1.
Arbitration
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Arbitration, a form of alternative dispute resolution, is a technique for the resolution of disputes outside the courts. The parties to a dispute refer it to arbitration by one or more persons, a third party reviews the evidence in the case and imposes a decision that is legally binding on both sides and enforceable in the courts. Arbitration is often used for the resolution of disputes, particularly in the context of international commercial transactions. Arbitration can be voluntary or mandatory and can be either binding or non-binding. Non-binding arbitration is similar to mediation in that a decision cannot be imposed on the parties, by one definition arbitration is binding and non-binding arbitration is therefore technically not arbitration. Arbitration is a proceeding in which a dispute is resolved by an impartial adjudicator whose decision the parties to the dispute have agreed, or legislation has decreed, will be final, there are limited rights of review and appeal of arbitration awards. This is especially useful when the matter of the dispute is highly technical. Arbitration is often faster than litigation in court, because of the provisions of the New York Convention 1958, arbitration awards are generally easier to enforce in other nations than court verdicts. In most legal systems there are very limited avenues for appeal of an arbitral award, if the arbitration is mandatory and binding, the parties waive their rights to access the courts and to have a judge or jury decide the case. Although usually thought to be speedier, when there are multiple arbitrators on the panel, discovery may be more limited in arbitration or entirely nonexistent. The potential to generate billings by attorneys may be less than pursuing the dispute through trial, unlike court judgments, arbitration awards themselves are not directly enforceable. A party seeking to enforce an arbitration award must resort to judicial remedies, by their nature, the subject matter of some disputes is not capable of arbitration. For example, until the 1980s, antitrust matters were not arbitrable in the United States. Matters relating to crimes, status and family law are not considered to be arbitrable. However, most other disputes that involve private rights between two parties can be resolved using arbitration, in some disputes, parts of claims may be arbitrable and other parts not. Some legal orders exclude or restrict the possibility of arbitration for reasons of the protection of members of the public. Arbitration agreements are generally divided into two types, Agreements which provide that, if a dispute should arise, it will be resolved by arbitration, sometimes, legal significance attaches to the type of arbitration agreement. For example, in certain Commonwealth countries, it is possible to provide each party should bear their own costs in a conventional arbitration clause
2.
Mediation
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All participants in mediation are encouraged to actively participate in the process. Mediation is a process in that it is focused primarily upon the needs, rights. The mediator uses a variety of techniques to guide the process in a constructive direction. A mediator is facilitative in that s/he manages the interaction between parties and facilitates open communication, Mediation is also evaluative in that the mediator analyzes issues and relevant norms, while refraining from providing prescriptive advice to the parties. Mediation, as used in law, is a form of dispute resolution. Typically, a party, the mediator, assists the parties to negotiate a settlement. Disputants may mediate disputes in a variety of domains, such as commercial, legal, diplomatic, workplace, community, the term mediation broadly refers to any instance in which a third party helps others reach agreement. More specifically, mediation has a structure, timetable and dynamics that ordinary negotiation lacks, the process is private and confidential, possibly enforced by law. The mediator acts as a third party and facilitates rather than directs the process. Mediation is becoming a peaceful and internationally accepted solution in order to end conflict. Mediation can be used to resolve disputes of any magnitude, Mediators use various techniques to open, or improve, dialogue and empathy between disputants, aiming to help the parties reach an agreement. Much depends on the skill and training. As the practice gained popularity, training programs, certifications and licensing followed, producing trained, while a case in the hands of a lawyer or a court may take months or years to resolve, mediation usually achieves a resolution in a matter of hours. Taking less time means expending less money on hourly fees and costs, confidentiality While court hearings are public, mediation remains strictly confidential. No one but the parties to the dispute and the mediator or mediators know what happened, confidentiality in mediation has such importance that in most cases the legal system cannot force a mediator to testify in court as to the content or progress of mediation. Many mediators destroy their notes taken during a mediation once that mediation has finished, the only exceptions to such strict confidentiality usually involve child abuse or actual or threatened criminal acts. Control Mediation increases the control the parties have over the resolution, in a court case, the parties obtain a resolution, but control resides with the judge or jury. Often, a judge or jury cannot legally provide solutions that emerge in mediation, thus, mediation is more likely to produce a result that is mutually agreeable for the parties
3.
Negotiation
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Negotiation is a dialogue between two or more people or parties intended to reach a beneficial outcome over one or more issues where a conflict exists with respect to at least one of these issues. This beneficial outcome can be for all of the parties involved and it is aimed to resolve points of difference, to gain advantage for an individual or collective, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. It is often conducted by putting forward a position and making concessions to achieve an agreement. The degree to which the negotiating parties trust each other to implement the solution is a major factor in determining whether negotiations are successful. In many cases, negotiation is not a game, allowing for cooperation to improve the results of the negotiation. People negotiate daily, often without considering it a negotiation, professional negotiators are often specialized, such as union negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiator, or hostage negotiators. They may also work under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators, Negotiation can take a wide variety of forms, from a trained negotiator acting on behalf of a particular organization or position in a formal setting to an informal negotiation between friends. Negotiation can be contrasted with mediation, where a third party listens to each sides arguments and attempts to help craft an agreement between the parties. It can also be compared with arbitration, which resembles a legal proceeding, in arbitration, both sides make an argument as to the merits of their case and the arbitrator decides the outcome. This negotiation is also sometimes called positional or hard-bargaining negotiation, Negotiation theorists generally distinguish between two types of negotiation. Different theorists use different labels for the two types and distinguish them in different ways. Distributive negotiation is also sometimes called positional or hard-bargaining negotiation and attempts to distribute a fixed pie of benefits, distributive negotiation operates under zero sum conditions and implies that any gain one party makes is at the expense of the other and vice versa. For this reason, distributive negotiation is also sometimes called win-lose because of the assumption that one persons gain results in another persons loss, distributive negotiation examples include haggling prices on an open market, including the negotiation of the price of a car or a home. Distributive bargainers conceive of negotiation as a process of distributing a fixed amount of value, a distributive negotiation often involves people who have never had a previous interactive relationship, nor are they likely to do so again in the near future. Integrative negotiation is also called interest-based, merit-based, or principled negotiation and it is a set of techniques that attempts to improve the quality and likelihood of negotiated agreement by taking advantage of the fact that different parties value various outcomes differently. While distributive negotiation assumes there is an amount of value to be divided between the parties, integrative negotiation often attempts to create value in the course of the negotiation. Integrative negotiation often involves a degree of trust and the forming of a relationship. It can also involve creative problem-solving that aims to achieve mutual gains and it is also sometimes called win-win negotiation
4.
