1.
Culture of Djibouti
–
The culture of the Republic of Djibouti is diverse, due to the nations Red Sea location at a crossroads of trade and commerce. They were called Hamites Orientals to distinguish them from these other Hamites that are Egyptians, an important Arab community of Yemeni origin, is also based in Djibouti. However, the population tends to settle because today more than half of its citizens live in the capital, poetry traditionally recited in the villages by special readers called gabaye was a way of recording the communitys history and customs, as well as current events. The two largest ethnic groups are the Issa Somali and the Afar, the Somali clan component is mainly composed of the Issas, in addition to smaller numbers of Gadabuursi. Both are sub-clans of the larger Dir, the Issas form part of the Madoobe Dir, the remaining 5% of Djiboutis population primarily consists of Arabs, Ethiopians and Europeans. Most local residents are urban dwellers, the remainder are pastoralists, Djibouti has also hosted Arab refugees, primarily from Yemen. Somalis have traditionally organized into nomadic pastoral clans, loose empires, sultanates and city-states. Their clan groupings are important social units, wherein membership plays a part in Somali culture. Clans are patrilineal and are divided into sub-clans, sometimes with many sub-divisions. Somali society is traditionally ethnically endogamous, so as to extend ties of alliance, marriage is often to another ethnic Somali from a different clan. Afar society has historically been organized into independent kingdoms, each ruled by its own Sultan, a portion of the community also consists of pastoralists, raising goats, sheep, and cattle in the desert. In addition, the Afar are reputed for their martial prowess, men traditionally sport the jile, a famous curved knife. They also have a repertoire of battle songs. According to Ethnologue, the majority of the population speaks Somali or Afar as a first language, both languages belong to the larger Afro-Asiatic family. There are two languages in Djibouti, Arabic and French. Arabic is of social, cultural and religious importance, in formal settings, it consists of Modern Standard Arabic. Colloquially, about 59,000 local residents speak the Taizzi-Adeni Arabic dialect, French was inherited from the colonial period and is the primary language of instruction. About 10,200 Djiboutians speak it as a first language, immigrant languages include Omani Arabic, Amharic, Greek and Hindi
2.
History of Djibouti
–
Djibouti is a country in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Somalia to the southeast, Eritrea and the Red Sea to the north and northeast, Ethiopia to the west and south, in antiquity, the territory was part of the Land of Punt. The Djibouti area, along with other localities in the Horn region, was later the seat of the medieval Adal, in the late 19th century, the colony of French Somaliland was established following treaties signed by the ruling Issa Somali and Afar Sultans with the French. It was subsequently renamed to the French Territory of the Afars, a decade later, the Djiboutian people voted for independence, officially marking the establishment of the Republic of Djibouti. The Djibouti area has been inhabited since at least the Neolithic, pottery predating the mid-2nd millennium has been found at Asa Koma, an inland lake area on the Gobaad Plain. The sites ware is characterized by punctate and incision geometric designs, long-horned humpless cattle bones have also been discovered at Asa Koma, suggesting that domesticated cattle was present by around 3,500 years ago. Rock art of what appear to be antelopes and a giraffe are found at Dorra. A team of archaeologists discovered funds stone houses, the walls of an edifice with orienteer recess to Mecca. They have also updated shards of ceramics, chipped stone tools, an old settlement, Handoga is the site of numerous ancient ruins and buildings, many of obscure origins. Including ceramic shards matching vases used brazier, or containers that can hold water, several choppers and microliths, blades, drills, trenchers basalt, a team of archaeologists discover an elephant date of 1.6 million years near the area. Also a pearl orange coralline, three glass paste, etc, between Djibouti City and Loyada are a number of anthropomorphic and phallic stelae. The structures are associated with graves of rectangular shape flanked by vertical slabs, the Djibouti-Loyada stelae are of uncertain age, and some of them are adorned with a T-shaped symbol. Together with northern Somalia, Eritrea and the Red Sea coast of Sudan, the old territorys first mention dates to the 25th century BC. The Puntites were a nation of people that had relations with Ancient Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure. They traded not only in their own produce of incense, ebony and short-horned cattle, according to the temple reliefs at Deir el-Bahari, the Land of Punt was ruled at that time by King Parahu and Queen Ati. Islam was introduced to the early on from the Arabian peninsula. Zeilas two-mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque in the city, in the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Horn seaboard. He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in Zeila and this suggests that the Adal Sultanate with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century
3.
