1.
Suffrage
–
Suffrage, political franchise, or simply franchise is the right to vote in public, political elections. The right to run for office is sometimes called candidate eligibility, in many languages, the right to vote is called the active right to vote and the right to run for office is called the passive right to vote. In English, these are called active suffrage and passive suffrage. Suffrage is often conceived in terms of elections for representatives, however, suffrage applies equally to referenda and initiatives. Suffrage describes not only the right to vote, but also the practical question of whether a question will be put to a vote. The utility of suffrage is reduced when important questions are decided unilaterally by elected or non-elected representatives, in most democracies, eligible voters can vote in elections of representatives. Voting on issues by referendum may also be available, for example, in Switzerland this is permitted at all levels of government. The United States federal government does not offer any initiatives at all, Suffrage is granted to qualifying citizens once they have reached the voting age. What constitutes a qualifying citizen depends on the governments decision, resident non-citizens can vote in some countries, which may be restricted to citizens of closely linked countries. The word suffrage comes from Latin suffragium, meaning vote, political support, and the right to vote. The etymology of the Latin word is uncertain, with sources citing Latin suffragari lend support, vote for someone, from sub under + fragor crash, din, shouts. Other sources say that attempts to connect suffragium with fragor cannot be taken seriously, some etymologists think the word may be related to suffrago and may have originally meant an ankle bone or knuckle bone. Universal suffrage consists of the right to vote without restriction due to sex, race, social status, education level, or wealth. It typically does not extend the right to vote to all residents of a region, distinctions are made in regard to citizenship, age. The short-lived Corsican Republic was the first country to grant limited universal suffrage to all citizens over the age of 25 and this was followed by other experiments in the Paris Commune of 1871 and the island republic of Franceville. The 1840 constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii granted universal suffrage to all male and female adults, so Finland was the first country in the world to give all citizens full suffrage, in other words the right to vote and to run for office. New Zealand was the first country in the world to grant all citizens the right to vote, Womens suffrage is, by definition, the right of women to vote. This was the goal of the suffragists in the United States, short-lived suffrage equity was drafted into provisions of the State of New Jerseys first,1776 Constitution, which extended the Right to Vote to unwed female landholders & black land owners
Suffrage
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Suffrage universel dédié à
Ledru-Rollin, Frédéric Sorrieu, 1850
Suffrage
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German election poster from 1919: Equal rights - equal duties!
2.
Freedmen
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A freedman or freedwoman is a former slave who has been released from slavery, usually by legal means. Historically, slaves were freed either by manumission or emancipation, a fugitive slave is one who escaped slavery by fleeing. Rome differed from Greek city-states in allowing freed slaves to become plebeian citizens, the act of freeing a slave was called manumissio, from manus, hand, and missio, the act of releasing. After manumission, a slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed not only freedom from ownership. A slave who had acquired libertas was known as a libertus in relation to his former master, as a social class, freed slaves were liberti, though later Latin texts used the terms libertus and libertini interchangeably. Libertini were not entitled to public office or state priesthoods. During the early Empire, however, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, any future children of a freedman would be born free, with full rights of citizenship. The Claudian Civil Service set a precedent whereby freedmen could be used as servants in the Roman bureaucracy. In addition, Claudius passed legislation concerning slaves, including a law stating that sick slaves abandoned by their owners became freedmen if they recovered, the emperor was criticized for using freedmen in the Imperial Courts. Some freedmen enjoyed enormous success and became quite wealthy, the brothers who owned House of the Vettii, one of the biggest and most magnificent houses in Pompeii, are thought to have been freedmen. A freedman who became rich and influential might still be looked down on by the aristocracy as a vulgar nouveau riche. Trimalchio, a character in the Satyricon of Petronius, is a caricature of such a freedman, for centuries Arab slave traders took and transported an estimated 10 to 15 million sub-Saharan Africans to slavery in North Africa and the Middle East. They also enslaved Europeans from coastal areas and the Balkans, many Arabs took women slaves as concubines in their harems. In the patrilineal societies, mixed-race children of concubines and Arab men were considered free and were given inheritance rights related to their fathers property. In the United States, the freedmen and freedwomen refer chiefly to former slaves emancipated during and after the American Civil War, by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves freed before the war, usually by individual manumissions, often in wills, were referred to as Free Negroes or free blacks. There were numerous such families formed in the Upper South before the Revolution, for the first two decades after the Revolution, thousands of slaves were freed in the Upper South, and most northern states abolished slavery, some on a gradual basis. In Louisiana and other areas of the former New France, free people of color were classified in French as gens de couleur libres and they were born to African or African-European mothers and white fathers of mixed-race African and French or other European ancestry
Freedmen
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Cinerary urn for the freedman Tiberius Claudius Chryseros and two women, probably his wife and daughter
Freedmen
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Old former slave with horn formerly used to call slaves, Texas, 1939. Photo by
Russell Lee.
3.
Free people of color
–
The term free people of color, in the context of the history of slavery in the Americas, at first specifically referred to persons of mixed African and European descent who were not enslaved. The term was used in the French colonies, including La Louisiane and settlements on Caribbean islands, such as Saint-Domingue, Guadeloupe. Freed African slaves were included in the term affranchis, but historically they were considered as distinct from the people of color. In these territories and major cities, particularly New Orleans, and those held by the Spanish. These colonial societies classified mixed-race people in a variety of ways, generally related to visible features, racial classifications were numerous in Latin America. It included persons of mixed race as well as freed African slaves and they were also important in forming an educated class of people of color in French colonies of the Caribbean islands. When French settlers and traders first arrived in these colonies, the men frequently took Native American women as their concubines or common-law wives, when African slaves were imported to the colony, the colonists took African women as concubines or wives. In the period of French and Spanish rule, men tended to marry later after becoming financially established, the free people of color developed formal arrangements for placées, which the young womens mothers negotiated. Under the system of plaçage, often the mothers negotiated a kind of dowry or property transfer to their daughters, including freedom for them and their children, and education for the children. The French Creole men often paid for education of their natural children from these relationships, especially if they were sons. Over time, free people of developed as a separate class between the colonial French and Spanish and the mass of enslaved black African workers. They often achieved education and some measure of wealth, they spoke French and practiced Catholicism, at one time the center of their residential community in New Orleans was the French Quarter. Many were artisans who owned property and their own businesses and they formed a social category distinct from both whites and slaves, and maintained their own society into the period after United States annexation. Free people of color were also an important part of the history of the Caribbean during the period of slavery, initially descendants of French men and African slaves, and often marrying within their own mixed-race community, some achieved wealth and power. By the late century, most free people of color in Saint-Domingue were native born. Free people of color were leaders in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, in Saint-Domingue, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and other French Caribbean colonies before slavery was abolished, the free people of color were known as gens de couleur libres, and affranchis. Comparable groups became an important part of the populations of British Jamaica, the Spanish Captaincy General of Santo Domingo, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Claiborne, appointed by Thomas Jefferson as governor of the Territory of Orleans, formally accepted delivery of the French colony on 20 December 1803. Free men of color had been members of the militia for decades during both Spanish and French rule of the colony of Louisiana and they volunteered their services and pledged their loyalty to Claiborne and to their newly adopted country
Free people of color
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Free Women of Color with their Children and Servants, oil painting by
Agostino Brunias,
Dominica, c. 1764–1796.
Free people of color
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Free woman of color with
quadroon daughter. Late 18th-century collage painting,
New Orleans.
Free people of color
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Free West Indian Dominicans, c. 1770
4.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
American Civil War
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New Orleans the largest cotton exporting port for New England and Great Britain textile mills, shipping Mississippi River Valley goods from North, South and Border states.
