mechanics, the modern view is that absolute space is unnecessary. Instead, the notion of inertial frame of reference has taken precedence, that is, absolute space does not explain inertial forces since they are related to acceleration with respect to any one of the inertial frames. Absolute space acts on objects by inducing their resistance to acceleration. Newton himself recognized the role of inertial frames, the motions of bodies included in a given space are the same among themselves, whether that space is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a straight line. As a practical matter, inertial frames often are taken as frames moving uniformly with respect to the fixed stars, see Inertial frame of reference for more discussion on this. In Einsteins theories, the ideas of time and space were superseded by the notion of spacetime in special relativity
26.
Electromagnetism
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Electromagnetism is a branch of physics involving the study of the electromagnetic force, a type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles. The electromagnetic force usually exhibits electromagnetic fields such as fields, magnetic fields. The other three fundamental interactions are the interaction, the weak interaction, and gravitation. The word electromagnetism is a form of two Greek terms, ἤλεκτρον, ēlektron, amber, and μαγνῆτις λίθος magnētis lithos, which means magnesian stone. The electromagnetic force plays a role in determining the internal properties of most objects encountered in daily life. Ordinary matter takes its form as a result of forces between individual atoms and molecules in matter, and is a manifestation of the electromagnetic force. Electrons are bound by the force to atomic nuclei, and their orbital shapes. The electromagnetic force governs the processes involved in chemistry, which arise from interactions between the electrons of neighboring atoms, there are numerous mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field. In classical electrodynamics, electric fields are described as electric potential, although electromagnetism is considered one of the four fundamental forces, at high energy the weak force and electromagnetic force are unified as a single electroweak force. In the history of the universe, during the epoch the unified force broke into the two separate forces as the universe cooled. Originally, electricity and magnetism were considered to be two separate forces, Magnetic poles attract or repel one another in a manner similar to positive and negative charges and always exist as pairs, every north pole is yoked to a south pole. An electric current inside a wire creates a corresponding magnetic field outside the wire. Its direction depends on the direction of the current in the wire. A current is induced in a loop of wire when it is moved toward or away from a field, or a magnet is moved towards or away from it. While preparing for a lecture on 21 April 1820, Hans Christian Ørsted made a surprising observation. As he was setting up his materials, he noticed a compass needle deflected away from north when the electric current from the battery he was using was switched on. At the time of discovery, Ørsted did not suggest any explanation of the phenomenon. However, three later he began more intensive investigations
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Spacetime
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In physics, spacetime is any mathematical model that combines space and time into a single interwoven continuum. Until the turn of the 20th century, the assumption had been that the 3D geometry of the universe was distinct from time, Einsteins theory was framed in terms of kinematics, and showed how measurements of space and time varied for observers in different reference frames. His theory was an advance over Lorentzs 1904 theory of electromagnetic phenomena. A key feature of this interpretation is the definition of an interval that combines distance. Although measurements of distance and time between events differ among observers, the interval is independent of the inertial frame of reference in which they are recorded. The resultant spacetime came to be known as Minkowski space, non-relativistic classical mechanics treats time as a universal quantity of measurement which is uniform throughout space and which is separate from space. Classical mechanics assumes that time has a constant rate of passage that is independent of the state of motion of an observer, furthermore, it assumes that space is Euclidean, which is to say, it assumes that space follows the geometry of common sense. General relativity, in addition, provides an explanation of how gravitational fields can slow the passage of time for an object as seen by an observer outside the field. Mathematically, spacetime is a manifold, which is to say, by analogy, at small enough scales, a globe appears flat. An extremely large scale factor, c relates distances measured in space with distances measured in time, waves implied the existence of a medium which waved, but attempts to measure the properties of the hypothetical luminiferous aether implied by these experiments provided contradictory results. For example, the Fizeau experiment of 1851 demonstrated that the speed of light in flowing water was less than the speed of light in air plus the speed of the flowing water, the partial aether-dragging implied by this result was in conflict with measurements of stellar aberration. By 1904, Lorentz had expanded his theory such that he had arrived at equations formally identical with those that Einstein were to derive later, but with a fundamentally different interpretation. As a theory of dynamics, his theory assumed actual physical deformations of the constituents of matter. For example, most physicists believed that Lorentz contraction would be detectable by such experiments as the Trouton–Noble experiment or the Experiments of Rayleigh and Brace. However, these negative results, and in his 1904 theory of the electron. Einstein performed his analyses in terms of kinematics rather than dynamics and it would appear that he did not at first think geometrically about spacetime. It was Einsteins former mathematics professor, Hermann Minkowski, who was to provide an interpretation of special relativity. Einstein was initially dismissive of the interpretation of special relativity
28.