Media of Djibouti
–
Media in Djibouti is controlled by the government. From Djibouti City, telephone connections are available by satellite to Europe, there were 9,500 mainline telephones and 23,000 cellular phones in use throughout the country in 2003. Radio Djibouti began broadcasting in the 1940s, during the period in French Somaliland. In 1983, Djibouti inaugurated a powerful state-owned AM radio transmitting station, built with French, a television service was first introduced in 1967. Both are state run and broadcast in Arabic, French, Somali, as of 2001, there were 1 AM and 2 FM radio stations and 1 television station. In 1997, there were 77 radios and 37 television sets per 1,000 population, internet access was available to about 6,500 subscribers in 2003. Djibouti has one weekly newspaper, the government owned La Nation de Djibouti. Each political party is allowed to publish a public journal, there are several opposition-run weeklies and monthlies that operate freely. The constitution provides for freedom of speech and the press, communications in Djibouti List of newspapers in Djibouti This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http, //lcweb2. loc. gov/frd/cs/
4.
Tourism in Djibouti
–
The main tourist activities are scuba diving, fishing, trekking and hiking, discovering the nomadic way, bird watching, and sun, sea and sand. At Goubbet al Kharab, near the end of the Gulf of Tadjoura, there are steep cliffs. A number of volcanoes are located inland from here. Another popular tourist attraction is the Day Forest National Park for conserving rare trees on Mount Goda. Near the town of Ali Sabieh are famously red mountains and a park full of many gazelles. The coastal plains, mountain ranges. Some popular local attractions include the Presidential Palace, the Central Market, Maskali Islands, Moucha Island, Lake Abbe, the coastlines of Djibouti harbor many stretches of beaches that are frequented by sun bathers and other visitors. Priority is given to the construction of hotels and the construction of roads meet the latest international standards. The tourist industry in Djibouti is regulated by the Ministry of Commerce, according to the UNWTO, the annual number of tourists visiting the country is uncertain. However, international tourism locally generated $21 million USD in revenue in 2012, according to Office National du Tourisme de Djibouti figures, almost half of all visitors, or 48%, came from France, with 21% arriving from other European countries. The third-largest group came from Gulf states, visitors from Africa represented just 6%, with the majority of them coming from Ethiopia. Finally, visitors from Asia and North America represented minor percentages at 5% and 3%, Djibouti has a number of local attractions, consisting of historical sites, National Park, beaches and mountain ranges. Djibouti City - The People Palace Djibouti City - Rue Venice Djibouti City - The Presidential Palace Day Forest National Park established in 1939, and also is the largest forest in Djibouti. Djibouti has many restaurants serving their local foods to tourists. Tadjoura – Korijib is one of the oldest mosques in the Horn of Africa, Djibouti City – The Grand Mosque of Hamoudi. Loyada – Beach and palm grove, with the tombs of important historical leaders in the region
5.
Somalis
–
Somalis are an ethnic group inhabiting the Horn of Africa. The overwhelming majority of Somalis speak the Somali language, which is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family, ethnic Somalis number around 16-20 million and are principally concentrated in Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Djibouti. Expatriate Somalis are also found in parts of the Middle East, North America, Oceania, Samaale, the oldest common ancestor of several Somali clans, is generally regarded as the source of the ethnonym Somali. The name Somali is, in turn, held to be derived from the words soo and maal, another plausible etymology proposes that the term Somali is derived from the Arabic for wealthy, again referring to Somali riches in livestock. The first clear reference of the sobriquet Somali, however. Simur was also an ancient Harari alias for the Somali people, Ancient rock paintings, which date back 5000 years, have been found in the northern part of Somalia, these depict early life in the territory. In other places, such as the northern Dhambalin region, a depiction of a man on a horse is postulated as being one of the earliest known examples of a mounted huntsman. Inscriptions have been found many of the rock paintings. During the Stone age, the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here with their industries and factories. The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to 4th millennium BC. The stone implements from the Jalelo site in northern Somalia are said to be the most important link in evidence of the universality in palaeolithic times between the East and the West. In antiquity, the ancestors of the Somali people were an important link in the Horn of Africa connecting the regions commerce with the rest of the ancient world. According to most scholars, the ancient Land of Punt and its inhabitants formed part of the ethnogenesis of the Somali people, the ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut. The pyramidal structures, temples and ancient houses of dressed stone littered around Somalia are said to date from this period, the city of Mogadishu came to be known as the City of Islam, and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries. The Sultanate of Ifat, led by the Walashma dynasty with its capital at Zeila, ruled parts of what is now eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti. The historian al-Umari records that Ifat was situated near the Red Sea coast and its army numbered 15,000 horsemen and 20,000 foot soldiers. Al-Umari also credits Ifat with seven cities, Belqulzar, Kuljura, Shimi, Shewa, Adal, Jamme. The Harla, an early Hamitic group of tall stature who inhabited parts of Somalia, Tchertcher and other areas in the Horn and these masons are believed to have been ancestral to the Somalis
6.