American Civil War
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Clockwise from top:
Battle of Gettysburg,
Union Captain John Tidball's artillery,
Confederate prisoners,
ironclad USS Atlanta, ruins of
Richmond, Virginia,
Battle of Franklin
American Civil War
–
Sen. Stephen Douglas, author of the
Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854
American Civil War
–
Sen. John J. Crittenden, of the 1860
Crittenden Compromise
5.
District of Columbia voting rights
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Voting rights of citizens in the District of Columbia differ from the rights of citizens in each of the 50 U. S. states. The United States Constitution grants each state voting representation in both houses of the United States Congress, as the U. S. capital, the District of Columbia is a special federal district, not a state, and therefore does not have voting representation in the Congress. The Constitution grants the Congress exclusive jurisdiction over the District in all cases whatsoever, D. C. residents have no representation in the United States Senate. The Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, adopted in 1961, the Districts lack of voting representation in Congress has been an issue since the capitals founding. All proposals have met with political or constitutional challenges and there has been no change in the Districts representation in the Congress. In 1783, a crowd of disbanded Revolutionary War soldiers angry about not having been gathered to protest outside the building where the Continental Congress was meeting. The soldiers blocked the door and initially refused to allow the delegates to leave, despite requests from the Congress, the Pennsylvania state government declined to call out its militia to deal with the unruly mob, and so Congress was forced to abruptly adjourn to New Jersey. This led to the belief that Congress needed control over the national capitol. As Madison wrote in The Federalist No and this belief resulted in the creation of a national capital, separate from any state, by the Constitutions District Clause. The District Clause in Article I, Section 8, Clause 17 of the U. S, in 1788, the land on which the District is formed was ceded by Maryland. In 1790, Congress passed the Residence Act placing the District on the Potomac River between the Anacostia and Connogochegue with the location chosen by President Washington. His selection was announced on January 24,1791, and the Residence Act was amended to include land that Virginia had ceded in 1790 and that land was returned to Virginia in 1847. The Congress did not officially move to the new federal capital until the first Monday in December 1800, during that time the District was governed by a combination of a federally appointed Board of Commissioners, the state legislatures and locally elected governments. We shall be reduced to that condition of which we pathetically complained in our charges against Great Britain. Small modifications were made over the years, but in 1871 the District government was again dramatically modified, under this new government, the Governor of the District was again appointed by the President, as were all members of one house of the District legislature. The Congress abolished the government in 1874 and replaced it with a presidentially appointed council. In 1878, the District was given a permanent government, still consisting of a council appointed by the President. It was later decided that this congressional act constituted the Districts Constitution, in the 1950s, as part of the larger Civil Rights Movement, interest emerged in giving DC full representation
District of Columbia voting rights
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Satellite view of the District of Columbia in relation to the states of Maryland and Virginia.
6.
District of Columbia retrocession
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The area, formed in 1790 under the name of District of Columbia, initially consisted of 100 square miles ceded by the states of Maryland and Virginia in accordance with the Residence Act. In 1846 the area of 31 square miles which was ceded by Virginia was returned, the Organic Act of 1801 organized the District of Columbia and placed the federal territory under the exclusive control of Congress. The District was organized into two counties, Washington on the east side of the Potomac River, and Alexandria on the west side, following this Act, citizens located in the District were no longer considered residents of Maryland or Virginia, thus ending their representation in Congress. Almost immediately after the Organic Act of 1801, Congress took up proposals for the return of the territory to the states, members of Congress proposed retrocession because they found disenfranchisement of the Districts residents to be unacceptable. Other Congressmen were of the opinion that the District could not be returned without the consent of the residents. Some representatives rejected the idea of retrocession entirely and concluded that the Congress lacked the authority to return the territory. In the 1830s, efforts grew to reunite the southern portion of the District with Virginia, Alexandria needed infrastructure improvements in order to compete with other ports in the area such as Georgetown, which was further inland and on the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. Members of Congress from other areas of Virginia used their power to prohibit funding for projects, such as the Alexandria Canal, returning Alexandria to Virginia allowed residents to seek financing for projects without interference from Congress. A1791 amendment to the Residence Act specifically prohibited the erection of the public buildings otherwise than on the Maryland side of the river Potomac. The institutions of the government, including the White House. This made Alexandria less important to the functioning of the national government, there was also an active abolitionist movement in Virginia. If Alexandria were returned to the state of Virginia, the move would have added two additional representatives to the Virginia General Assembly. One argument against retrocession was that the government did in fact use Alexandria, as a military outpost, signal corps site. From 1840 to 1846, Alexandrians petitioned Congress and the Virginia legislature to approve retrocession, on February 2,1846, the Virginia General Assembly agreed to accept the retrocession of Alexandria if Congress approved. Polk signed the legislation the next day, a referendum on retrocession was held on September 1–2,1846. The residents of the city of Alexandria voted in favor of the retrocession,763 to 222, however, despite the objections of those living in Alexandria County, President Polk certified the referendum and issued a proclamation of transfer on September 7,1846. The Virginia legislature, however, did not immediately accept the retrocession offer, Virginia legislators were concerned that the people of Alexandria County had not been properly included in the retrocession proceedings. After months of debate, the Virginia General Assembly voted to accept the retrocession legislation on March 13,1847
District of Columbia retrocession
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Satellite view of the current boundaries of the District of Columbia in relation to the states of Maryland (green) and Virginia (pink)
District of Columbia retrocession
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Map of the District of Columbia in 1835, prior to the retrocession
7.
District of Columbia Home Rule Act
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In particular, it includes the District Charter, which provides for an elected mayor and the Council of the District of Columbia. The council is composed of a chairman elected at large and twelve members, four of whom are elected at large, Council members are elected to four-year terms. Under the Home Rule government, Congress reviews all legislation passed by the council before it can become law, also, the president appoints the Districts judges, and the District still has no voting representation in Congress. District of Columbia Home Rule Act, full text, PDF of the bill from the Government Printing Office
District of Columbia Home Rule Act
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District of Columbia Self-Government and Governmental Reorganization Act
8.
NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved
NATO
–
The
North Atlantic Treaty was signed in Washington, D.C., on 4 April 1949 and was ratified by the United States that August.
NATO
–
Flag
NATO
–
The German Bundeswehr provided the largest element of the allied land forces guarding the frontier in Central Europe.
NATO
–
Reforms made under
Mikhail Gorbachev led to the end of the
Warsaw Pact.
9.
OECD
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The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development is an intergovernmental economic organisation with 35 member countries, founded in 1960 to stimulate economic progress and world trade. Most OECD members are high-income economies with a very high Human Development Index and are regarded as developed countries, in 1948, the OECD originated as the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation, led by Robert Marjolin of France, to help administer the Marshall Plan. This would be achieved by allocating American financial aid and implementing programs for the reconstruction of Europe after World War II. The OECDs headquarters are at the Château de la Muette in Paris, the OECD is funded by contributions from member states at varying rates. And had a budget of EUR363 million in 2015. It started its operations on 16 April 1948, and originated from the work done by the Committee of European Economic Co-operation in 1947 in preparation for the Marshall Plan, since 1949, it was headquartered in the Château de la Muette in Paris, France. After the Marshall Plan ended, the OEEC focused on economic issues, in 1958, a European Nuclear Energy Agency was set up under the OEEC. By the end of the 1950s, with the job of rebuilding Europe effectively done, some leading countries felt that the OEEC had outlived its purpose and this reconstituted organisation would bring the US and Canada, who were already OEEC observers, on board as full members. It would also set to work away on bringing in Japan. Following the 1957 Rome Treaties to launch the European Economic Community, the Convention was signed in December 1960 and the OECD officially superseded the OEEC in September 1961. It consisted of the European founder countries of the OEEC plus the United States and Canada, the official founding members are, During the next 12 years Japan, Finland, Australia, and New Zealand also joined the organisation. Yugoslavia had observer status in the organisation starting with the establishment of the OECD until its dissolution as a country, the OECD created agencies such as the OECD Development Centre, International Energy Agency, and Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering. Unlike the organizations of the United Nations system, OECD uses the spelling organisation with an s in its name rather than organization, in 1989, after the Revolutions of 1989, the OECD started to assist countries in Central Europe to prepare market economy reforms. This programme also included an option for these countries. As a result of this, Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, in the 1990s, a number of European countries, now members of the European Union, expressed their willingness to join the organisation. In 1995, Cyprus applied for membership, but, according to the Cypriot government, in 1996, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania signed a Joint Declaration expressing willingness to become full members of the OECD. Slovenia also applied for membership that same year, in 2005, Malta applied to join the organisation. The EU is lobbying for admission of all EU member states, Romania reaffirmed in 2012 its intention to become a member of the organisation through the letter addressed by the Romanian Prime Minister Victor Ponta to OECD Secretary-General José Ángel Gurría
OECD
–
Propaganda poster created by the
Economic Cooperation Administration to promote the
Marshall Plan in Europe.