Conflict resolution
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Conflict resolution is conceptualized as the methods and processes involved in facilitating the peaceful ending of conflict and retribution. Dimensions of resolution typically parallel the dimensions of conflict in the way the conflict is processed, cognitive resolution is the way disputants understand and view the conflict, with beliefs and perspectives and understandings and attitudes. Emotional resolution is in the way disputants feel about a conflict, behavioral resolution is how one thinks the disputants act, their behavior. Ultimately, a range of methods and procedures for addressing conflict exist, including negotiation, mediation, mediation-arbitration, diplomacy. The term conflict resolution may also be used interchangeably with dispute resolution, furthermore, the concept of conflict resolution can be thought to encompass the use of nonviolent resistance measures by conflicted parties in an attempt to promote effective resolution. Conflict resolution as a field is relatively new. George Mason University in Fairfax, VA, was the first university to offer a PhD program, according to the model, group members balance their concern for satisfying personal needs and interests with their concern for satisfying the needs and interests of others in different ways. The intersection of two dimensions ultimately leads individuals towards exhibiting different styles of conflict resolution. The dual model identifies five conflict resolution styles/strategies that individuals may use depending on their dispositions toward pro-self or pro-social goals, during conflict, these avoiders adopt a “wait and see” attitude, often allowing conflict to phase out on its own without any personal involvement. By neglecting to address high-conflict situations, avoiders risk allowing problems to fester out of control, yielding conflict style In contrast, yielding or “accommodating” conflict styles are characterized by a high level of concern for others and a low level of concern for oneself. When faced with conflict, individuals with a yielding conflict style tend to give into others’ demands out of respect for the social relationship, competitive conflict style The competitive or “fighting” conflict style maximizes individual assertiveness and minimizes empathy. Groups consisting of members generally enjoy seeking domination over others. Fighters tend to others to accept their personal views by employing competitive power tactics that foster feelings of intimidation. During conflict, cooperators collaborate with others in an effort to find a solution that satisfies all parties involved in the conflict. Individuals using this type of conflict style tend to be both highly assertive and highly empathetic, by seeing conflict as a creative opportunity, collaborators willingly invest time and resources into finding a “win-win” solution. Conciliation conflict style The conciliation or “compromising” conflict style is typical of individuals who possess a level of concern for both personal and others’ outcomes. Compromisers value fairness and, in doing so, anticipate mutual give-and-take interactions, by accepting some demands put forth by others, compromisers believe this agreeableness will encourage others to meet them halfway, thus promoting conflict resolution. This conflict style can be considered an extension of both “yielding” and “cooperative” strategies, wars may occur between warring parties who contest an incompatibility
5.
Restorative justice
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This contrasts to more punitive approaches where the main aim is retributive justice or to satisfy abstract legal principles. Victims take a role in the process. Meanwhile, offenders take meaningful responsibility for their actions, taking the opportunity to right their wrongs and redeem themselves, in their own eyes, in addition, the restorative justice approach aims to help the offender to avoid future offenses. The approach is based on a theory of justice that considers crime and wrongdoing to be an offense against an individual or community, Restorative justice that fosters dialogue between victim and offender has shown the highest rates of victim satisfaction and offender accountability. With crime, restorative justice is about the idea that because crime hurts and it follows that conversations with those who have been hurt and with those who have inflicted the harm must be central to the process. In a restorative justice process, the citizens who have been affected by a crime must take a role in addressing that crime. The process of restorative justice thus shifts the responsibility for addressing crime, Restorative justice seeks to build partnerships to reestablish mutual responsibility for constructive responses to wrongdoing within our communities. Restorative approaches seek a balanced approach to the needs of the victim, wrongdoer, according to Howard Zehr, restorative justice differs from traditional criminal justice in terms of the guiding questions it asks. In restorative justice, the questions are, Who has been hurt, who has a stake in the situation. What is the process to involve stakeholders in an effort to address causes. In contrast, traditional criminal justice asks, What laws have been broken, Restorative justice is also different from the adversarial legal process or that of civil litigation. As Braithwaite writes, Court-annexed ADR and restorative justice could not be further apart. Restorative approaches to crime date back thousands of years, in Sumer, the Code of Ur-Nammu required restitution for violent offenses. In Babylon, the Code of Hammurabi prescribed restitution for property offenses, in Israel, the Pentateuch specified restitution for property crimes. See for example Exodus 22, 1-14, in Rome, the Twelve Tables compelled convicted thieves to pay double the value of stolen goods. In Ireland, under the Brehon Laws compensation was the mode of justice for most crimes, in Gaul, tribal laws promulgated by King Clovis I called for restitutive sanctions for both violent and nonviolent offenses. In England, the Laws of Æthelberht of Kent included detailed restitution schedules, following the Norman invasion of Britain in 1066 A. D. Retributive justice began to replace such systems. William the Conquerors son, Henry I, detailed offenses against the kings peace, by the end of the 11th century, crime was no longer perceived as injurious to persons, but rather was seen as an offense against the state
6.
Facilitator
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A facilitator is someone who engages in the activity of facilitation. Some facilitator tools will try to assist the group in achieving a consensus on any disagreements that preexist or emerge in the meeting so that it has a basis for future action. There are a variety of definitions for facilitator, An individual who enables groups and organizations to more effectively, to collaborate. A helper and enabler whose goal is to others as they pursue their objectives. The facilitators job is to everyone to do their best thinking. To do this, the facilitator encourages full participation, promotes mutual understanding, the Facilitator is responsible for the context. - Rush A meeting or workshop leader who creates an environment where every participant has the opportunity to collaborate, innovate, - Metz A neutral leader who makes a process easier, e. g. a Session Leader. The term Facilitator is derived partially from the Old French faculte via Latin facultås, both were derived from Latin faciilis or easy, an adjective formed from the verb facere, or to do. The concept of authority is one which can cause confusion, charismatic Authority - influence by presence, style and manner. However it is possible to draw from this the requirements for a facilitator to be clear how they are operating in any environment. A contentious issue for instance in the Occupy movement, disputes regarding the exercise of contentious authority functions probably require reference to all available skills and invoke deference to several kinds of authority. They will also need skill to ensure efficiently hearing the maximum number of people, business facilitators work in business, and other formal organizations but facilitators may also work with a variety of other groups and communities. It is a tenet of facilitation that the facilitator will not lead the group towards the answer that he/she thinks is best even if they possess an opinion on the subject matter. The facilitators role is to make it easier for the group to arrive at its own answer, decision and this can and does give rise to organizational conflict between hierarchical management and theories and practice of empowerment. Facilitators often have to navigate between the two, especially where overt statements about empowerment are not being borne out by organizational behaviors, conflict resolution facilitators are used in peace and reconciliation processes both during and after the conflict. Their role is to support constructive and democratic dialogue between groups with diverse and usually diametrically opposite positions, conflict resolution facilitators must be impartial to the conflicting groups and must adhere to the rules of democratic dialogue. They may not take parts or express personal opinions, educators in dialogic learning and other peer instruction approaches often serve as facilitators. In language teaching, teachers may shift to a role to increase student ownership of the learning process
7.