Afar people
–
The Afar, also known as the Danakil, Adali and Odali, are an ethnic group inhabiting the Horn of Africa. They primarily live in the Afar Region of Ethiopia and in northern Djibouti, Afars speak the Afar language, which is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. Afar society has traditionally been organized into independent kingdoms, each ruled by its own Sultan, among these were the Sultanate of Aussa, Sultanate of Girrifo, Sultanate of Dawe, Sultanate of Tadjourah, Sultanate of Rahaito, and Sultanate of Goobad. During its existence, Adal had relations and engaged in trade with other polities in Northeast Africa, the Afar Sultanate succeeded the earlier Imamate of Aussa. The latter polity had come into existence in 1577, when Muhammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to Aussa with the split of the Adal Sultanate into Aussa and the Harari city-state. At some point after 1672, Aussa declined and temporarily came to an end in conjunction with Imam Umar Din bin Adams recorded ascension to the throne, the Sultanate was subsequently re-established by Kedafu around the year 1734, and was thereafter ruled by his Mudaito Dynasty. The primary symbol of the Sultan was a baton, which was considered to have magical properties. Following an unsuccessful rebellion led by the Afar Sultan, Alimirah Hanfare, Sultan Hanfadhe was shortly afterwards exiled to Saudi Arabia. Ethiopias then-ruling communist Derg regime later established the Autonomous Region of Assab, in Djibouti, a similar movement simmered throughout the 1980s, eventually culminating in the Afar Insurgency in 1991. After the fall of the Derg that same year, Sultan Hanfadhe returned from exile, in March 1993, the Afar Revolutionary Democratic Front was established. A political party, it aims to protect Afar interests, as of 2012, the ARDUF is part of the United Ethiopian Democratic Forces coalition opposition party. The Afar principally reside in the Danakil Desert in the Afar Region of Ethiopia, as well as in Eritrea and they number 1,276,867 people in Ethiopia, of whom 105,551 are urban inhabitants, according to the most recent census. The Afar make up over a third of the population of Djibouti, Afars speak the Afar language as a mother tongue. It is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family, the Afar language is spoken by ethnic Afars in the Afar Region of Ethiopia, as well as in southern Eritrea and northern Djibouti. However, since the Afar are traditionally nomadic herders, Afar speakers may be found further afield, together, with the Saho language Afar constitutes the Saho–Afar dialect cluster. They have an association with Islam through the various local Muslim polities. The Afar are traditionally pastoralists, raising goats, sheep, in addition, the Afar are reputed for their martial prowess. Men traditionally sport the jile, a curved knife
7.