Event (relativity)
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In physics, and in particular relativity, an event is a point in spacetime and the physical situation or occurrence associated with it. For example, a glass breaking on the floor is an event, it occurs at a unique place and these four coordinates together form a four-vector associated to the event. One of the goals of relativity is to specify the possibility of one event influencing another and this is done by means of the metric tensor, which allows for determining the causal structure of spacetime. The difference between two events can be classified into spacelike, lightlike and timelike separations, only if two events are separated by a lightlike or timelike interval can one influence the other
29.
Minkowski space
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Minkowski space is closely associated with Einsteins theory of special relativity, and is the most common mathematical structure on which special relativity is formulated. Because it treats time differently than it treats the three dimensions, Minkowski space differs from four-dimensional Euclidean space. In 3-dimensional Euclidean space, the group is the Euclidean group. It consists of rotations, reflections, and translations, when time is amended as a fourth dimension, the further transformations of translations in time and Galilean boosts are added, and the group of all these transformations is called the Galilean group. All Galilean transformations preserve the 3-dimensional Euclidean distance, Time differences are separately preserved as well. This changes in the spacetime of special relativity, where space, spacetime is equipped with an indefinite non-degenerate bilinear form. Equipped with this product, the mathematical model of spacetime is called Minkowski space. The analogue of the Galilean group for Minkowski space, preserving the interval is the Poincaré group. In summary, Galilean spacetime and Minkowski spacetime are, when viewed as barebones manifolds and they differ in what kind of further structures are defined on them. Here the speed of c is, following Poincare, set to unity. The naming and ordering of coordinates, with the labels for space coordinates. The above expression, while making the expression more familiar. Rotations in planes spanned by two unit vectors appear in coordinate space as well as in physical spacetime appear as Euclidean rotations and are interpreted in the ordinary sense. The analogy with Euclidean rotations is thus only partial and this idea was elaborated by Hermann Minkowski, who used it to restate the Maxwell equations in four dimensions, showing directly their invariance under the Lorentz transformation. He further reformulated in four dimensions the then-recent theory of relativity of Einstein. From this he concluded that time and space should be treated equally, points in this space correspond to events in spacetime. In this space, there is a defined light-cone associated with each point and it is principally this view of spacetime that is current nowadays, although the older view involving imaginary time has also influenced special relativity. An imaginary time coordinate is used also for more subtle reasons in quantum field theory than formal appearance of expressions, in this context, the transformation is called a Wick rotation
30.
Gravity
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Gravity, or gravitation, is a natural phenomenon by which all things with mass are brought toward one another, including planets, stars and galaxies. Since energy and mass are equivalent, all forms of energy, including light, on Earth, gravity gives weight to physical objects and causes the ocean tides. Gravity has a range, although its effects become increasingly weaker on farther objects. The most extreme example of this curvature of spacetime is a hole, from which nothing can escape once past its event horizon. More gravity results in time dilation, where time lapses more slowly at a lower gravitational potential. Gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental interactions of nature, the gravitational attraction is approximately 1038 times weaker than the strong force,1036 times weaker than the electromagnetic force and 1029 times weaker than the weak force. As a consequence, gravity has an influence on the behavior of subatomic particles. On the other hand, gravity is the dominant interaction at the macroscopic scale, for this reason, in part, pursuit of a theory of everything, the merging of the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics into quantum gravity, has become an area of research. While the modern European thinkers are credited with development of gravitational theory, some of the earliest descriptions came from early mathematician-astronomers, such as Aryabhata, who had identified the force of gravity to explain why objects do not fall out when the Earth rotates. Later, the works of Brahmagupta referred to the presence of force, described it as an attractive force. Modern work on gravitational theory began with the work of Galileo Galilei in the late 16th and this was a major departure from Aristotles belief that heavier objects have a higher gravitational acceleration. Galileo postulated air resistance as the reason that objects with less mass may fall slower in an atmosphere, galileos work set the stage for the formulation of Newtons theory of gravity. In 1687, English mathematician Sir Isaac Newton published Principia, which hypothesizes the inverse-square law of universal gravitation. Newtons theory enjoyed its greatest success when it was used to predict the existence of Neptune based on motions of Uranus that could not be accounted for by the actions of the other planets. Calculations by both John Couch Adams and Urbain Le Verrier predicted the position of the planet. A discrepancy in Mercurys orbit pointed out flaws in Newtons theory, the issue was resolved in 1915 by Albert Einsteins new theory of general relativity, which accounted for the small discrepancy in Mercurys orbit. The simplest way to test the equivalence principle is to drop two objects of different masses or compositions in a vacuum and see whether they hit the ground at the same time. Such experiments demonstrate that all objects fall at the rate when other forces are negligible
31.