OECD
–
Logo
OECD
–
The main entrance to the OECD Conference Centre in Paris
10.
Status of Puerto Rico
–
The current political status of Puerto Rico is the result of various political activities within both the United States and Puerto Rican governments. The basic question regarding this issue is whether Puerto Rico should remain a U. S. territory, U. S. Presidents have issued three executive orders on the subject, and Congress has considered four major bills on Puerto Ricos political status. Puerto Rican status referenda have been four times to determine the desired political status of Puerto Rico in relation to the United States of America. The Puerto Rican status referendum,2017 will be held on June 11,2017, voters will get two options, Statehood and Independence/Free Association, voters will not be given the choice to remain as a Commonwealth. In 2009,2011, and most recently in 2016, The United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self-determination in Puerto Rico. Internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity, more specifically, the Special Committees June 2016 report called for the United States. To allow the Puerto Rican people to take decisions in a sovereign manner, the United States acquired the islands of Puerto Rico in 1898 after the Spanish–American War. After being approved by Congress and the President in July 1952 and thus given force under federal law, Puerto Rico has been under U. S. sovereignty for over a century and Puerto Ricans have been U. S. citizens since 1917. Since the promulgation of the current Commonwealth constitution in 1952, further attempts to change the islands political status took place in 1967,1993. An additional referendum held in 1991 sought to amend the relationship through an amendment to the Puerto Rican constitution, each time, the results favored retaining the current status over the possible independence of Puerto Rico and statehood alternatives. As a result of Puerto Ricos status as a U. S. territory, instead of outright representation through Senators and House Representatives, Puerto Rico has one non-voting Resident Commissioner in the House of Representatives. Furthermore, Puerto Rico is not represented in the Electoral College and it should be noted that the citizens of Puerto Rico can vote in the Republican and Democratic primary elections. Although Puerto Rico presently has an amount of local autonomy. Constitution ultimate governance of the island is retained by both the U. S. Congress and President, thus, results of plebiscites, whether or not authorized by Congress, while they reflect public sentiment, and thus bear some impact, can be ignored by Congress. Ultimately, the results of Puerto Rican plebiscites are opinions, although congressional resolutions have expressed support for following the will of the Puerto Rican people, the English term commonwealth does not describe or provide for any specific political status or relationship. Here it relates to its definition, as a translation of the Latin res publica. Commonwealth is also used in the Commonwealth of Independent States, formerly parts of the Soviet Union, Commonwealth is the term used by the U. S. Commonwealth term definition as per current U. S. State Department policy reads and it has, for example, been applied to both states and territories
Status of Puerto Rico
–
Stateside Puerto Rican members of the United States Congress:
Luis Gutierrez (D-IL)(left),
José Serrano (D-NY)(center), and
Nydia Velázquez (D-NY)(right) speaking at the Encuentro Boricua Conference at Hostos Community College in New York City, 2004
Status of Puerto Rico
–
Puerto Rico
11.
Puerto Rico
–
Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
Puerto Rico
–
A Taíno Village at the
Tibes Ceremonial Center.
Puerto Rico
–
Flag
Puerto Rico
–
Juan Ponce de León (
Santervás de Campos,
Valladolid, Spain), was the first governor of Puerto Rico. His grandson
Juan Ponce de León II was the first criollo governor of Puerto Rico.
Puerto Rico
–
The 16th century
Fort San Felipe del Morro in San Juan, Puerto Rico
12.
Puerto Rico Supreme Court
–
The Supreme Court of Puerto Rico —Spanish, Tribunal Supremo de Puerto Rico — is the highest court of Puerto Rico, having judicial authority to interpret and decide questions of Puerto Rican law. Article V of the Constitution of Puerto Rico vests the judicial power in the Supreme Court—which by its nature forms the branch of the government of Puerto Rico. The Supreme Court holds its sessions in San Juan, the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico was established by the Foraker Act in 1900 and maintained in the 1952 Constitution of Puerto Rico. It is the appellate court required by the Constitution. All other courts are created by the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico, however, since Puerto Rico is under United States sovereignty, there is also a Federal District Court for the island. The justices are appointed by the Governor of Puerto Rico and confirmed by majority vote by the Senate, one of these nine justices serves as Chief Justice, the remaining members are designated Associate Justices. This provision has been used four times in Court history, immediately after the Constitutions ratification, the Court asked for two additional judges. During the early 1960s, the Court once again petitioned for the addition of two judges, arguing that there was a case backlog on its docket. Subsequently, during the 1970s the Court asked for its number to be reduced back to seven members, finally, in 2010 a 4–3 majority of the justices petitioned the Legislative Assembly to once again increase the Courts membership to 9. This decision has generated controversy since it is the first time such a request has been done without unanimity from the justices. The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico is defined by the Constitution, in general, the jurisdictional structure parallels that of the state Supreme Courts in the continental United States. The Supreme Court of Puerto Rico has concurrent jurisdiction with federal courts to federal laws. The Court has the power of review and its decision are considered binding precedent within the jurisdiction of Puerto Rico. The Supreme Court of Puerto Rico also regulates the practice of law in Puerto Rico, the term of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court begins on the first Monday of October and ends in the last week of June of the following year. However, during the months of July through September, an alternating panel of three justices are allowed to hear cases and their decisions are considered binding precedent. The justices decide whether or not to hear arguments for the case. If the case is controversial or carries high public interest, an argument may be scheduled. When oral argument occurs, each side has twenty-five minutes to state its respective claims, after the sides have ended their argument, each justice has ten minutes to ask questions to each side
Puerto Rico Supreme Court
–
The Supreme Court Building is at the entrance of the city of San Juan.
Puerto Rico Supreme Court
–
Supreme Court of Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico Supreme Court
–
First Supreme Court of Puerto Rico appointed by the
Foraker Act.
13.