Islam in Djibouti
–
Islam in Djibouti has a long history, first appearing in the Horn of Africa during the lifetime of Muhammad. Today, 94% of Djiboutis 490,000 inhabitants are Sunni Muslims, after independence, the nascent republic constructed a legal system based in part on Islamic law. Islam was introduced to the Horn region early on from the Arabian peninsula, zeila, in adjacent Somalias two-mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn, dates to the 7th century and is the oldest mosque in the city. In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard and he also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in the city, suggesting that the Adal Sultanate dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century. According to I. M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local dynasties who ruled over the similarly-established Sultanate of Mogadishu in the Benadir region to the south. Adals history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring Abyssinia, Djiboutis population is predominantly Sunni Muslim. The non-Muslim population consists generally of foreign-born citizens and mostly live in Djibouti City, Article 1 of the Constitution of Djibouti names Islam as the sole state religion, and Article 11 provides for the equality of citizens of all faiths and freedom of religious practice. Although Islam is the religion, the constitution does not allow for religious based political parties. Most local Muslims adhere to the Sunni denomination, following the Shafii school, the non-denominational Muslims largely belong to Sufi orders of varying schools. In 2012, a law was passed that grants the Ministry of Religious Affairs increased oversight of Djibouti’s mosques, the Ministry of Islamic Affairs reportedly used the new law that regulated mosques to replace imams and temporarily close some mosques. Some imams reported being questioned by security services following sermons with strong political and social justice themes, there were also reports of plainclothes officers monitoring the content of Friday sermons and the activities of people attending mosque services. Government officials also indicated the law was designed to counter perceived foreign influence in mosques, according to article 23 of the Family Code, a non-Muslim man may marry a Muslim woman only after converting to Islam. Non-Islamic marriages are not legally recognized by the government, which only recognizes marriages performed in accordance with the Ministry of Islamic Affairs or the Ministry of the Interior. There are approximately 40 private Islamic schools nationwide, which are managed by the Ministry of Islamic Affairs, religion in Djibouti Christianity in Djibouti
8.
Christianity in Djibouti
–
Christianity is the religion of 6% of the population of Djibouti. Christians are mostly of Ethiopian and European ancestry, most Christians are Ethiopian Orthodox or Roman Catholic. The constitution of Djibouti includes freedom of religion, although Islam is the state religion, there are likely no current prisoners for Christian religious reasons. There is a tolerant attitude between religions in general, proselytizing of Muslims is not allowed. Converts from Islam to Christianity have to fear persecution, less than 2% of the Djiboutians are Christians, but many of the Ethiopians in Djibouti are Christians. 3. 2% of the population are Orthodox,0. 07% to 1% of the population are Protestants. According to the World Christian Encyclopedia, among other denominations are the Eglise Protestante de Djibouti, the Greek Orthodox Church, the Mennonite Mission is active in Djibouti. The Eglise Protestante Evangelique de Djibouti was founded in 1960 and it is active in the care for refugees, among other things. There is a Djibouti Parish of the New Apostolic Church, Djibouti is included in the Episcopal Area of the Horn of Africa of the Anglican Diocese of Egypt, though there are no current congregations in the country. There are around 7,000 Catholics in Djibouti, the only Roman Catholic diocese there is the Diocese of Djibouti, divided into five parishes. Just over 1% to 2% of the population are members of the diocese, Djibouti maintains diplomatic relations with the Vatican. Islam in Djibouti Roman Catholicism in Djibouti US State Dept, report on Religious Liberty in Djibouti
9.
Languages of Djibouti
–
The languages of Djibouti include Somali, Afar, Arabic and French. Somali and Afar are the most widely spoken idioms, and Arabic, according to Ethnologue, the majority of the population speaks Somali or Afar as a first language, which are the mother tongues of the Somali and Afar ethnic groups, respectively. Both languages belong to the larger Afro-Asiatic family, there are two official languages in Djibouti, Arabic and French. Arabic is of social, cultural and religious importance, in formal settings, it consists of Modern Standard Arabic. Colloquially, about 59,000 local residents speak the Taizzi-Adeni Arabic dialect, French was inherited from the colonial period and is the primary language of instruction. About 17,000 Djiboutians speak it as a first language, immigrant languages include Omani Arabic, Amharic, Greek and Hindi. Additionally, the Somali deaf community in Djibouti uses the Somali Sign Language and it is officially mandated with preserving the Somali language. Nationally, the Latin script is the most widely used orthography for all languages, the Somali alphabet, a modified form of the script, is used to write Somali. In the early 1970s, two Afar intellectuals and nationalists, Dimis and Redo, formalized a similar Afar alphabet, known as Qafar Feera, the orthography is also based on the Latin script. Additionally, Somali and Afar are transcribed using the Arabic script
10.