General relativity
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General relativity is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and the current description of gravitation in modern physics. General relativity generalizes special relativity and Newtons law of gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time. In particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the energy and momentum of whatever matter, the relation is specified by the Einstein field equations, a system of partial differential equations. Examples of such differences include gravitational time dilation, gravitational lensing, the redshift of light. The predictions of relativity have been confirmed in all observations. Although general relativity is not the only theory of gravity. Einsteins theory has important astrophysical implications, for example, it implies the existence of black holes—regions of space in which space and time are distorted in such a way that nothing, not even light, can escape—as an end-state for massive stars. The bending of light by gravity can lead to the phenomenon of gravitational lensing, General relativity also predicts the existence of gravitational waves, which have since been observed directly by physics collaboration LIGO. In addition, general relativity is the basis of current cosmological models of an expanding universe. Soon after publishing the special theory of relativity in 1905, Einstein started thinking about how to incorporate gravity into his new relativistic framework. In 1907, beginning with a thought experiment involving an observer in free fall. After numerous detours and false starts, his work culminated in the presentation to the Prussian Academy of Science in November 1915 of what are now known as the Einstein field equations. These equations specify how the geometry of space and time is influenced by whatever matter and radiation are present, the Einstein field equations are nonlinear and very difficult to solve. Einstein used approximation methods in working out initial predictions of the theory, but as early as 1916, the astrophysicist Karl Schwarzschild found the first non-trivial exact solution to the Einstein field equations, the Schwarzschild metric. This solution laid the groundwork for the description of the stages of gravitational collapse. In 1917, Einstein applied his theory to the universe as a whole, in line with contemporary thinking, he assumed a static universe, adding a new parameter to his original field equations—the cosmological constant—to match that observational presumption. By 1929, however, the work of Hubble and others had shown that our universe is expanding and this is readily described by the expanding cosmological solutions found by Friedmann in 1922, which do not require a cosmological constant. Lemaître used these solutions to formulate the earliest version of the Big Bang models, in which our universe has evolved from an extremely hot, Einstein later declared the cosmological constant the biggest blunder of his life
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String theory
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In physics, string theory is a theoretical framework in which the point-like particles of particle physics are replaced by one-dimensional objects called strings. It describes how strings propagate through space and interact with each other. On distance scales larger than the scale, a string looks just like an ordinary particle, with its mass, charge. In string theory, one of the vibrational states of the string corresponds to the graviton. Thus string theory is a theory of quantum gravity, String theory is a broad and varied subject that attempts to address a number of deep questions of fundamental physics. Despite much work on problems, it is not known to what extent string theory describes the real world or how much freedom the theory allows to choose the details. String theory was first studied in the late 1960s as a theory of the nuclear force. Subsequently, it was realized that the properties that made string theory unsuitable as a theory of nuclear physics made it a promising candidate for a quantum theory of gravity. The earliest version of string theory, bosonic string theory, incorporated only the class of known as bosons. It later developed into superstring theory, which posits a connection called supersymmetry between bosons and the class of particles called fermions. In late 1997, theorists discovered an important relationship called the AdS/CFT correspondence, one of the challenges of string theory is that the full theory does not have a satisfactory definition in all circumstances. Another issue is that the theory is thought to describe an enormous landscape of possible universes, and these issues have led some in the community to criticize these approaches to physics and question the value of continued research on string theory unification. In the twentieth century, two theoretical frameworks emerged for formulating the laws of physics, one of these frameworks was Albert Einsteins general theory of relativity, a theory that explains the force of gravity and the structure of space and time. The other was quantum mechanics, a different formalism for describing physical phenomena using probability. In spite of successes, there are still many problems that remain to be solved. One of the deepest problems in physics is the problem of quantum gravity. The general theory of relativity is formulated within the framework of classical physics, in addition to the problem of developing a consistent theory of quantum gravity, there are many other fundamental problems in the physics of atomic nuclei, black holes, and the early universe. String theory is a framework that attempts to address these questions