Puerto Rican Independence Party
–
The Puerto Rican Independence Party is a social-democratic political party in Puerto Rico that campaigns for the independence of Puerto Rico from United States suzerainty. Those who follow the PIP ideology are usually called independentistas, pipiolos, the party began as the electoral wing of the Puerto Rican independence movement. It is the largest of the parties, and the only one that is on the ballot during elections. In 1948, two years after being founded, the PIP gathered 10. 2% of the votes in the island. In 1956 it took 12. 4% of the votes, in 19603. 1%, in 1964, 4%, in 1968,3.5, in 1972,5.4, in 1976,5.7, in 1980,5.4, in 1984,3.6, and in 1988,5.5. In 2004 it obtained 2. 7% of the votes, the party was founded on 20 October 1946, by Gilberto Concepción de Gracia and his colleague Fernando Milán Suárez. They felt the movement had been betrayed by the Popular Democratic Party. In the case of Puerto Rican independence groups, J. Edgar Hoovers 1961 memo refers to our efforts to disrupt their activities, scholars say the papers provide invaluable additions to the recorded history of Puerto Rico. I expect that this will alter somewhat the analysis of why independence hasnt made it, said Félix V. Matos Rodríguez, in the 1940s, independence was the second-largest political movement in the island, and a real alternative. Freeh gave the first public acknowledgment of the federal governments Puerto Rican surveillance and offered a mea culpa. Your question goes back to a period, particularly in the 1960s, freeh said, according to transcripts of the hearing. Freeh said that he would make the available and see if we can redress some of the egregious illegal action, maybe criminal action. The FBIs surveillance of any person or organization advocating Puerto Ricos independence has been recognized by the FBIs top leadership, the FBIs past surveillance of the pro-independence movement is detailed in 1.8 million documents, a fraction of which were released in 2000. In 1971, the PIP gubernatorial candidate, Rubén Berríos led a protest against the US Navy in Culebra, during the 1972 elections, the PIP showed the largest growth in its history while running a democratic socialist, pro-worker, pro-poor campaign. The Marxist–Leninist faction, called the terceristas, split into several groups, the biggest of them went into the Popular Socialist Movement, while the rest went into the Puerto Rican Socialist Party. In 1999, PIP leaders, especially Rubén Berríos, became involved in the Navy-Vieques protests started by many citizens of Vieques against the presence of the US military in the island-municipality. During the 2008 elections, the PIP lost official recognition for the second time, loss of recognition was official on January 2,2009. The minimum vote percentage to keep official recognition is 3. 0% as per the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico law, the party also lost both of its seats in the legislature, where they had had one seat in each house
Puerto Rican Independence Party
14.
New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico
–
The New Progressive Party —Spanish, Partido Nuevo Progresista — is a political party in Puerto Rico that advocates for the island to become a state of the United States. The PNP is one of the two parties in Puerto Rico with significant political strength and currently holds both the seat of the governor and of the resident commissioner. The party, however, has a minority in the number of mayors on the island, in national politics, party members affiliate with both the Republican and the Democratic Party of the United States. The party traces its history back to 1967, in that year, the Puerto Rico Statehood Republican Party instructed its members to not participate in a referendum held that year. Dissatisfied with the order, several dissidents left the Statehood Party, the party traces its beginnings to an August,1967 assembly in a sports complex in the sector of Country Club, San Juan, Puerto Rico. On January 5,1968, the party was belatedly certified as a political group by the State Elections Commission of Puerto Rico. The party had roots in a prior pro-statehood party led by Miguel Angel García Méndez, co-founders of the NPP alongside Luis A. Ferre were Manuel F. Alsina Capo, attorney Nelson Escalona, and Benny Frankie Cerezo. Under Luis A. Ferré, the NPP came to power in January 1969, after defeating Luis Negrón López, smaller vote totals were obtained by the Partido del Pueblo led by Governor Roberto Sánchez Vilella and the candidate from the Puerto Rican Independence Party, Antonio González. The governing party was saddled by Sánchez Vilellas break-away candidacy, who had feuded with the PPD founder and former Governor Luis Muñoz Marín, Romero Barceló would face Hernández Colón three times for the governorship. In 1980, Carlos A. Romero Barceló won reelection by a margin of approximately 3,000 votes. A prominent event during Romero Barcelós term, the Cerro Maravilla incident, the incident involved the killing of two young men who had gone to Cerro Maravilla, site of a major communications facility for the island, with the intention of attacking the facilities. Upon arriving at their Cerro Maravilla destination, the two men were ambushed and killed by the state police, further scandals erupted when it became known that an undercover police agent who was with the two men had actually engineered the whole plan. This, combined with the fact that the then-mayor of San Juan, Hernán Padilla, left the party to form his own party, helped Hernández Colón get elected to a second non-consecutive term in 1984. In 1988, San Juan Mayor and former Resident Commissioner Baltasar Corrada del Río ran as the NPP candidate for governor but lost the race to Hernández Colón, who won a third term. Rosselló launched a campaign known as Mano dura contra el crimen in which the Puerto Rico National Guard was used to assist the Island police force. His policies also included a push toward privatization of public entities and he supported the proposal for a referendum in Puerto Rico to define the political status of the island. However, the bill died in committee in the U. S. Senate, nevertheless, Rosselló carried out another plebiscite in 1998 which gave electors four options plus a fifth one, None of the Above. The boycott was successful, as the None of the Above column garnered more votes than all of the other options
New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico
–
New Progressive Party Partido Nuevo Progresista
New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico
New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico
–
Carlos Romero Barceló, Governor of Puerto Rico (1977-1985)
New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico
–
Pedro Rosselló, Governor of Puerto Rico(1993-2001)
15.
Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico
–
The party was founded in 1938 by dissidents from the Puerto Rican Liberal Party and the Unionist Party and originally promoted policies on the center-left. In recent years, however, the party leaders have described the party as being centrist, the PPD played a significant role in the history of Puerto Rico. In the early 1950s, the party held a majority in the delegation convened to draft the Constitution of Puerto Rico. The party afterward ruled all branches of the Puerto Rican government for 36 of the past 64 years, today, the party is one of the two major parties in Puerto Rico with significant political strength. It holds more than half of the seats of mayors in the municipalities of Puerto Rico and minorities in the Senate and its last governor was Alejandro García Padilla who governed the island from 2013–2017 under a government trifecta. In terms of standing, the PPD differs itself from the parties in the island. The partys historic opponent has been the New Progressive Party, which advocates for Puerto Rico to become a state of the United States, both parties have ruled the island unopposed since the constitution was ratified. Members of the party are referred to in different terms depending on their faction, in general, those affiliated to the party are commonly called populares and mostly affiliate with the Democratic Party of the United States. Internally, members aligned with the delegation that drafted the constitution compose the largest faction and are referred to as conservatives, a smaller liberal faction is referred to as soberanistas. This faction advocates for Puerto Rico to enter a compact of association with the United States rather than under the United States. Dissidents expelled from the Liberal Party of Puerto Rico, founded the PPD in 1938, many of them were part of the old socialist movement of Puerto Rico. The dissident faction, initially calling themselves the Partido Liberal, Neto, in 1940, the highest elective political office in Puerto Rican was as president of its Senate. At the time, the governor was appointed by the president of the United States, in the 1940 election, the Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico finished in a dead heat with the Liberal Party. Luis Muñoz Marin of the PPD brokered an alliance with minor Puerto Rican factions so as to secure his position as Senate president, such coalition-building was fundamental to the multi-party society. The elections in 1944 and 1948 resulted in greater victory margins for the PPD, nearly all the legislative posts, once Jesús T. Piñero stepped down as the first Puerto Rican named governor, the governors office became an elected position. In 1949, under the leadership of Luis Muñoz Marín, the PPD won the first gubernatorial elections in Puerto Rico, and Muñoz became the first elected governor of the island. He served for what is the longest continuous rule by a governor in Puerto Rican history and this record has been surpassed only by Miguel de la Torre, one of the governors under Spanish rule. On May 21,1948, one of the PPD introduced a bill that would restrain the rights of the independence
Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico
–
Sila Calderón
Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico
–
Popular Democratic Party Partido Popular Democrático
16.