Violence
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This definition involves intentionality with the committing of the act itself, irrespective of the outcome it produces. However, generally, anything that is excited in an injurious or damaging way may be described as violent even if not meant to be violence. Globally, violence resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1.28 million people in 2013 up from 1.13 million in 1990. Of the deaths in 2013, roughly 842,000 were attributed to self-harm,405,000 to interpersonal violence, in Africa, out of every 100,000 people, each year an estimated 60.9 die a violent death. Corlin, past president of the American Medical Association said, The United States leads the world—in the rate at which its children die from firearms and he concluded, Gun violence is a threat to the public health of our country. For each single death due to violence, there are dozens of hospitalizations, hundreds of emergency department visits, furthermore, violence often has lifelong consequences for physical and mental health and social functioning and can slow economic and social development. In 2013, assault by firearm was the cause of death due to interpersonal violence. The same year, assault by sharp object resulted in roughly 114,000 deaths, Violence in many forms is preventable. Strategies addressing the causes of violence can be effective in preventing violence. These three broad categories are divided further to reflect more specific types of violence. Violence is primarily classified as either instrumental or reactive / hostile, self-directed violence is subdivided into suicidal behaviour and self-abuse. The former includes suicidal thoughts, attempted suicides – also called para suicide or deliberate self-injury in some countries –, self-abuse, in contrast, includes acts such as self-mutilation. Collective violence is subdivided into structural violence and economic violence, unlike the other two broad categories, the subcategories of collective violence suggest possible motives for violence committed by larger groups of individuals or by states. Collective violence that is committed to advance a particular social agenda includes, for example, crimes of hate committed by organized groups, terrorist acts, political violence includes war and related violent conflicts, state violence and similar acts carried out by larger groups. Clearly, acts committed by larger groups can have multiple motives, however, in both research and practice, the dividing lines between the different types of violence are not always so clear. It is the most extreme form of collective violence and we know also ideological, religious and revolutionary wars. Since the Industrial Revolution, the lethality of modern warfare has grown, World War I casualties were over 40 million and World War II casualties were over 70 million. Violence includes those acts that result from a relationship, including threats and intimidation
8.
War
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War is a state of armed conflict between societies. It is generally characterized by extreme aggression, destruction, and mortality, an absence of war is usually called peace. Warfare refers to the activities and characteristics of types of war. Total war is warfare that is not restricted to legitimate military targets. While some scholars see war as a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature, as concerns a belligerents losses in proportion to its prewar population, the most destructive war in modern history may have been the Paraguayan War. In 2013 war resulted in 31,000 deaths, down from 72,000 deaths in 1990, in 2003, Richard Smalley identified war as the sixth biggest problem facing humanity for the next fifty years. Another byproduct of some wars is the prevalence of propaganda by some or all parties in the conflict, the word is related to the Old Saxon werran, Old High German werran, and the German verwirren, meaning “to confuse”, “to perplex”, and “to bring into confusion”. In German, the equivalent is Krieg, the Spanish, Portuguese, the scholarly study of war is sometimes called polemology, from the Greek polemos, meaning war, and -logy, meaning the study of. Studies of war by military theorists throughout military history have sought to identify the philosophy of war, asymmetric warfare is a conflict between two populations of drastically different levels of military capability or size. Biological warfare, or germ warfare, is the use of weaponized biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, chemical warfare involves the use of weaponized chemicals in combat. Poison gas as a weapon was principally used during World War I. Civil war is a war between forces belonging to the nation or political entity. Conventional warfare is declared war between states in which nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are not used or see limited deployment, cyberwarfare involves the actions by a nation-state or international organization to attack and attempt to damage another nations information systems. Information warfare is the application of force on a large scale against information assets and systems, against the computers. Nuclear warfare is warfare in which weapons are the primary, or a major. War of aggression is a war for conquest or gain rather than self-defense, the earliest recorded evidence of war belongs to the Mesolithic cemetery Site 117, which has been determined to be approximately 14,000 years old. About forty-five percent of the skeletons there displayed signs of violent death, since the rise of the state some 5,000 years ago, military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare
9.
Protracted social conflict
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Protracted social conflict is a technical term in a theory developed by Edward Azar. It generally refers to conflicts described by researchers as protracted or intractable, i. e. as complex, severe, commonly enduring. When a groups identity is threatened or frustrated, intractable conflict is almost inevitable, protracted social conflict is a theory developed by Edward Azar. The communal groups may experience deep-seated cleavages based upon racial, religious and these cleavages are characterized by continuing hostility with sporadic outbreaks of violence, and caused by the frustration of human needs for security, recognition, and distributive justice. Such identity-driven rifts are the result of a fear of extinction that often grows within vulnerable ethnic groups who live with the memories or fear of persecution. Azar argued that the denial of human needs to a large portion of the population initiated instances of protracted social violence. This element, which contributes to the creation of protracted social conflict. Azar notes, that it is the relationship between identity groups and the states, which is at the core of the problem and he also cited the disarticulation between the state and society as a whole as a source of violence within a society. The resultant disconnection of society and the state can be linked to the colonial legacy and this results in the domination of certain identity groups over others. The dominant group isolates itself from the needs of other groups, to overcome this division of society, national identity must be stressed over individual group identity. Azar refers to these needs as non-negotiable, therefore, if needs are not met. Such a need for change is likely to result in a violent conflict. To overcome this deprivation of human needs to entire groups of people, Azar states that protracted social conflicts can be characterized by incompetent, parochial, fragile, and authoritarian governments that fail to satisfy basic human needs. This creates a crisis of legitimacy in the governance of these countries, the structure of the government needs to be changed so that all citizens are equally cared for and equally represented without bias or corruption. Weaker states, like those often involved in protracted social conflict, for example, many states are dependent on an external supply of armament. To overcome the dominance of the economy, the country in question must work to build institutions that can ease global dependency. As Edward Azar stated, Reducing overt conflict requires reduction in levels of underdevelopment, groups that seek to satisfy their identity and security needs through conflict are in effect seeking change in the structure of their society. Conflict resolution can truly occur and last if satisfactory amelioration of underdevelopment occurs as well, studying protracted conflict leads one to conclude that peace is development in the broadest sense of the term
10.