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Supergravity
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In theoretical physics, supergravity is a field theory that combines the principles of supersymmetry and general relativity. Together, these imply that, in supergravity, the supersymmetry is a local symmetry, since the generators of supersymmetry are convoluted with the Poincaré group to form a super-Poincaré algebra, it can be seen that supergravity follows naturally from local supersymmetry. Like any field theory of gravity, a supergravity theory contains a field whose quantum is the graviton. Supersymmetry requires the graviton field to have a superpartner and this field has spin 3/2 and its quantum is the gravitino. The number of fields is equal to the number of supersymmetries. The first theory of local supersymmetry was proposed in 1975 by Dick Arnowitt, Supergravity theories with N>1 are usually referred to as extended supergravity. Some supergravity theories were shown to be related to certain higher-dimensional supergravity theories via dimensional reduction, in these classes of models collectively now known as minimal supergravity Grand Unification Theories, gravity mediates the breaking of SUSY through the existence of a hidden sector. MSUGRA naturally generates the Soft SUSY breaking terms which are a consequence of the Super Higgs effect, radiative breaking of electroweak symmetry through Renormalization Group Equations follows as an immediate consequence. One of these supergravities, the 11-dimensional theory, generated considerable excitement as the first potential candidate for the theory of everything and these problems are avoided in 12 dimensions if two of these dimensions are timelike, as has been often emphasized by Itzhak Bars. Today many techniques exist to embed the model gauge group in supergravity in any number of dimensions. For example, in the mid and late 1980s, the gauge symmetry in type I. In type II string theory they could also be obtained by compactifying on certain Calabi–Yau manifolds, today one may also use D-branes to engineer gauge symmetries. In 1978, Eugène Cremmer, Bernard Julia and Joël Scherk found the action for an 11-dimensional supergravity theory. This remains today the only known classical 11-dimensional theory with local supersymmetry, other 11-dimensional theories are known that are quantum-mechanically inequivalent to the CJS theory, but classically equivalent. For example, in the mid 1980s Bernard de Wit and Hermann Nicolai found an alternate theory in D=11 Supergravity with Local SU Invariance. In 1980, Peter Freund and M. A. Rubin showed that compactification from 11 dimensions preserving all the SUSY generators could occur in two ways, leaving only 4 or 7 macroscopic dimensions, unfortunately, the noncompact dimensions have to form an anti-de Sitter space. Many of the details of the theory were fleshed out by Peter van Nieuwenhuizen, Sergio Ferrara, the initial excitement over 11-dimensional supergravity soon waned, as various failings were discovered, and attempts to repair the model failed as well. Problems included, The compact manifolds which were known at the time and which contained the standard model were not compatible with supersymmetry, and could not hold quarks or leptons
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M-theory
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M-theory is a theory in physics that unifies all consistent versions of superstring theory. The existence of such a theory was first conjectured by Edward Witten at a string theory conference at the University of Southern California in the spring of 1995, Wittens announcement initiated a flurry of research activity known as the second superstring revolution. Prior to Wittens announcement, string theorists had identified five versions of superstring theory, although these theories appeared, at first, to be very different, work by several physicists showed that the theories were related in intricate and nontrivial ways. In particular, physicists found that apparently distinct theories could be unified by mathematical transformations called S-duality and T-duality, Wittens conjecture was based in part on the existence of these dualities and in part on the relationship of the string theories to a field theory called eleven-dimensional supergravity. Modern attempts to formulate M-theory are typically based on theory or the AdS/CFT correspondence. Investigations of the structure of M-theory have spawned important theoretical results in physics and mathematics. More speculatively, M-theory may provide a framework for developing a theory of all of the fundamental forces of nature. One of the deepest problems in physics is the problem of quantum gravity. The current