Bill Clinton
–
William Jefferson Clinton is an American politician who served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Prior to the Presidency he was the 40th Governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981, before that, he served as Arkansas Attorney General from 1977 to 1979. A member of the Democratic Party, Clinton was ideogically a New Democrat, Clinton is married to Hillary Clinton, who served as United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013 and U. S. Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, and served the Democratic nominee for President in 2016, Bill Clinton and Hillary Rodham both earned degrees from Yale Law School, where they met and began dating. As Governor of Arkansas, Clinton overhauled the states education system, Clinton was elected President of the United States in 1992, defeating incumbent George H. W. Bush. At age 46, he was the third-youngest president and the first from the Baby Boomer generation, Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history and signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement. After failing to pass health care reform, the Democratic House was ousted when the Republican Party won control of the Congress in 1994. Two years later, in 1996, Clinton became the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected to a second term, Clinton passed welfare reform and the State Childrens Health Insurance Program, providing health coverage for millions of children. Clinton was acquitted by the U. S. Senate in 1999, the Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus between the years 1998 and 2000, the last three years of Clintons presidency. In foreign policy, Clinton ordered U. S. Clinton left office with the highest end-of-office approval rating of any U. S. President since World War II, since then, Clinton has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. He created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address international causes, such as the prevention of AIDS, in 2004, Clinton published his autobiography, My Life. In 2009, Clinton was named the United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti, since leaving office, Clinton has been rated highly in public opinion polls of U. S. Presidents. Clinton was born on August 19,1946, at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas and he was the son of William Jefferson Blythe Jr. a traveling salesman who had died in an automobile accident three months before his birth, and Virginia Dell Cassidy. His parents had married on September 4,1943, but this later proved to be bigamous. Soon after their son was born, his mother traveled to New Orleans to study nursing, leaving her son in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and ran a small grocery store. At a time when the Southern United States was segregated racially, in 1950, Bills mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr. who owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas, with his brother and Earl T. Ricks. The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950, although he immediately assumed use of his stepfathers surname, it was not until Clinton turned fifteen that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward his stepfather. In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. Johns Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and Hot Springs High School—where he was a student leader, avid reader
Bill Clinton
–
Bill Clinton
Bill Clinton
–
William Jefferson Blythe III, in 1950 at age four
Bill Clinton
–
Clinton's boyhood home in
Hope, Arkansas
Bill Clinton
–
Clinton ran for President of the
Student Council while attending the School of Foreign Service at
Georgetown University.
17.
George W. Bush
–
George Walker Bush is an American politician who served as the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009. He was also the 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000 and he is the eldest son of Barbara and George H. W. Bush. After graduating from Yale University in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975, Bush married Laura Welch in 1977 and ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives shortly thereafter. He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before defeating Ann Richards in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election and he is the second president to assume the nations highest office after his father, following the lead of John Quincy Adams. He is also a brother of Jeb Bush, a former Governor of Florida who was a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 presidential election, the September 11 terrorist attacks occurred eight months into Bushs first term as president. Bush responded with what became known as the Bush Doctrine, launching a War on Terror, a military campaign that included the war in Afghanistan in 2001. He also promoted policies on the economy, health care, education, Social Security reform and his tenure included national debates on immigration, Social Security, electronic surveillance, and torture. In the 2004 Presidential race, Bush defeated Democratic Senator John Kerry in another close election. After his re-election, Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the spectrum for his handling of the Iraq War, Hurricane Katrina. Amid this criticism, the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections, Bush left office in 2009, returning to Texas where he purchased a home in Crawford. He wrote a memoir, Decision Points and his presidential library was opened in 2013. His presidency has been ranked among the worst in historians polls published in the late 2000s and 2010s. George Walker Bush was born on July 6,1946, at Grace-New Haven Hospital in New Haven, Connecticut, as the first child of George Herbert Walker Bush and his wife, the former Barbara Pierce. He was raised in Midland and Houston, Texas, with four siblings, Jeb, Neil, Marvin, another younger sister, Robin, died from leukemia at the age of three in 1953. His grandfather, Prescott Bush, was a U. S and his father, George H. W. Bush, was Ronald Reagans Vice President from 1981 to 1989 and the 41st U. S. President from 1989 to 1993. Bush has English and some German ancestry, along with more distant Dutch, Welsh, Irish, French, Bush attended public schools in Midland, Texas, until the family moved to Houston after he had completed seventh grade. He then spent two years at The Kinkaid School, a school in Houston. Bush attended high school at Phillips Academy, a school in Andover, Massachusetts
George W. Bush
–
George W. Bush
George W. Bush
–
Lt. George W. Bush while in the
Texas Air National Guard
George W. Bush
–
George W. Bush with his father outside the White House, April 29, 1992
George W. Bush
–
Governor Bush (right) with father, former president
George H. W. Bush and wife, Laura, in 1997
18.
Denmark
–
Denmark, officially the Kingdom of Denmark, is a Scandinavian country in Europe and a sovereign state. The southernmost and smallest of the Nordic countries, it is south-west of Sweden and south of Norway, Denmark also comprises two autonomous constituent countries in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Denmark has an area of 42,924 square kilometres. The country consists of a peninsula, Jutland, and an archipelago of 443 named islands, with the largest being Zealand, the islands are characterised by flat, arable land and sandy coasts, low elevation and a temperate climate. The unified kingdom of Denmark emerged in the 10th century as a proficient seafaring nation in the struggle for control of the Baltic Sea, Denmark, Sweden and Norway were ruled together under the Kalmar Union, established in 1397 and ending with Swedish secession in 1523. Denmark and Norway remained under the monarch until outside forces dissolved the union in 1814. The union with Norway made it possible for Denmark to inherit the Faroe Islands, Iceland, beginning in the 17th century, there were several cessions of territory to Sweden. In the 19th century there was a surge of nationalist movements, Denmark remained neutral during World War I. In April 1940, a German invasion saw brief military skirmishes while the Danish resistance movement was active from 1943 until the German surrender in May 1945, the Constitution of Denmark was signed on 5 June 1849, ending the absolute monarchy which had begun in 1660. It establishes a constitutional monarchy organised as a parliamentary democracy, the government and national parliament are seated in Copenhagen, the nations capital, largest city and main commercial centre. Denmark exercises hegemonic influence in the Danish Realm, devolving powers to handle internal affairs, Home rule was established in the Faroe Islands in 1948, in Greenland home rule was established in 1979 and further autonomy in 2009. Denmark became a member of the European Economic Community in 1973, maintaining certain opt-outs, it retains its own currency, the krone. It is among the members of NATO, the Nordic Council, the OECD, OSCE. The etymology of the word Denmark, and especially the relationship between Danes and Denmark and the unifying of Denmark as a kingdom, is a subject which attracts debate. This is centred primarily on the prefix Dan and whether it refers to the Dani or a historical person Dan and the exact meaning of the -mark ending. Most handbooks derive the first part of the word, and the name of the people, from a word meaning land, related to German Tenne threshing floor. The -mark is believed to mean woodland or borderland, with references to the border forests in south Schleswig. The first recorded use of the word Danmark within Denmark itself is found on the two Jelling stones, which are believed to have been erected by Gorm the Old and Harald Bluetooth
Denmark
–
The gilded side of the
Trundholm sun chariot dating from the Nordic Bronze Age.
Denmark
–
Flag
Denmark
–
The
Ladby ship, the largest ship burial found in Denmark.
Denmark
–
Larger of the two Jelling stones, raised by
Harald Bluetooth.
19.