Legal system
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The contemporary legal systems of the world are generally based on one of four basic systems, civil law, common law, statutory law, religious law or combinations of these. However, the system of each country is shaped by its unique history. Common law and equity are systems of law whose sources are the decisions in cases by judges, alongside, every system will have a legislature that passes new laws and statutes. The relationships between statutes and judicial decisions can be complex, in some jurisdictions, such statutes may overrule judicial decisions or codify the topic covered by several contradictory or ambiguous decisions. Statutes were allowed to be made by the government, common law was later inherited by the Commonwealth of Nations, and almost every former colony of the British Empire has adopted it. The doctrine of stare decisis, also known as law or precedent by courts, is the major difference to codified civil law systems. In addition to countries, several others have adapted the common law system into a mixed system. For example, Nigeria operates largely on a common law system, in the European Union, the Court of Justice takes an approach mixing civil law with an attachment to the importance of case law. One of the most fundamental documents to shape common law is the English Magna Carta and it served as a kind of medieval bill of rights for the aristocracy and the judiciary who developed the law. The central source of law that is recognized as authoritative is codifications in a constitution or statute passed by legislature and this was an extensive reform of the law in the Byzantine Empire, bringing it together into codified documents. Civil law was partly influenced by religious laws such as Canon law. Civil law today, in theory, is interpreted rather than developed or made by judges, only legislative enactments are considered legally binding. As historically integrated in the Scandinavian cultural sphere, Finland and Iceland also inherited the system, chinese law, a mixture of civil law and socialist law in use in the Peoples Republic of China. The Italian approach has been imitated by other countries including the Netherlands, Argentina, Brazil, most of them have innovations introduced by the Italian legislation, including the unification of the civil and commercial codes. Germanistic to Napoleonic influence The Swiss civil code is considered mainly influenced by the German civil code, the main kinds of religious law are Sharia in Islam, Halakha in Judaism, and canon law in some Christian groups. In some cases these are intended purely as individual moral guidance, whereas in other cases they are intended, the latter was particularly common during the Middle Ages. The Halakha is followed by orthodox and conservative Jews in both ecclesiastical and civil relations. No country is governed by Halakha, but two Jewish people may decide, because of personal belief, to have a dispute heard by a Jewish court
11.
Judge
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A judge presides over court proceedings, either alone or as a part of a panel of judges. The powers, functions, method of appointment, discipline, the judge is supposed to conduct the trial impartially and, typically, in an open court. In some jurisdictions, the judges powers may be shared with a jury, in inquisitorial systems of criminal investigation, a judge might also be an examining magistrate. A variety of traditions have become associated with the rank or occupation, in many parts of the world, judges wear long robes and sit on an elevated platform during trials. In some countries, especially in the Commonwealth of Nations, judges wear wigs, the long wig often associated with judges is now reserved for ceremonial occasions, although it was part of the standard attire in previous centuries. A short wig resembling but not identical to a wig would be worn in court. This tradition, however, is being phased out in Britain in non-criminal courts, American judges frequently wear black robes. American judges have ceremonial gavels, although American judges have court deputies or bailiffs, however, in some of the Western United States, like California, judges did not always wear robes and instead wore everyday clothing. Today, some members of state courts, such as the Maryland Court of Appeals wear distinct dress. In Italy and Portugal both judges and lawyers wear black robes. In Oman, the judge wears a stripe, while the attorneys wear the black gown. In Hong Kong, court proceedings are conducted in either English or Cantonese Chinese, Judges of Hong Kong retain many of the English traditions such as wearing wigs and robes in trials. In the lower courts, magistrates are addressed as Your worship, in writing, the post-nominal letters PJ is used to refer to a permanent judge of the Court of Final Appeal and NPJ to a non-permanent judge. In the High Court, the abbreviation JA is used to denote a justice of appeal, Masters of the High Court are addressed as Master. When trials are conducted in Chinese, judges were addressed, in Cantonese, as Fat Goon Dai Yan before the transfer of sovereignty from the United Kingdom to China, and as Fat Goon Gok Ha since 1997. In India, judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts were addressed as Your Lordship or My Lord and Your Ladyship or My Lady, the Bar Council of India had adopted a resolution in April 2006 and added a new Rule 49 in the Advocates Act. As per the rule, lawyers can address the court as Your Honour, if it is a subordinate court, lawyers can use terms such as sir or any equivalent phrase in the regional language concerned. Explaining the rationale behind the move, the Bar Council had held that the such as My Lord
12.