Somali language
–
Somali /səˈmɑːli, soʊ-/ is an Afroasiatic language belonging to the Cushitic branch. It is spoken as a mother tongue by Somalis in Greater Somalia, Somali is an official language of Somalia, a national language in Djibouti, and a working language in the Somali Region of Ethiopia. It is used as a language by a few neighboring ethnic minority groups. Somali is classified within the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic family, specifically, as Lowland East Cushitic along with Afar, Somali is the best-documented Cushitic language, with academic studies of the language dating back to the late 19th century. Somali is spoken by Somalis in Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Yemen and Kenya and it is also spoken as an adoptive language by a few ethnic minority groups and individuals in these areas. Somali is the second most widely spoken Cushitic language after Oromo, as of 2006, there were approximately 16.6 million speakers of Somali, of which around 8.3 million resided in Somalia. The language is spoken by an estimated 95% of the countrys inhabitants, constitutionally, Somali and Arabic are the two official languages of Somalia. Somali has been a national language since January 1973, when the Supreme Revolutionary Council declared it the Somali Democratic Republics primary language of administration and education. Somali was thereafter established as the language of academic instruction in forms 1 through 4. It later expanded to include all 12 forms in 1979, in 1972, the SRC adopted a Latin orthography as the official national alphabet over several other writing scripts that were then in use. Concurrently, the Italian-language daily newspaper Stella dOttobre was nationalized, renamed to Xiddigta Oktoobar, the state-run Radio Mogadishu has also broadcast in Somali since 1943. Somali is recognized as a working language in the Somali Region of Ethiopia. Although it is not a language of Djibouti, it constitutes a major national language there. Somali is used in television and radio broadcasts, with the government-operated Radio Djibouti transmitting programs in the language from 1943 onwards and it is officially mandated with preserving the Somali language. As of 2013, Somali is also one of the languages available on Google Translate. Somali linguistic varieties are divided into three main groups, Northern, Benadir and Maay. Northern Somali forms the basis for Standard Somali and it is spoken by more than 60% of the entire Somali population, with its speech area stretching from northern Somalia to parts of the eastern and southwestern sections of the country. This widespread modern distribution is a result of a series of southward population movements over the past ten centuries from the Gulf of Aden littoral
11.
Arabic
–
Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
12.
French language
–
French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
13.
Politics of Djibouti
–
Politics of Djibouti takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential republic, whereby the executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament, the party system and parliament are dominated by the conservative Peoples Rally for Progress. In April 2010, a new constitution was approved. The president serves as the head of state, and is elected for single five-year terms. Government is headed by the minister, who is appointed by the president. There is also a 65-member chamber of deputies, where representatives are elected for terms of five years. Administratively, the country is divided into five regions and one city, Djibouti is also part of various international organizations, including the United Nations and Arab League. In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalias independence in 1960, the referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There was also widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls. The majority of those who had voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia as had proposed by Mahmoud Harbi. Harbi was killed in a crash two years later. In 1967, a plebiscite was held to determine the fate of the territory. Initial results supported a continued but looser relationship with France, however, the referendum was again marred by reports of vote rigging on the part of the French authorities. Shortly after the referendum was held, the former Côte française des Somalis was renamed to Territoire français des Afars et des Issas, in 1977, a third referendum took place. A landslide 98. 8% of the electorate supported disengagement from France, hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali politician who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as the nations first president. He was re-elected, unopposed, to a second 6-year term in April 1987, the electorate approved the current constitution in September 1992. Many laws and decrees from before independence remain in effect, in early 1992, the government decided to permit multiple party politics and agreed to the registration of four political parties. By the time of the assembly elections in December 1992
14.