understanding of gravity is based on Albert Einsteins general theory of relativity, however, nongravitational forces are described within the framework of quantum mechanics, a radically different formalism for describing physical phenomena based on probability. String theory is a framework that attempts to reconcile gravity. In string theory, the particles of particle physics are replaced by one-dimensional objects called strings. String theory describes how strings propagate through space and interact with each other, in a given version of string theory, there is only one kind of string, which may look like a small loop or segment of ordinary string, and it can vibrate in different ways. On distance scales larger than the scale, a string will look just like an ordinary particle, with its mass, charge. In this way, all of the different elementary particles may be viewed as vibrating strings, one of the vibrational states of a string gives rise to the graviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries gravitational force. There are several versions of string theory, type I, type IIA, type IIB, the different theories allow different types of strings, and the particles that arise at low energies exhibit different symmetries. For example, the type I theory includes both open strings and closed strings, while types IIA and IIB include only closed strings, each of these five string theories arises as a special limiting case of M-theory. This theory, like its string theory predecessors, is an example of a theory of gravity. It describes a force just like the familiar gravitational force subject to the rules of quantum mechanics, in everyday life, there are three familiar dimensions of space, height, width and depth
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Quantum mechanics
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Quantum mechanics, including quantum field theory, is a branch of physics which is the fundamental theory of nature at small scales and low energies of atoms and subatomic particles. Classical physics, the physics existing before quantum mechanics, derives from quantum mechanics as an approximation valid only at large scales, early quantum theory was profoundly reconceived in the mid-1920s. The reconceived theory is formulated in various specially developed mathematical formalisms, in one of them, a mathematical function, the wave function, provides information about the probability amplitude of position, momentum, and other physical properties of a particle. In 1803, Thomas Young, an English polymath, performed the famous experiment that he later described in a paper titled On the nature of light. This experiment played a role in the general acceptance of the wave theory of light. In 1838, Michael Faraday discovered cathode rays, Plancks hypothesis that energy is radiated and absorbed in discrete quanta precisely matched the observed patterns of black-body radiation. In 1896, Wilhelm Wien empirically determined a distribution law of black-body radiation, ludwig Boltzmann independently arrived at this result by considerations of Maxwells equations. However, it was only at high frequencies and underestimated the radiance at low frequencies. Later, Planck corrected this model using Boltzmanns statistical interpretation of thermodynamics and proposed what is now called Plancks law, following Max Plancks solution in 1900 to the black-body radiation problem, Albert Einstein offered a quantum-based theory to explain the photoelectric effect. Among the first to study quantum phenomena in nature were Arthur Compton, C. V. Raman, robert Andrews Millikan studied the photoelectric effect experimentally, and Albert Einstein developed a theory for it. In 1913, Peter Debye extended Niels Bohrs theory of structure, introducing elliptical orbits. This phase is known as old quantum theory, according to Planck, each energy element is proportional to its frequency, E = h ν, where h is Plancks constant. Planck cautiously insisted that this was simply an aspect of the processes of absorption and emission of radiation and had nothing to do with the reality of the radiation itself. In fact, he considered his quantum hypothesis a mathematical trick to get the right rather than a sizable discovery. He won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work, lower energy/frequency means increased time and vice versa, photons of differing frequencies all deliver the same amount of action, but do so in varying time intervals. High frequency waves are damaging to human tissue because they deliver their action packets concentrated in time, the Copenhagen interpretation of Niels Bohr became widely accepted. In the mid-1920s, developments in mechanics led to its becoming the standard formulation for atomic physics. In the summer of 1925, Bohr and Heisenberg published results that closed the old quantum theory, out of deference to their particle-like behavior in certain processes and measurements, light quanta came to be called photons
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Lagrangian mechanics