Jury
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A jury is a sworn body of people convened to render an impartial verdict officially submitted to them by a court, or to set a penalty or judgment. Modern juries tend to be found in courts to ascertain the guilt, or lack thereof, in Anglophone jurisdictions, the verdict may be guilty or not guilty. The old institution of grand juries still exists in places, particularly the United States. The modern criminal court jury arrangement has evolved out of the juries in England. Members were supposed to inform themselves of crimes and then of the details of the crimes and their function was therefore closer to that of a grand jury than that of a jury in a trial. The word jury derives from Anglo-Norman juré, Juries are most common in common law adversarial-system jurisdictions. In the modern system, juries act as triers of fact, a trial without a jury is known as a bench trial. The petit jury hears the evidence in a trial as presented by both the plaintiff and the defendant, after hearing the evidence and often jury instructions from the judge, the group retires for deliberation, to consider a verdict. The majority required for a verdict varies, in some cases it must be unanimous, while in other jurisdictions it may be a majority or supermajority. A jury that is unable to come to a verdict is referred to as a hung jury, the size of the jury varies, in criminal cases involving serious felonies there are usually 12 jurors. In civil cases many trials require fewer than twelve jurors, grand juries carry out this duty by examining evidence presented to them by a prosecutor and issuing indictments, or by investigating alleged crimes and issuing presentments. A grand jury is traditionally larger than and distinguishable from the jury used during a trial. It is not required that a suspect be notified of grand jury proceedings, grand juries can also be used for filing charges in the form of a sealed indictment against unaware suspects who are arrested later by a surprise police visit. In addition to their role in screening criminal prosecutions and assisting in the investigation of crimes, grand juries in California, Florida. A third kind of jury, known as a jury can be convened in some common law jurisdiction in connection with an inquest by a coroner. A coroner is an official, who is charged with determining the circumstances leading to a death in ambiguous or suspicious cases. A coroners jury is generally a body that a coroner can convene on a basis in order to increase public confidence in the coroners finding where there might otherwise be a controversy. Serving on a jury is normally compulsory for individuals who are qualified for jury service, a jury is intended to be an impartial panel capable of reaching a verdict
13.
Business
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A business is an organizational entity involved in the provision of goods and services to consumers. Businesses may also be social non-profit enterprises or state-owned public enterprises operated by governments with specific social, a business owned by multiple private individuals may form as an incorporated company or jointly organise as a partnership. Countries have different laws that may ascribe different rights to the business entities. The word business can refer to an organization or to an entire market sector or to the sum of all economic activity. Compound forms such as agribusiness represent subsets of the broader meaning. Businesses aim to maximize sales to have their income exceed their expenditures, resulting in a profit, the owner operates the business alone and may hire employees. A sole proprietor has unlimited liability for all obligations incurred by the business, partnership, A partnership is a business owned by two or more people. In most forms of partnerships, each partner has unlimited liability for the debts incurred by the business, the three most prevalent types of for-profit partnerships are, general partnerships, limited partnerships, and limited liability partnerships. Corporation, The owners of a corporation have limited liability and the business has a legal personality from its owners. Corporations can be either government-owned or privately owned and they can organize either for profit or as nonprofit organizations. A privately owned, for-profit corporation is owned by its shareholders, a privately owned, for-profit corporation can be either privately held by a small group of individuals, or publicly held, with publicly traded shares listed on a stock exchange. Cooperative, Often referred to as a co-op, a cooperative is a limited-liability business that can organize as for-profit or not-for-profit, a cooperative differs from a corporation in that it has members, not shareholders, and they share decision-making authority. Cooperatives are typically classified as either consumer cooperatives or worker cooperatives, cooperatives are fundamental to the ideology of economic democracy. In contrast, unincorporated businesses or persons working on their own are not as protected. Franchises, A franchise is a system in which entrepreneurs purchase the rights to open, franchising in the United States is widespread and is a major economic powerhouse. One out of retail businesses in the United States are franchised and 8 million people are employed in a franchised business. Real estate businesses sell, invest, construct and develop properties – including land, residential homes, retailers, wholesalers, and distributors act as middlemen and get goods produced by manufacturers to the intended consumers, they make their profits by marking up their prices. Most stores and catalog companies are distributors or retailers, transportation businesses such as railways, airlines, shipping companies that deliver goods and individuals to their destinations for a fee
14.
International law
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Public international law concerns the structure and conduct of sovereign states, analogous entities, such as the Holy See, and intergovernmental organizations. To a lesser degree, international law also may affect multinational corporations and individuals, the field of study combines two main branches, the law of nations and international agreements and conventions. The Italian jurist Sir Alberico Gentili was the first to write on public international law and it is usually distinguished from private international law, which concerns the resolution of conflict of laws. The concept of nationalism became increasingly important as people began to see themselves as citizens of a nation with a distinct national identity. Men who take up arms against one another in public war do not cease on this account to be moral beings, responsible to one another and it does not admit of the use of poison in any way, nor of the wanton devastation of a district. It admits of deception, but disclaims acts of perfidy, and, in general, because international law is a relatively new area of law its development and propriety in applicable areas are often subject to dispute. Under article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, in addition, judicial decisions and teachings may be applied as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law. International treaty law comprises obligations states expressly and voluntarily accept between themselves in treaties, customary international law is derived from the consistent practice of States accompanied by opinio juris, i. e. the conviction of States that the consistent practice is required by a legal obligation. Judgments of international tribunals as well as scholarly works have traditionally looked to as persuasive sources for custom in addition to direct evidence of state behavior. Attempts to codify customary international law picked up momentum after the Second World War with the formation of the International Law Commission, codified customary law is made the binding interpretation of the underlying custom by agreement through treaty. For states not party to treaties, the work of the ILC may still be accepted as custom applying to those states. General principles of law are commonly recognized by the major legal systems of the world. Certain norms of international law achieve the binding force of peremptory norms as to all states with no permissible derogations. Colombia v Perú ICJ6, recognising custom as a source of international law, belgium v Spain ICJ1, only the state where a corporation is incorporated has standing to bring an action for damages for economic loss. Where there are disputes about the meaning and application of national laws. The subjective approach, which takes into consideration i. the idea behind the treaty, ii. treaties in their context, what the writers intended when they wrote the text. A third approach, which bases itself on interpretation in the light of its object and purpose, i. e. the interpretation that best suits the goal of the treaty and these are general rules of interpretation, specific rules might exist in specific areas of international law. Greece v United Kingdom ICJ1, ICJ had no jurisdiction to hear a dispute between the UK government and a private Greek businessman under the terms of a treaty
15.