Disability
–
Disability is an impairment that may be cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, sensory, or some combination of these. It substantially affects a persons activities and may be present from birth or occur during a persons lifetime. Disabilities is a term, covering impairments, activity limitations. Disability is thus not just a health problem and it is a complex phenomenon, reflecting the interaction between features of a person’s body and features of the society in which he or she lives. Disability is a concept, with different meanings for different communities. It may be used to refer to physical or mental attributes that some institutions, particularly medicine and it may refer to limitations imposed on people by the constraints of an ableist society. Or the term may serve to refer to the identity of people with disabilities, debates about proper terminology and their implied politics continue in disability communities and the academic field of disability studies. In some countries, the law requires that disabilities are documented by a provider in order to assess qualifications for disability benefits. During the Middle Ages, madness and other conditions were thought to be caused by demons and they were also thought to be part of the natural order, especially during and in the fallout of the Plague, which wrought impairments throughout the general population. Contemporary concepts of disability are rooted in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century developments, foremost among these was the development of clinical medical discourse, which made the human body visible as a thing to be manipulated, studied, and transformed. These worked in tandem with scientific discourses that sought to classify and categorize and, in so doing, became methods of normalization. The concept of the norm developed in time period, and is signaled in the work of the French statistician Alphonse Quetelet. Quetelet postulated that one could take the sum of all attributes in a given population and find their average. Disability, as well as other concepts including, abnormal, non-normal, the circulation of these concepts is evident in the popularity of the freak show, where showmen profited from exhibiting people who deviated from those norms. With the rise of eugenics in the part of the nineteenth century. With disability viewed as part of a persons biological make-up and thus their genetic inheritance, various metrics for assessing a persons genetic fitness, which were then used to deport, sterilize, or institutionalize those deemed unfit. In the early 1970s, disability activists began to challenge how society treated people with disabilities, due to this work, physical barriers to access were identified. These conditions functionally disabled them, and what is now known as the model of disability emerged
Disability
–
A man with an above the knee amputation exercises while wearing a prosthetic leg
Disability
–
International Symbol of Access
Disability
–
Museum of disABILITY History,
Buffalo, New York.
Disability
–
Die Krüppel (The Cripples),
Pieter Bruegel, 1568
20.
Accessibility
–
Accessibility refers to the design of products, devices, services, or environments for people who experience disabilities. The concept of design and practice of accessible development ensures both direct access and indirect access meaning compatibility with a persons assistive technology. Accessibility can be viewed as the ability to access and benefit from some system or entity and this is about making things accessible to all people. Article 9 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities commits signatories to provide for full accessibility in their countries. Accessible facilities therefore extend to such as Braille signage, elevators, audio signals at pedestrian crossings, walkway contours, website design. Government mandates including Section 508, WCAG, DDA are all enforcing practices to standardize accessibility testing engineering in product development, existing private businesses are required to increase the accessibility of their facilities when making any other renovations in proportion to the cost of the other renovations. The United States Access Board is A Federal Agency Committed to Accessible Design for People with Disabilities, the Job Accommodation Network discusses accommodations for people with disabilities in the workplace. Many states in the US have their own disability laws, in Australia, the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 has numerous provisions for accessibility. In South Africa the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act 2000 has numerous provisions for accessibility, in the UK, the Equality Act 2010 has numerous provisions for accessibility. In Sri Lanka, the Supreme Court, on 27 April 2011 gave an order to boost the inherent right of disabled persons to have unhindered access to public buildings. The Act refers to legislation regarding accessibility in e. g. ICT. In Canada, relevant federal legislation includes the Canadian Human Rights Act, the Employment Equity Act, legislation may also be enacted on a state, provincial or local level. In Ontario, Canada, the Ontarians with Disabilities Act of 2001 is meant to improve the identification, removal, the European Union, which has signed the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, also has adopted a European Disability Strategy for 2010-20. A European Accessibility Act was proposed in late 2012 and this Act would establish standards within member countries for accessible products, services, and public buildings. Assistive technology is the creation of a new device that assists a person in completing a task that would otherwise be impossible. Adaptive technology is the modification, or adaptation, of existing devices, methods, or the creation of new uses for existing devices, to enable a person to complete a task. Examples include the use of controls, and the autocomplete feature in computer word processing programs. Adaptations to wheelchair tires are another example, widening the tires enables wheelchair users to move over soft surfaces, such as snow on ski hills
Accessibility
–
Universal access is provided in
Curitiba 's
public transport system,
Brazil.
Accessibility
–
This
Birmingham, West Midlands, Opportunities Fair was held to help persons with disabilities, and carers, to find out what services, support and opportunities are available to them.
Accessibility
–
William P. Milton, Jr., Deputy Director, Office of Human Resources Management explained the “Four Easy Steps to Hiring Qualified Applicants with Disabilities” to
United States Department of Agriculture employees during a 2011
National Disability Employment Awareness Month event in
Washington, DC, USA.
Accessibility
–
A wheelchair accessible
taxi with a rear ramp,
Tokyo Motor Show 2009.
21.
UK
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
UK
–
Stonehenge, in
Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.
UK
–
Flag
UK
–
The
Bayeux Tapestry depicts the
Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.
UK
–
The
Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.
22.
Queueing
–
Queue areas are places in which people queue for goods or services. Such a group of people is known as a queue or line, and the people are said to be waiting or standing in a queue or in line, respectively. Examples include checking out groceries or other goods that have collected in a self service shop, in a shop without self-service, at an ATM, at a ticket desk. Queueing is a phenomenon in a number of fields, and has been analysed in the study of queueing theory. In economics, queueing is seen as one way to ration scarce goods, organized queue areas are commonly found at amusement parks. The rides have a number of guests that can be served at any given time. Queues can be found in railway stations to book tickets, at bus stops for boarding, queues are generally found at transportation terminals where security screenings are conducted. Sometimes two people who are split up and each waits in a different line, once it is determined which line is faster. Another arrangement is for everyone to wait in a single line and this is a common setup in banks and post offices. At the beginning of the Common Era, people attending events simply gathered in mass, after several thousand years of this they slowly gravitated to the back of individual fellows, and began to stand behind one another forming what is now colloquially referred to as The Line. Physical queueing is sometimes replaced by virtual queueing, in a waiting room there may be a system whereby the queuer asks and remembers where his place is in the queue, or reports to a desk and signs in, or takes a ticket with a number from a machine. Especially in the United Kingdom, tickets are taken to form a queue at delicatessens and childrens shoe shops. In some countries such as Sweden, virtual queues are common in shops. A display sometimes shows the number that was last called for service, restaurants have come to employ virtual queueing techniques with the availability of application-specific pagers, which alert those waiting that they should report to the host to be seated. Another option used at restaurants is to assign customers a confirmed return time, virtual queueing apps are available that allow the customers to view the virtual queue status of a business and they can take virtual queue numbers remotely. The app can be used to get updates of the virtual queue status that the customer is in, all of the above methods, however, suffer from the same drawback, the person arrives at the location only to find out that they need to wait. This has the advantage of allowing users to find out the wait forecast and get in the queue before arriving, roaming freely and this has been shown to extend the patience of those in the queue and reduce no-shows. When designing queues, planners attempt to make the wait as pleasant and they employ several strategies to achieve this, including, Expanding the capacity of the queue, thus allowing more patrons to have a place
Queueing
–
Queue of visitors to the
Louvre
Queueing
–
A queue area at a food store in New York City.
Queueing
–
Queue of visitors to the Sultan Ahmed Mosque
Queueing
–
A queue of people waiting for a
Michael Jackson concert in
West Germany (1988).
23.