Djibouti Armed Forces
–
The Djibouti Armed Forces are the military forces of Djibouti. They consist of the Djibouti National Army and its sub-branches the Djibouti Air Force, as of 2013, the Djibouti Armed Forces consists of 16,000 ground troops, which are divided into several regiments and battalions garrisoned in various areas throughout the country. Djibouti Armed Forces are an important player in the Bab-el-Mandeb and Red Sea, in 2015 General Zakaria Chiek Imbrahim was chief detat-major general of the Forces Armees Djiboutiennes. He assumed command in November 2013, historically, Somali society accorded prestige to the warrior and rewarded military prowess. Except for a man of religion, and they were few in number, Djiboutis many Sultanates each maintained regular troops. In the early Middle Ages, the conquest of Shewa by the Ifat Sultanate ignited a rivalry for supremacy with the Solomonic Dynasty, many similar battles were fought between the succeeding Sultanate of Adal and the Solomonids, with both sides achieving victory and suffering defeat. However, both polities in the process exhausted their resources and manpower, which resulted in the contraction of both powers and changed regional dynamics for centuries to come, the Ogaden War was a conflict fought between the Ethiopian government and Somali government. The Djibouti government supported Somalia with military intelligence, in a notable illustration of the nature of Cold War alliances, the Soviet Union switched from supplying aid to Somalia to supporting Ethiopia, which had previously been backed by the United States. This in turn prompted the U. S. to later start supporting Somalia, the war ended when Somali forces retreated back across the border and a truce was declared. A radical group continued to fight the government, but signed its own treaty in 2001. The war ended in a government victory, and FRUD became a political party, Djibouti has fought in clashes against Eritrea over the Ras Doumeira peninsula, which both countries claim to be under their sovereignty. The first clash occurred in 1996 after a nearly two-months stand-off, in 1999, a political crisis occurred when both sides accused each other for supporting its enemies. In 2008, the countries clashed again when Djibouti refused to return Eritrean deserters, in the following battles, some 44 Djiboutian troops and some estimated 100 Eritreans were killed. In 2011, Djibouti troops also joined the African Union Mission to Somalia, as of 2013, the Djibouti Armed Forces are composed of three branches, the Djibouti National Army, which consists of the Coastal Navy, the Djiboutian Air Force, and the National Gendarmerie. The Army is by far the largest, followed by the Air Force, the Commander-in-Chief of the DJAF is the President of Djibouti and the Minister of Defence oversees the DJAF on a day-to-day basis. The Djiboutian Army is the largest branch of the Djibouti Armed Forces, Djibouti maintains a modest military force of approximately 25,500 troops, the army is made of 16,000 troops. The latter are divided into regiments and battalions garrisoned in various areas throughout the country. The Army has four military districts, the army has concentrated on mobility in its equipment purchases, suitable for patrol duties and counterattacks but ill-suited for armoured warfare
15.
Economy of Djibouti
–
The economy of Djibouti is derived in large part from its strategic location on the Red Sea. Djibouti is mostly barren, with development in the agricultural and industrial sectors. The country has a climate, a largely unskilled labour force. The country’s most important economic asset is its strategic location connecting the Red Sea, as such, Djibouti’s economy is dominated by the services sector, providing services as both a transit port for the region and as an international transshipment and refueling centre. From 1991 to 1994, Djibouti experienced a war which had devastating effects on the economy. Since then, the country has benefited from political stability, in recent years, Djibouti has seen significant improvement in macroeconomic stability, with its annual gross domestic product improving at an average of over 3 percent since 2003. This comes after a decade of negative or low growth and this is attributed to fiscal adjustment measures aimed at improving public financing, as well as reforms in port management. Despite the recent modest and stable growth, Djibouti is faced with economic challenges, particularly job creation. With an average population growth rate of 2.5 percent. Unemployment is extremely high at over 43 percent and is a contributor to widespread poverty. Efforts are needed in creating conditions that will enhance private sector development and these conditions can be achieved through improvements in macroeconomic and fiscal framework, public administration, and labour market flexibility. Djibouti was ranked the 177th safest investment destination in the world in the March 2011 Euromoney Country Risk rankings, Djibouti has experienced stable economic growth in recent years as a result of achievements in macroeconomic adjustment efforts. From 2003 to 2005, annual real GDP growth averaged 3.1 percent driven by performance in the services sector. Inflation has been low, due to the fixed peg of the Djibouti franc to the US dollar. However, as mentioned above, unemployment has remained high at over 40 percent in recent years, Djiboutis gross domestic product expanded by an average of more than 6 percent per year, from US$341 million in 1985 to US$1.5 billion in 2015. The government fiscal balance is in deficit because the government has not been able to raise sufficient tax revenues to cover expenses, in 2004, a substantial increase in expenditure resulted in a deterioration of the fiscal position. As a result, the government deficit increased to US$17 million in 2004 from US$7 million in 2003, but improvement in expenditure management brought down the fiscal deficit to US$11 million in 2005. Djibouti’s merchandise trade balance has shown a large deficit and this is due to the countrys enormous need for imports and narrow base of exports
16.