Sovereign state
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A sovereign state is, in international law, a nonphysical juridical entity that is represented by one centralized government that has sovereignty over a geographic area. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, one government, and it is also normally understood that a sovereign state is neither dependent on nor subjected to any other power or state. The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact, States came into existence as people gradually transferred their allegiance from an individual sovereign to an intangible but territorial political entity, of the state. States are but one of political orders that emerged from feudal Europe, others being city states, leagues. Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of sovereignty based on territoriality. It is a system of states, multinational corporations. Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused and that position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their sovereignty was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of civilised people. Lassa Oppenheim said There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is a fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon. In the opinion of H. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia, sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all. The right of nations to determine their own status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognized. The Westphalian model of sovereignty has increasingly come under fire from the non-west as a system imposed solely by Western Colonialism. What this model did was make religion a subordinate to politics and this system does not fit in the Islamic world because concepts such as separation of church and state and individual conscience are not recognised in the Islamic religion as social systems. Nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share common customs, religion, language, origins, however, the adjectives national and international are frequently used to refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly sovereign states, as in national capital, international law. State refers to the set of governing and supportive institutions that have sovereignty over a definite territory, State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state. Recognition can be expressed or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It does not necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations, There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal, in international law, however, there are several theories of when a state should be recognised as sovereign
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Court
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Similarly, the rights of those accused of a crime include the right to present a defense before a court. The system of courts that interprets and applies the law is known as the judiciary. The place where a court sits is known as a venue, the practical authority given to the court is known as its jurisdiction – the courts power to decide certain kinds of questions or petitions put to it. It is also usual in the courts to have barristers, and attorneys or counsel, as assistants, though, often, courts consist of additional barristers, bailiffs, reporters. The term the court is used to refer to the presiding officer or officials. The judge or panel of judges may also be referred to as the bench. In the United States, and other common law jurisdictions, the court by law is used to describe the judge himself or herself. In the United States, the authority of a court to take action is based on personal jurisdiction, subject-matter jurisdiction. The English word court is a cognate of the Latin word hortus, the verb to court, meaning to win favor, derives from the same source since people traveled to the sovereigns court to win his favor. The word jurisdiction comes from juris and dictio, jurisdiction is defined as the official authority to make legal decisions and judgements over an individual or materialistic item within a territory. Whether a given court has jurisdiction to preside over a case is a key question in any legal action. Three basic components of jurisdiction are jurisdiction over the person (personal jurisdiction, jurisdiction over the subject matter or thing. Other concepts of jurisdiction include general jurisdiction, exclusive jurisdiction, territorial jurisdiction, appellate jurisdiction, trial courts are courts that hold trials. Sometimes termed courts of first instance, trial courts have varying original jurisdiction, trial courts may conduct trials with juries as the finders of fact or trials in which judges act as both finders of fact and finders of law. Juries are less common in court systems outside the Anglo-American common law tradition, appellate courts are courts that hear appeals of lower courts and trial courts. Some courts, such as the Crown Court in England and Wales may have both trial and appellate jurisdictions, the two major legal traditions of the western world are the civil law courts and the common law courts. These two great legal traditions are similar, in that they are products of western culture although there are significant differences between the two traditions, civil law courts are profoundly based upon Roman Law, specifically a civil body of law entitled Corpus iuris civilis. Civil law is firmly ensconced in the French and German legal systems, Common law courts were established by English royal judges of the Kings Council after the Norman Invasion of Britain in 1066
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Consumer
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A consumer is a person or organization that uses economic services or commodities. In economic systems consumers are utilities expressed in the decision to trade or not, the consumer is the one who pays to consume goods and services produced. As such, consumers play a role in the economic system of a nation. Without consumer demand, producers would lack one of the key motivations to produce, the consumer also forms part of the chain of distribution. The law primarily uses the notion of the consumer in relation to protection laws. As of all voters are also consumers, consumer protection takes on a clear political significance. Concern over the interests of consumers has also spawned activism, as well as incorporation of consumer education into school curricula, there are also various non-profit publications, such as Which. Consumer Reports and Choice Magazine, dedicated to assist in education and decision making. In India, the Consumer Protection Act 1986 differentiates the consummation of a commodity or service for use or to earn a livelihood. Only consumers are protected per this act and any person, entity or organization purchasing a commodity for commercial reasons are exempted from any benefits of this act, U. S. Government National Consumer Protection Week
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Corporation
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A corporation is a company or group of people authorized to act as a single entity and recognized as such in law. Early incorporated entities were established by charter, most jurisdictions now allow the creation of new corporations through registration. Corporations chartered in regions where they are distinguished by whether they are allowed to be for profit or not are referred to as for profit and not-for-profit corporations, there is some overlap between stock/non-stock and for profit/not-for-profit in that not-for-profit corporations are always non-stock as well. A for profit corporation is almost always a stock corporation, registered corporations have legal personality and are owned by shareholders whose liability is limited to their investment. Shareholders do not typically actively manage a corporation, shareholders instead elect or appoint a board of directors to control the corporation in a fiduciary capacity, in American English, the word corporation is most often used to describe large business corporations. In British English and in the Commonwealth countries, the company is more widely used to describe the same sort of entity while the word corporation encompasses all incorporated entities. In American English, the company can include entities such as partnerships that would not be referred to as companies in British English as they are not a separate legal entity. Despite not being human beings, corporations, as far as the law is concerned, are legal persons. Corporations can exercise human rights against real individuals and the state, Corporations can be dissolved either by statutory operation, order of court, or voluntary action on the part of shareholders. Corporations can even be convicted of offenses, such as fraud. However, corporations are not considered living entities in the way humans are. While not a corporation, this new type of entity became very attractive as an alternative for corporations not needing to issue stock, in Germany, the organization was referred to as Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung or GmbH. In the last quarter of the 20th Century this new form of organization became available in the United States and other countries. Since the GmbH and LLC forms of organization are technically not corporations they will not be discussed in this article, the word corporation derives from corpus, the Latin word for body, or a body of people. By the time of Justinian, Roman law recognized a range of corporate entities under the names universitas and these included the state itself, municipalities, and such private associations as sponsors of a religious cult, burial clubs, political groups, and guilds of craftsmen or traders. Such bodies commonly had the right to own property and make contracts, to receive gifts and legacies, to sue and be sued, private associations were granted designated privileges and liberties by the emperor. Entities which carried on business and were the subjects of rights were found in ancient Rome. In medieval Europe, churches became incorporated, as did local governments, such as the Pope, the point was that the incorporation would survive longer than the lives of any particular member, existing in perpetuity