Incarceration in the United States
–
Incarceration in the United States is one of the main forms of punishment, rehabilitation, or both for the commission of felony and other offenses. The United States has the largest prison population in the world, in 2013 in the US, there were 698 people incarcerated per 100,000 population. This is the U. S. incarceration rate for adults or people tried as adults. According to the US Bureau of Justice Statistics,2,220,300 adults were incarcerated in US federal and state prisons, additionally,4,751,400 adults in 2013 were on probation or on parole. In total,6,899,000 adults were under supervision in 2013 – about 2. 8% of adults in the U. S. resident population. In 2014, the number of persons in the adult correctional systems had fallen to 6,851,000 persons. About 1 in 36 adults was under some form of correctional supervision – the lowest rate since 1996, on average the correctional population has declined by 1. 0% since 2007, while this continued to stay true in 2014 the number of incarcerated adults slightly increased in 2014. In addition, there were 54,148 juveniles in juvenile detention in 2013, although debtors prisons no longer exist in the United States, residents of some U. S. states can still be incarcerated for debt as of 2016. According to a 2014 Human Rights Watch report, tough-on-crime laws adopted since the 1980s, have filled U. S. prisons with mostly nonviolent offenders and this policy failed to rehabilitate prisoners and many were worse on release than before incarceration. Rehabilitation programs for offenders can be more cost effective than prison, according to the Brennan Center for Justice, falling crime rates cannot be ascribed to mass incarceration. According to a 2016 analysis of data by the U. S. Education Department, state and local spending on incarceration has grown three times as much as spending on education since 1980. In 1841, Dorothea Dix discovered that prison conditions were, in her opinion, prisoners were chained naked, whipped with rods. Others, criminally insane, were caged, or placed in cellars and she insisted on changes throughout the rest of her life. While focusing on the insane, her comments also resulted in changes for other inmates, the BOP also houses adult felons convicted of violating District of Columbia laws due to the National Capital Revitalization and Self-Government Improvement Act of 1997. As of 2004, state prisons proportionately house more violent felons, in 2016, almost 90% of prisoners were in state prisons, 10% were in federal prisons. At the beginning of 2008, more than 1 in 100 adults in the United States were in prison or jail, total US incarceration peaked in 2008. Total correctional population peaked in 2007, if all prisoners are counted, then in 2008 the US had around 24. 7% of the worlds 9.8 million prisoners
Incarceration in the United States
–
Felony Sentences in State Courts, study by the
United States Department of Justice.
Incarceration in the United States
–
Total U.S. incarceration by year
Incarceration in the United States
–
Living facilities in California State Prison (July 19, 2006)
Incarceration in the United States
–
Inmates in a
Orleans Parish Prison yard
24.
Statistics of incarcerated African-American males
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Researchers have been analyzing statistics on the incarceration in the United States of African-American males as to age, location, causes, and the impact on children. Approximately 12–13% of the American population is African-American, but they make up 35% of jail inmates, one out of nine African American men will be in prison between the ages of 20 and 34. Black males ages 30 to 34 have the highest crime rate of any race/ethnicity gender, in 2014, 6% of all black males ages 30 to 39 were in prison, compared to 2% of Hispanic and 1% of white males in the same age group. The Lifetime chances of going to prison are 32. 2% for Black males and 17. 2% for Latino males,1 in 3 black males will go to prison in their lifetime. Several studies have concluded that overall, more males are in prison than are enrolled in colleges and universities. In 2000 there were 791,600 black men in prison and 603,032 enrolled in college versus 1980, in 2003, according to Justice Department figures,193,000 black college-age men were in prison, while 532,000 black college-age men were attending college. Other studies contradict this, see NPR Are There Really More Black Men In Prison Than College, There are only 19 million African American males in the United States, collectively these countries represent over 1.6 billion people. The Urgency of Now, The Schott 50 state report on education and black males, Schott Foundation for Public Education. In 2015, 58% of African American males currently serving sentences of one year or more were sentenced for a violent crime, only 15% were incarcerated for a non-violent drug offense. American Sociological Review, Vol.67, pp. 526–546 Miller, why are So Many Black Men in Prison. Impacts of Incarceration on the African American Family, invisible Men, Mass Incarceration and the Myth of Black Progress. African American Childhoods, Historical Perspectives from Slavery to Civil Rights, the Black Male in White America. The New Jim Crow, Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness, social and Moral Cost of Mass Incarceration in African American Communities. Miller, Jerome G. Search and Destroy, African-American Males in the Criminal Justice
Statistics of incarcerated African-American males
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2009. Percent of adult males incarcerated by race and ethnicity.
25.
Maine
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Maine is the northernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Maine is the 39th most extensive and the 41st most populous of the U. S. states and territories and it is bordered by New Hampshire to the west, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the north. Maine is the easternmost state in the contiguous United States, and it is known for its jagged, rocky coastline, low, rolling mountains, heavily forested interior, and picturesque waterways, and also its seafood cuisine, especially clams and lobster. There is a continental climate throughout the state, even in areas such as its most populous city of Portland. For thousands of years, indigenous peoples were the inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine. At the time of European arrival in what is now Maine, the first European settlement in the area was by the French in 1604 on Saint Croix Island, by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. The first English settlement was the short-lived Popham Colony, established by the Plymouth Company in 1607, as Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen European settlements had survived. Loyalist and Patriot forces contended for Maines territory during the American Revolution, Maine was part of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts until 1820, when it voted to secede from Massachusetts to become an independent state. On March 15,1820, it was admitted to the Union as the 23rd state under the Missouri Compromise, there is no definitive explanation for the origin of the name Maine, but the most likely origin is the name given by early explorers after a province in France. Whatever the origin, the name was fixed for English settlers in 1665 when the English Kings Commissioners ordered that the Province of Maine be entered from then on in official records. The state legislature in 2001 adopted a resolution establishing Franco-American Day, other theories mention earlier places with similar names, or claim it is a nautical reference to the mainland. Attempts to uncover the history of the name of Maine began with James Sullivans 1795 History of the District of Maine. He made the allegation that the Province of Maine was a compliment to the queen of Charles I, Henrietta Maria. MAINE appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 in reference to the county of Dorset, the view generally held among British place name scholars is that Mayne in Dorset is Brythonic, corresponding to modern Welsh maen, plural main or meini. Some early spellings are, MAINE1086, MEINE1200, MEINES1204, mason had served with the Royal Navy in the Orkney Islands where the chief island is called Mainland, a possible name derivation for these English sailors. Initially, several tracts along the coast of New England were referred to as Main or Maine, Maine is the only state whose name has exactly one syllable. The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples, including the Abenaki, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet and Penobscot, who had a loose confederacy. European contact with what is now called Maine started around 1200 CE when Norwegians interacted with the native Penobscot in present-day Hancock County, most likely through trade
Maine
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The coast of Maine near
Acadia National Park
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Maine
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Boothbay Harbor
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Autumn in Stratton
26.
Vermont
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Vermont is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It borders the other U. S. states of Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, New York to the west, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north. Lake Champlain forms half of Vermonts western border with the state of New York, Vermont is the 2nd-least populous of the U. S. states, with nearly 50,000 more residents than Wyoming. The capital is Montpelier, the least populous state capital in the U. S, the most populous municipality, Burlington, is the least populous city in the U. S. to be the most populous within a state. As of 2015, Vermont continued to be the producer of maple syrup in the U. S. It was ranked as the safest state in the country in January 2016, for thousands of years inhabited by indigenous peoples, including the Algonquian-speaking Abenaki and Mohawk, much of the territory that is now Vermont was claimed by Frances colony of New France. France ceded the territory to Great Britain after being defeated in 1763 in the Seven Years War, for many years, the nearby colonies, especially the provinces of New Hampshire and New York, disputed control of the area. Settlers who held land titles granted by New York were opposed by the Green Mountain Boys militia, ultimately, those settlers prevailed in creating an independent state, the Vermont Republic. Founded in 1777 during the American Revolutionary War, the republic lasted for 14 years, aside from the original 13 states that were formerly colonies, Vermont is one of only four U. S. states that were previously sovereign states. Vermont was also the first state to join the U. S. as its 14th member state after the original 13, while still an independent republic, Vermont was the first of any future U. S. state to partially abolish slavery. It played an important geographic role in the Underground Railroad, Vermont is located in the New England region of the northeastern United States and comprises 9,614 square miles, making it the 45th-largest state. It is the state that does not have any buildings taller than 124 feet. Land comprises 9,250 square miles and water comprises 365 square miles, making it the 43rd-largest in land area, in total area, it is larger than El Salvador and smaller than Haiti. The west bank of the Connecticut River marks the eastern border with New Hampshire. 41% of Vermonts land area is part of the Connecticut Rivers watershed, Lake Champlain, the major lake in Vermont, is the sixth-largest body of fresh water in the United States and separates Vermont from New York in the northwest portion of the state. From north to south, Vermont is 159 miles long and its greatest width, from east to west, is 89 miles at the Canada–U. S. Border, the narrowest width is 37 miles at the Massachusetts line, the states geographic center is approximately three miles east of Roxbury, in Washington County. There are fifteen U. S. federal border crossings between Vermont and Canada, the origin of the name Vermont is uncertain, but likely comes from the French les Verts Monts, meaning the Green Mountains
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Vermont State House in
Montpelier
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The Hancock Overlook, on Route 100 in
Hancock, Vermont.