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Lagrangian mechanics is a reformulation of classical mechanics, introduced by the Italian-French mathematician and astronomer Joseph-Louis Lagrange in 1788. No new physics is introduced in Lagrangian mechanics compared to Newtonian mechanics, Newtons laws can include non-conservative forces like friction, however, they must include constraint forces explicitly and are best suited to Cartesian coordinates. Lagrangian mechanics is ideal for systems with conservative forces and for bypassing constraint forces in any coordinate system, dissipative and driven forces can be accounted for by splitting the external forces into a sum of potential and non-potential forces, leading to a set of modified Euler-Lagrange equations. Generalized coordinates can be chosen by convenience, to exploit symmetries in the system or the geometry of the constraints, Lagrangian mechanics also reveals conserved quantities and their symmetries in a direct way, as a special case of Noethers theorem. Lagrangian mechanics is important not just for its applications. It can also be applied to systems by analogy, for instance to coupled electric circuits with inductances and capacitances. Lagrangian mechanics is used to solve mechanical problems in physics. Lagrangian mechanics applies to the dynamics of particles, fields are described using a Lagrangian density, Lagranges equations are also used in optimisation problems of dynamic systems. In mechanics, Lagranges equations of the second kind are used more than those of the first kind. Suppose we have a bead sliding around on a wire, or a simple pendulum. This choice eliminates the need for the constraint force to enter into the resultant system of equations, there are fewer equations since one is not directly calculating the influence of the constraint on the particle at a given moment. For a wide variety of systems, if the size and shape of a massive object are negligible. For a system of N point particles with masses m1, m2, MN, each particle has a position vector, denoted r1, r2. Cartesian coordinates are often sufficient, so r1 =, r2 =, in three dimensional space, each position vector requires three coordinates to uniquely define the location of a point, so there are 3N coordinates to uniquely define the configuration of the system. These are all points in space to locate the particles. The velocity of particle is how fast the particle moves along its path of motion. In Newtonian mechanics, the equations of motion are given by Newtons laws, the second law net force equals mass times acceleration, Σ F = m d2r/dt2, applies to each particle. For an N particle system in 3d, there are 3N second order differential equations in the positions of the particles to solve for
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Unit circle
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In mathematics, a unit circle is a circle with a radius of one. Frequently, especially in trigonometry, the circle is the circle of radius one centered at the origin in the Cartesian coordinate system in the Euclidean plane. The unit circle is often denoted S1, the generalization to higher dimensions is the unit sphere, if is a point on the unit circles circumference, then | x | and | y | are the lengths of the legs of a right triangle whose hypotenuse has length 1. Thus, by the Pythagorean theorem, x and y satisfy the equation x 2 + y 2 =1. The interior of the circle is called the open unit disk. One may also use other notions of distance to define other unit circles, such as the Riemannian circle, see the article on mathematical norms for additional examples. The unit circle can be considered as the complex numbers. In quantum mechanics, this is referred to as phase factor, the equation x2 + y2 =1 gives the relation cos 2 + sin 2 =1. The unit circle also demonstrates that sine and cosine are periodic functions, triangles constructed on the unit circle can also be used to illustrate the periodicity of the trigonometric functions. First, construct a radius OA from the origin to a point P on the circle such that an angle t with 0 < t < π/2 is formed with the positive arm of the x-axis. Now consider a point Q and line segments PQ ⊥ OQ, the result is a right triangle △OPQ with ∠QOP = t. Because PQ has length y1, OQ length x1, and OA length 1, sin = y1 and cos = x1. Having established these equivalences, take another radius OR from the origin to a point R on the circle such that the same angle t is formed with the arm of the x-axis. Now consider a point S and line segments RS ⊥ OS, the result is a right triangle △ORS with ∠SOR = t. It can hence be seen that, because ∠ROQ = π − t, R is at in the way that P is at. The conclusion is that, since is the same as and is the same as, it is true that sin = sin and it may be inferred in a similar manner that tan = −tan, since tan = y1/x1 and tan = y1/−x1. A simple demonstration of the above can be seen in the equality sin = sin = 1/√2, when working with right triangles, sine, cosine, and other trigonometric functions only make sense for angle measures more than zero and less than π/2. However, when defined with the circle, these functions produce meaningful values for any real-valued angle measure – even those greater than 2π
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Cartesian coordinates