Transport in Djibouti
–
Transport in Djibouti includes highways, airports, railways and seaports. The countrys first railway, Ethio-Djibouti Railway, was a gauge railway that connected Ethiopia to Djibouti. It was built between 1894 and 1917 by the French who ruled the country at the time as French Somaliland, the railway is no longer operational. The Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railway, a gauge railway built by two Chinese government firms, began operations in January 2017 and roughly parallels the route of the Ethio-Djibouti Railway. The Djiboutian highway system is named according to the road classification, roads that are considered primary roads are those that are fully asphalted and in general they connect all the major towns in Djibouti. There is a total of 3,065 kilometres of roads, with 1,379 kilometres paved and 1,686 kilometres unpaved, Djibouti has an improved natural harbor that consists of a roadstead, outer harbor, and inner harbor, known as the Port of Djibouti. The roadstead is well protected by reefs and the configuration of the land, a quarter of Ethiopia’s imports and half of its exports move through the ports. Car ferries pass the Gulf of Tadjoura from Djibouti City to Tadjoura, Djibouti has one ship with a volume of 1,000 gross register tons or over totaling 1,369 GRT/3,030 tonnes deadweight according to a 1999 estimate. In 2004, there were an estimated 13 airports, only 3 of which had paved runways as of 2005, Djibouti–Ambouli International Airport, which is situated about 6 km from the city of Djibouti, is the countrys international air terminal. There are also local airports at Tadjoura and Obock, beginning in 1963, the state-owned Air Djibouti also provided domestic service to various domestic centers and flew to many overseas destinations. The national carrier discontinued operations in 2002, daallo Airlines, a Somali-owned private carrier, has also offered air transportation since its foundation in 1991. With its hub at the Djibouti–Ambouli International Airport, the airline provides flights to a number of domestic and overseas destinations
17.
Education in Djibouti
–
The education system of Djibouti is strongly influenced by France. Djibouti is a small and resource-poor country of 23,200 square kilometers, the population is estimated at about 800,000, of which 87% live in urban areas. A poor pastoral and largely nomadic population sparsely occupies the hinterland, about 40% of population is under age 15, and only 15% is over age 40. According to UNDP, Djibouti ranks 149th in Human Development Index in 1992, djibouti’s education system is not on track to meet the Millennium Development Goals although Djibouti has expanded its access to education. In Djibouti, illiteracy is a severe problem. About 70% of the population and 85% of women are not literate. There are also large inequalities in access to education in terms of regions, gender, moreover, the education system in Djibouti is very costly due to high unit costs for school construction, learning and teaching materials, and teacher salaries. By this high-cost structure, the achievements of the education-related MDGs are uncertain, moreover, pressures on the education system will intensify because of steady demographic growth and increased demand for quality of education. The education system in Djibouti was originally developed to meet a demand for education, it was essentially designed for elites. This system was not adapted to the country’s realities, although the government effort resulted in an increase in enrollment during the 1990s, the education system is still below people’s expectations and the needs of a developing nation. A restructured education system by New Education Law consists of nine years and this nine year education is now compulsory. In order to enter into the educational system of three years, a Certificate of Fundamental Education is required. The New Education Law has also introduced education in secondary level and has established university facilities in Djibouti. There are 81 public primary schools,24 registered private primary schools,12 secondary schools, in 1999 the government revisited its educational policies and launched a consultative process, National Education Forum, which included all stakeholders. Building on the consensus and the recommendations, the government developed a Ten-Year Perspective Plan, in August 2000, the government passed a New Education Law and prepared a Medium-Term Plan 2000-2005. Government strategy covers education, vocational education, secondary education, higher education, adult education and, in particular. Public education expenditure as percentage of GDP is 8.6 in 2007, share of public expenditure for primary education as percentage of total public education expenditure is 19.0 in 2007. In Djibouti, households also play an important part in the financing of educational services, households contribute to education services in two ways, they pay tuition in private schools, and some households spend on books and other pedagogic materials
18.