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Burlington, Vermont's largest city
27.
Alaska
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Alaska is a U. S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas–the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area, the 3rd least populous, approximately half of Alaskas residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. Alaskas economy is dominated by the fishing, natural gas, military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy. The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30,1867, the area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11,1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U. S. on January 3,1959, the name Alaska was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut, or Unangam idiom, which refers to the mainland of Alaska. Literally, it means object to which the action of the sea is directed, Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States and has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Alaska is the only non-contiguous U. S. state on continental North America and it is technically part of the continental U. S. but is sometimes not included in colloquial use, Alaska is not part of the contiguous U. S. often called the Lower 48. The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. Alaskas territorial waters touch Russias territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island, Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U. S. states combined. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by total area at 663,268 square miles, over twice the size of Texas, Alaska is larger than all but 18 sovereign countries. Counting territorial waters, Alaska is larger than the area of the next three largest states, Texas, California, and Montana. It is also larger than the area of the 22 smallest U. S. states. Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the rest of the United States, as such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest and it contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaskas largest city. The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital transportation link throughout the area. The Interior is the largest region of Alaska, much of it is uninhabited wilderness, Fairbanks is the only large city in the region
Alaska
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Denali is the highest peak in North America.
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Grizzly bear fishing for
salmon at
Brooks Falls, part of
Katmai National Park and Preserve.
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Augustine Volcano erupting on January 12, 2006
28.
Arkansas
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Arkansas is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Its name is of Siouan derivation from the language of the Osage denoting their related kin, the states diverse geography ranges from the mountainous regions of the Ozark and the Ouachita Mountains, which make up the U. S. Interior Highlands, to the forested land in the south known as the Arkansas Timberlands, to the eastern lowlands along the Mississippi River. Arkansas is the 29th largest by area and the 33rd most populous of the 50 United States, the capital and most populous city is Little Rock, located in the central portion of the state, a hub for transportation, business, culture, and government. The northwestern corner of the state, such as the Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers Metropolitan Area and Fort Smith metropolitan area, is a population, education, the largest city in the eastern part of the state is Jonesboro. The largest city in the part of the state is Pine Bluff. The Territory of Arkansas was admitted to the Union as the 25th state on June 15,1836, in 1861 Arkansas withdrew from the United States and joined the Confederate States of America during the Civil War. Upon returning to the Union in 1868, the state would continue to suffer due to its reliance on slavery. White rural interests continued to dominate the politics until the Civil Rights Movement. Arkansas began to diversify its economy following World War II and relies on its service industry, aircraft, poultry, steel, tourism, cotton, and rice. The culture of Arkansas is observable in museums, theaters, novels, television shows, restaurants, wright, and physicist William L. McMillan, who was a pioneer in superconductor research, have all lived in Arkansas. The name Arkansas derives from the root as the name for the state of Kansas. The Kansa tribe of Native Americans are closely associated with the Sioux tribes of the Great Plains, the word Arkansas itself is a French pronunciation of a Quapaw word, akakaze, meaning land of downriver people or the Sioux word akakaze meaning people of the south wind. In 2007, the legislature passed a non-binding resolution declaring the possessive form of the states name to be Arkansass which has been followed increasingly by the state government. Arkansas borders Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, Oklahoma to the west, Missouri to the north, as well as Tennessee, the United States Census Bureau classifies Arkansas as a southern state, sub-categorized among the West South Central States. The state line along the Mississippi River is indeterminate along much of the border with Mississippi due to these changes. Arkansas can generally be split into two halves, the highlands in the northwest half and the lowlands of the southeastern half, the highlands are part of the Southern Interior Highlands, including The Ozarks and the Ouachita Mountains. The southern lowlands include the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Arkansas Delta and this dual split can yield to general regions named northwest, southwest, northeast, southeast, or central Arkansas
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View from the
Ozark Highlands Scenic Byway in
Boxley Valley
Arkansas
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The Ozarks: bend in the Buffalo River from an overlook on the Buffalo River Trail near Steel Creek
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The flat terrain and rich soils of the Arkansas Delta near
Arkansas City are in stark contrast to the northwestern part of the state.
29.
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
Georgia (U.S. state)
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A girl spinner in a Georgia cotton mill, 1909.
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Flag
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Road to
Brasstown Bald
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Jekyll Island
30.
Idaho
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Idaho is a state in the northwestern region of the United States. It borders the state of Montana to the east and northeast, Wyoming to the east, Nevada and Utah to the south, to the north, it shares a small portion of the Canadian border with the province of British Columbia. With a population of around 1.7 million people and an area of 83,569 square miles, Idaho is the 14th largest, the states capital and largest city is Boise. Idaho prior to European settlement was inhabited solely by Native American peoples, in the early 19th century, Idaho was considered part of the Oregon Country, an area disputed between the U. S. and the United Kingdom. Idaho was eventually admitted to the Union on July 3,1890, forming part of the Pacific Northwest, Idaho is divided into several distinct geographic and climatic regions. In the states north, the relatively isolated Idaho Panhandle is closely linked with Eastern Washington, the states south includes the Snake River Plain, while the south-east incorporates part of the Great Basin. Idaho is quite mountainous, and contains several stretches of the Rocky Mountains, additionally, around 38 percent of Idahos land is held by the United States Forest Service, the most of any state. Industries significant for the economy include manufacturing, agriculture, mining, forestry. Idahos agricultural sector supplies a number of different products, but the state is best known for its potato crop, the official state nickname is the Gem State, which references Idahos reputation for gemstones and, more broadly, its many wilderness areas. The exact origin of the remains a mystery. Willing later claimed that he had invented the name. Congress ultimately decided to name the area Colorado Territory when it was created in February 1861, thinking they would get a jump on the name, locals named a community in Colorado Idaho Springs. However, the name Idaho did not fall into obscurity, the same year Congress created Colorado Territory, a county called Idaho County was created in eastern Washington Territory. The county was named after a steamship named Idaho, which was launched on the Columbia River in 1860 and it is unclear whether the steamship was named before or after Willings claim was revealed. Regardless, a portion of Washington Territory, including Idaho County, was used to create Idaho Territory in 1863. Despite this lack of evidence for the origin of the name, the name Idaho may be derived from the Plains Apache word ídaahę́, which means enemy. The Comanches used this word to refer to the Idaho Territory, a 1956 Idaho history textbook says, Idaho is a Shoshoni Indian exclamation. The word consists of three parts, the first is Ee, which in English conveys the idea of coming down
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Digitally colored elevation map of Idaho.
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Flag
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Shoshone Falls in south central Idaho.
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Reynolds Creek Experimental Watershed in the Owyhee Mountains, about 50 miles (80 km) southwest of
Boise, Idaho