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Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin, usually at ordered pair. The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the projections of the point onto the two axis, expressed as signed distances from the origin. One can use the principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by three Cartesian coordinates, its signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes. In general, n Cartesian coordinates specify the point in an n-dimensional Euclidean space for any dimension n and these coordinates are equal, up to sign, to distances from the point to n mutually perpendicular hyperplanes. The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes can be described by Cartesian equations, algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape. For example, a circle of radius 2, centered at the origin of the plane, a familiar example is the concept of the graph of a function. Cartesian coordinates are also tools for most applied disciplines that deal with geometry, including astronomy, physics, engineering. They are the most common system used in computer graphics, computer-aided geometric design. Nicole Oresme, a French cleric and friend of the Dauphin of the 14th Century, used similar to Cartesian coordinates well before the time of Descartes. The adjective Cartesian refers to the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes who published this idea in 1637 and it was independently discovered by Pierre de Fermat, who also worked in three dimensions, although Fermat did not publish the discovery. Both authors used a single axis in their treatments and have a length measured in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and these commentators introduced several concepts while trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes work. Many other coordinate systems have developed since Descartes, such as the polar coordinates for the plane. The development of the Cartesian coordinate system would play a role in the development of the Calculus by Isaac Newton. The two-coordinate description of the plane was later generalized into the concept of vector spaces. Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a one-dimensional space – that is, for a straight line—involves choosing a point O of the line, a unit of length, and an orientation for the line. An orientation chooses which of the two half-lines determined by O is the positive, and which is negative, we say that the line is oriented from the negative half towards the positive half
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Polar coordinate
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The reference point is called the pole, and the ray from the pole in the reference direction is the polar axis. The distance from the pole is called the radial coordinate or radius, the concepts of angle and radius were already used by ancient peoples of the first millennium BC. In On Spirals, Archimedes describes the Archimedean spiral, a function whose radius depends on the angle, the Greek work, however, did not extend to a full coordinate system. From the 8th century AD onward, astronomers developed methods for approximating and calculating the direction to Mecca —and its distance—from any location on the Earth, from the 9th century onward they were using spherical trigonometry and map projection methods to determine these quantities accurately. There are various accounts of the introduction of polar coordinates as part of a coordinate system. The full history of the subject is described in Harvard professor Julian Lowell Coolidges Origin of Polar Coordinates, grégoire de Saint-Vincent and Bonaventura Cavalieri independently introduced the concepts in the mid-seventeenth century. Saint-Vincent wrote about them privately in 1625 and published his work in 1647, Cavalieri first used polar coordinates to solve a problem relating to the area within an Archimedean spiral. Blaise Pascal subsequently used polar coordinates to calculate the length of parabolic arcs, in Method of Fluxions, Sir Isaac Newton examined the transformations between polar coordinates, which he referred to as the Seventh Manner, For Spirals, and nine other coordinate systems. In the journal Acta Eruditorum, Jacob Bernoulli used a system with a point on a line, called the pole, Coordinates were specified by the distance from the pole and the angle from the polar axis. Bernoullis work extended to finding the radius of curvature of curves expressed in these coordinates, the actual term polar coordinates has been attributed to Gregorio Fontana and was used by 18th-century Italian writers. The term appeared in English in George Peacocks 1816 translation of Lacroixs Differential and Integral Calculus, alexis Clairaut was the first to think of polar coordinates in three dimensions, and Leonhard Euler was the first to actually develop them. The radial coordinate is often denoted by r or ρ, the angular coordinate is specified as ϕ by ISO standard 31-11. Angles in polar notation are generally expressed in degrees or radians. Degrees are traditionally used in navigation, surveying, and many applied disciplines, while radians are more common in mathematics, in many contexts, a positive angular coordinate means that the angle ϕ is measured counterclockwise from the axis. In mathematical literature, the axis is often drawn horizontal. Adding any number of turns to the angular coordinate does not change the corresponding direction. Also, a radial coordinate is best interpreted as the corresponding positive distance measured in the opposite direction. Therefore, the point can be expressed with an infinite number of different polar coordinates or