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Diplomacy
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Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of states. International treaties are negotiated by diplomats prior to endorsement by national politicians. The scholarly discipline of diplomatics, dealing with the study of old documents, derives its name from the same source, but its modern meaning is quite distinct from the activity of diplomacy. Some of the earliest known records are the Amarna letters written between the pharaohs of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt and the Amurru rulers of Canaan during the 14th century BC. Following the Battle of Kadesh in c, Relations with the government of the Ottoman Empire were particularly important to Italian states. The maritime republics of Genoa and Venice depended less and less upon their nautical capabilities, interactions between various merchants, diplomats and clergy men hailing from the Italian and Ottoman empires helped inaugurate and create new forms of diplomacy and statecraft. Eventually the primary purpose of a diplomat, which was originally a negotiator and it became evident that all other sovereigns felt the need to accommodate themselves diplomatically, due to the emergence of the powerful political environment of the Ottoman Empire. One could come to the conclusion that the atmosphere of diplomacy within the modern period revolved around a foundation of conformity to Ottoman culture. One of the earliest realists in international relations theory was the 6th century BC military strategist Sun Tzu, author of The Art of War. However, a deal of diplomacy in establishing allies, bartering land, and signing peace treaties was necessary for each warring state. The treaty was renewed no less than nine times, but did not restrain some Xiongnu tuqi from raiding Han borders. The Koreans and Japanese during the Chinese Tang Dynasty looked to the Chinese capital of Changan as the hub of civilization, the Japanese sent frequent embassies to China in this period, although they halted these trips in 894 when the Tang seemed on the brink of collapse. After the devastating An Shi Rebellion from 755 to 763, the Tang Dynasty was in no position to reconquer Central Asia, after several conflicts with the Tibetan Empire spanning several different decades, the Tang finally made a truce and signed a peace treaty with them in 841. Both diplomats secured the borders of the Song Dynasty through knowledge of cartography. There was also a triad of warfare and diplomacy between these two states and the Tangut Western Xia Dynasty to the northwest of Song China. After warring with the Lý Dynasty of Vietnam from 1075 to 1077, Song, long before the Tang and Song dynasties, the Chinese had sent envoys into Central Asia, India, and Persia, starting with Zhang Qian in the 2nd century BC. Another notable event in Chinese diplomacy was the Chinese embassy mission of Zhou Daguan to the Khmer Empire of Cambodia in the 13th century, Chinese diplomacy was a necessity in the distinctive period of Chinese exploration. Since the Tang Dynasty, the Chinese also became heavily invested in sending diplomatic envoys abroad on missions into the Indian Ocean, to India, Persia, Arabia, East Africa
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Peacekeeping
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Peacekeeping refers to activities intended to create conditions that favor lasting peace. Research generally finds that peacekeeping reduces civilian and battlefield deaths and reduces the risk of renewed warfare, such assistance may come in many forms, including confidence-building measures, power-sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development. Accordingly, the UN peacekeepers can include soldiers, police officers, the United Nations is not the only organization to implement peacekeeping missions. Non-UN peacekeeping forces include the NATO mission in Kosovo and the Multinational Force, the Nonviolent Peaceforce is one NGO widely considered to have expertise in general peacemaking by non-governmental volunteers or activists. There are a range of types of operations encompassed in peacekeeping. In Page Fortna’s book Does Peacekeeping Work, for instance, she distinguishes four different types of peacekeeping operations, importantly, these types of missions and how they are conducted are heavily influenced by the mandate in which they are authorized. Three of Fortna’s four types are consent-based missions, i. e. Chapter VI missions, Chapter VI missions are consent based, therefore they require the consent of the belligerent factions involved in order to operate. Should they lose that consent, Peacekeepers would be compelled to withdraw, Chapter VII missions, by contrast, do not require consent, though they may have it. If consent is lost at any point, Chapter VII missions would not be required to withdraw, observation Missions which consist of small contingents of military or civilian observers tasked with monitoring cease-fires, troop withdrawals, or other conditions outlined in a ceasefire agreement. They are typically unarmed and are tasked with observing and reporting on what is taking place. Thus, they do not possess the capability or mandate to intervene should either side renege on the agreement, examples of observation missions include UNAVEM II in Angola in 1991 and MINURSO in the Western Sahara. Thus, they serve as a zone between the two sides and can monitor and report on the compliance of either side with regard to parameters established in a given ceasefire agreement. Examples include UNAVEM III in Angola in 1994, and MINUGUA in Guatemala in 1996, multidimensional missions are carried out by military and police personnel in which they attempt to implement robust and comprehensive settlements. Examples include UNTAG in Namibia, ONUSAL in El Salvador, Peace enforcement Missions are Chapter VII missions and unlike the previous Chapter VI missions, they do not require the consent of the belligerent parties. These are multidimensional operations comprising both civilian and military personnel, the military force is substantial in size and fairly well-equipped by UN Peacekeeping standards. They are mandated to use force for purposes beyond just self-defense, examples include ECOMOG and UNAMSIL in West Africa and Sierra Leone in 1999, as well as the NATO operations in Bosnia—IFOR and SFOR. During the Cold War, peacekeeping was primarily interpositional in nature—thus being referred to as traditional peacekeeping, Missions were consent-based, and more often than not observers were unarmed—such was the case with UNTSO in the Middle East and UNCIP in India and Pakistan. Others were armed—such as UNEF-I, established during the Suez Crisis and they were largely successful in this role
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UN Peacemaker
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UN Peacemaker is an information and knowledge management tool of the United Nations. Intended for peacemaking professionals, it includes a database of peace agreements, guidance material. It is managed by the Mediation Support Unit in the Department of Political Affairs, UN Peacemaker is an online mediation support tool for peacemaking professionals. It is part of the UN’s overall effort to provide advice and support to the Secretary-General and his Representatives in their efforts to resolve international disputes, information on UN mediation support activities and services. A library of selected literature on key mediation issues The UN Mediation app which contains a library of key UN guidance products for mediators and it can be downloaded to any mobile device. The website will also have video interviews with mediation experts discussing strategies and tactics on how to manage mediation processes and providing guidance on specific themes. To keep pace with evolving demands and changes, the website has been overhauled and re-launched within the UN system in 2012 and was available to the public in early 2013. UN Peacemaker has become a point of reference among practitioners and academics alike, in 2008, UN Peacemaker was announced as a winner of the ‘UN21 Award’ in the category of knowledge management projects. It is also one of the most comprehensive databases of peace agreements with an advanced search functions, UN Peacemaker Website Mediation Guidance App
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William Ury
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William Ury is an American author, academic, anthropologist, and negotiation expert. He co-founded the Harvard Program on Negotiation, additionally, he helped found the International Negotiation Network with former President Jimmy Carter. Ury was educated at Le Rosey and at Andover Academy where he graduated in 1970, in college, Ury studied anthropology, linguistics, and classics. Ury received his B. A. from Yale and his PhD in social anthropology from Harvard, in 1979 he co-founded the Harvard Negotiation Project of which he is currently a Distinguished Fellow. In 1981, he helped found the Program on Negotiation at Harvard Law School, Ury co-authored Getting to Yes with Roger Fisher as a guide for international mediators. It was first published in 1981, then published in an edition in 1991 with Bruce Patton credited as a contributing author. A third edition was published in 2012, Ury founded and served as the director of the Harvard Nuclear Negotiation Project. Together with Richard Smoke, Ury interviewed U. S. and Soviet specialists and government officials, the report was the basis for Urys book Beyond the Hotline. Together with former President Jimmy Carter, Ury co-founded the International Negotiation Network, the International Negotiation Network was led by a council that included Carter and Desmond Tutu. Other notable people involved with the Network include Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Sonny Ramphal, Ury teaches negotiation to international corporate executives and labor leaders in order to reach mutually profitable agreements with customers, suppliers, unions and joint-venture partners. In 2001, Ury co-founded the e-Parliament with Nicholas Dunlop, the website serves as a global forum for international elected officials to work on issues of common interest. Ury is the recipient of the Whitney North Seymour Award from the American Arbitration Association and he also received the Distinguished Service Medal from the Russian Parliament for his work on the resolution of ethnic conflicts. He received the 2012 Peacemakers Award from Mediators Beyond Borders, conflict resolution research List of books about negotiation Method of Harvard Principled Negotiation Official website
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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City University of New York
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The City University of New York is the public university system of New York City, and the largest urban university in the United States. CUNY and the State University of New York are separate and independent university systems, CUNY, however, is additionally funded by the City of New York. CUNY is the third-largest university system in the United States, in terms of enrollment, behind the State University of New York, and the California State University system. More than 270, 000-degree-credit students and 273,000 continuing, the university has one of the most diverse student bodies in the United States, with students hailing from 208 countries. The black, white and Hispanic undergraduate populations each comprise more than a quarter of the student body, fifty-eight percent are female, and 28 percent are 25 or older. The following table is sortable, click on a heading to re-sort the table by values of that column. Rosenthal, philosopher Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr, by 1979, the Board of Higher Education had become the Board of Trustees of the CUNY. The Free Academy later became the City College of New York, the Female Normal and High School – Founded in 1870, and later renamed the Normal College. It would be renamed again in 1914 to Hunter College, during the early 20th century, Hunter College expanded into the Bronx, with what became Herbert Lehman College. Brooklyn College – Founded in 1930, Queens College – Founded in 1937. CUNY has served a student body, especially those excluded from or unable to afford private universities. Its four-year colleges offered a high quality, tuition-free education to the poor, the working class, during the post-World War I era, when some Ivy League universities, such as Yale University, discriminated against Jews, many Jewish academics and intellectuals studied and taught at CUNY. The City College of New York developed a reputation of being the Harvard of the proletariat, most of these limited matriculation students enrolled in the Evening Session, and paid tuition. Demand in the United States for higher education rapidly grew after World War II, community colleges would have drawn from the same city coffers that were funding the senior colleges, and city higher education officials were of the view that the state should finance them. It wasnt until 1955, under an arrangement with New York State. Unlike the day college students attending the citys public baccalaureate colleges for free, community college students paid tuition fees for approximately 10 years. Over time, tuition fees for limited-matriculated students became an important source of system revenues. In fall 1957, for example, nearly 36,000 attended Hunter, Brooklyn, Queens and City Colleges for free, but another 24,000 paid tuition fees of up to $300 a year – the equivalent of $2,413 in 2011
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Pepperdine University School of Law
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The Pepperdine University School of Law is an ABA accredited law school, nestled in the hills of Malibu, California overlooking the Pacific Ocean. The campus is 30 miles from Downtown Los Angeles, the heart of entertainment, media, Pepperdine Law also has a West LA campus, which tailors flexible course schedules to mid-career professionals in conjunction with their Malibu campus offerings. Pepperdine School of Law provides a legal education with an emphasis on societal responsibility. In addition to programs, they offer experiential learning, mentorship. Pepperdine offers six joint degrees, and several LLM and Masters degrees, including those offered in conjunction with the Straus Institute of Dispute Resolution, Pepperdine Law also offers certificates in Dispute Resolution, and in Entertainment, Media, and Sports Law. Pepperdine Law is known for providing excellent mentorships to its students, current News & Events can be found on The Surf Report, where students, faculty, rankings, and events are reported on. Pepperdine Law placed 65th among the nations Top 100 law schools according to the 2017 U. S. News, Pepperdine Law is tied with Loyola Marymount School of Law as the fourth highest ranked law school in Southern California, after UCLA, USC, and UC Irvine. Pepperdine Law is best known for its entertainment law, and its dispute resolution program, the school offers a Juris Doctor, Masters of Law in dispute resolution, and joint degrees with J. D. /M. B. A. J. D. /M. P. P. and J. D. /Master of Dispute Resolution. Deanell Reece Tacha, former Chief Judge of The United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit, became Dean on June 1,2011, Pepperdine professor and tax law expert Paul Caron will become dean on June 1,2017. The total cost of attendance at Pepperdine for the 2015-2016 academic year is $79,800, the Law School Transparency estimated debt-financed cost of attendance for three years is $301,845. Graduates are eligible to apply for admission to practice in any state, Pepperdine University is accredited by the Accrediting Commission for Senior Colleges and Universities of the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. Employment Outcomes, According to 2013 ABA data,53. 1% of graduates obtained full-time, long term positions requiring bar admission,9 months after graduation and we seek to do so at a theoretical level through seminars, conferences, and scholarship. We also seek to put theory into action, working with governments and human rights organizations to bring peace, justice, and the rule of law around the globe. The Global Justice Program touches all corners of the globe through its initiatives in human rights and religious freedom, advancement of the rule of law. Through these initiatives, students and faculty collaborate to seek justice, Straus provides education to law and graduate students, as well as mid-career professionals in areas of mediation, negotiation, arbitration, international dispute resolution and peacemaking. The Straus Institute has consistently ranked the number one Dispute Resolution school in the nation for the past 8 years, written contributions to each symposium are published in the Law Review. Permanent Representative to the United Nations Paul Clement — Former United States Solicitor General and he is the current Minister of Justice and Attorney-General in the Rwandan government