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Euclidean space
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In geometry, Euclidean space encompasses the two-dimensional Euclidean plane, the three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, and certain other spaces. It is named after the Ancient Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria, the term Euclidean distinguishes these spaces from other types of spaces considered in modern geometry. Euclidean spaces also generalize to higher dimensions, classical Greek geometry defined the Euclidean plane and Euclidean three-dimensional space using certain postulates, while the other properties of these spaces were deduced as theorems. Geometric constructions are used to define rational numbers. It means that points of the space are specified with collections of real numbers and this approach brings the tools of algebra and calculus to bear on questions of geometry and has the advantage that it generalizes easily to Euclidean spaces of more than three dimensions. From the modern viewpoint, there is only one Euclidean space of each dimension. With Cartesian coordinates it is modelled by the coordinate space of the same dimension. In one dimension, this is the line, in two dimensions, it is the Cartesian plane, and in higher dimensions it is a coordinate space with three or more real number coordinates. One way to think of the Euclidean plane is as a set of points satisfying certain relationships, expressible in terms of distance, for example, there are two fundamental operations on the plane. One is translation, which means a shifting of the plane so that point is shifted in the same direction. The other is rotation about a point in the plane. In order to all of this mathematically precise, the theory must clearly define the notions of distance, angle, translation. Even when used in theories, Euclidean space is an abstraction detached from actual physical locations, specific reference frames, measurement instruments. The standard way to such space, as carried out in the remainder of this article, is to define the Euclidean plane as a two-dimensional real vector space equipped with an inner product. The reason for working with vector spaces instead of Rn is that it is often preferable to work in a coordinate-free manner. Once the Euclidean plane has been described in language, it is actually a simple matter to extend its concept to arbitrary dimensions. For the most part, the vocabulary, formulae, and calculations are not made any more difficult by the presence of more dimensions. Intuitively, the distinction says merely that there is no choice of where the origin should go in the space
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Ball (mathematics)
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In mathematics, a ball is the space bounded by a sphere. It may be a ball or an open ball. These concepts are defined not only in three-dimensional Euclidean space but also for lower and higher dimensions, a ball or hyperball in n dimensions is called an n-ball and is bounded by an -sphere. Thus, for example, a ball in the Euclidean plane is the thing as a disk. In Euclidean 3-space, a ball is taken to be the bounded by a 2-dimensional spherical shell. In a one-dimensional space, a ball is a line segment, in other contexts, such as in Euclidean geometry and informal use, sphere is sometimes used to mean ball. In Euclidean n-space, an n-ball of radius r and center x is the set of all points of less than r from x. A closed n-ball of radius r is the set of all points of less than or equal to r away from x. In Euclidean n-space, every ball is bounded by a hypersphere, the ball is a bounded interval when n =1, is a disk bounded by a circle when n =2, and is bounded by a sphere when n =3. The n-dimensional volume of a Euclidean ball of radius R in n-dimensional Euclidean space is, V n = π n 2 Γ R n, where Γ is Leonhard Eulers gamma function. These are, V2 k = π k k. R2 k, V2 k +1 =2 k +1 π k. R2 k +1 =2 k. R2 k +1. In the formula for odd-dimensional volumes, the double factorial. is defined for odd integers 2k +1 as, let be a metric space, namely a set M with a metric d. Note in particular that a ball always includes p itself, since the definition requires r >0, the closure of the open ball Br is usually denoted Br. While it is always the case that Br ⊆ Br ⊆ Br, for example, in a metric space X with the discrete metric, one has B1 = and B1 = X, for any p ∈ X. A unit ball is a ball of radius 1, a subset of a metric space is bounded if it is contained in some ball. A set is bounded if, given any positive radius. The open balls of a space are a basis for a topological space. This space is called the topology induced by the metric d, any normed vector space V with norm | · | is also a metric space, with the metric d = | x − y |
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Geometry portal
. Bibcode:2005Natur.433..392S. doi:10.1038/nature03248.