Somali cuisine
–
Somali cuisine varies from region to region and is a fusion of different Somali culinary traditions, with some East African, Arab, Ethiopian, Yemeni, Turkish, Indian, and Italian influences. It is the product of Somalias tradition of trade and commerce, some notable Somali delicacies include sabayad, lahoh/injera, halva, sambuusa, basbousa, and ful medames. Breakfast is an important meal for Somalis, who start the day with some style of tea or coffee. The tea is often in the form of haleeb shai in the north, the main dish is typically a pancake-like bread similar to Ethiopian injera, but smaller and thinner. It might also be eaten with a stew or soup, canjeero is eaten in different ways. It may be broken into pieces with ghee and sugar. For children, it is mixed with tea and sesame oil until mushy. There may be a dish of liver, goat meat, diced beef cooked in a bed of soup, or jerky. Lahoh is a pancake-like bread originating in Somalia, Djibouti, and it is often eaten along with honey and ghee, and washed down with a cup of tea. During lunch, lahoh is sometimes consumed with curry, soup, sabayad or Kibis is another type of flatbread similar to injera/lahoh, as well as the desi paratha. Polenta or porridge with butter and sugar is eaten in the Mogadishu area, elsewhere in the south, such as in the Merca region, special bread known as rooti abuukey with tea is preferred. This is also known as muufo, and is cooked in a clay oven by sticking the mixture to the walls. Flatbread referred to as rooti is consumed in the north, nationally, a sweeter and greasy version of canjeero known as malawax is a staple of most home-cooked meals. Lunch is often a main dish of pasta or rice spiced with cumin, cardamom, cloves. The diffused use of pasta, such as spaghetti, comes from the Italians and it is frequently presented with a heavier stew than the Italian pasta sauce. As with the rice, it is served with a banana. Spaghetti can also be served with rice, forming a novelty dish referred to as Federation, the dish is usually served with equal portions of rice and spaghetti, split on either side of a large oval plate. It is then layered with assorted stewed meats and vegetables, served with salad and it has been suggested that the name of the dish is derived from the union of two dishes in Somalia and also from the size and quantity of the food
19.
Yemeni cuisine
–
Yemeni cuisine is the national cuisine of Yemen. Largely distinct from the widely known Middle Eastern cuisines, it is unique and coherent. The generous offering of food to guests is one of the customs in Yemeni culture, meals are typically consumed while sitting on the floor or ground. Another thing to mention is that unlike most Arab countries, lunch is the meal of the day in Yemen. In Yemen, many kitchens have a taboon, which is a clay oven. Tomatoes, onions, and potatoes are some of the staple fruits, chicken, goat, and lamb are the staple meats in Yemen. They are eaten more often beef, which is expensive. Fish is also eaten, especially in the coastal areas, cheese, butter, and other dairy products are less common in the Yemeni diet. Buttermilk, however, is enjoyed almost daily in some villages where it is most available, the most commonly used fats are vegetable oil and ghee used in savory dishes, while clarified butter, known as semn, is the choice of fat used in pastries. Broad beans are used in Yemeni dishes, such as bean salad, lentils are also used in dishes, such as stews. Yemeni people prefer to have warm dishes in the morning, typically, the meal would often consist of different types of pastries with a cup of Yemeni coffee or tea. A more hearty meal would often include legumes, eggs, or even roasted meat or kebab, people in Yemen also make a breakfast dish that is made from lamb or beef liver, which is considered a bizarre delicacy to non-Yemenis. Dishes common at breakfast include, fattah, fatoot, ful medames, mutabbaq, unlike most countries, lunch is the main meal of the day in Yemen, not dinner. The largest amount of meat, poultry, and grains are consumed at lunch, dishes common at lunch include, aseed, fahsa, fattah, haneeth, harees, jachnun, kabsa, komroh, mandi, Samak Mofa, shafut, Shawiyah, thareed, and Zurbiyan. Although each region has their own variation, Saltah is considered the national dish, the base is a brown meat stew called maraq, a dollop of fenugreek froth, and sahawiq or sahowqa. Rice, potatoes, scrambled eggs, and vegetables are common additions to saltah, meats used in the preparation of this dish are typically lamb or chicken. It is eaten traditionally with Yemeni flat bread, which serves as a utensil to scoop up the food, ogdat, meaning knot in Arabic, is a stew made from tying and mixing all the ingredients together. Dinner dishes are not much different than the breakfast dishes, however, pastries are not very popular at dinner, as they are only eaten for breakfast
20.
French cuisine
–
French cuisine consists of the cooking traditions and practices from France. In the 14th century Guillaume Tirel, a chef known as Taillevent, wrote Le Viandier. During that time, French cuisine was influenced by Italian cuisine. Cheese and wine are a part of the cuisine. They play different roles regionally and nationally, with many variations, gastro-tourism and the Guide Michelin helped to acquaint people with the rich bourgeois and peasant cuisine of the French countryside starting in the 20th century. Gascon cuisine has also had influence over the cuisine in the southwest of France. Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated in variations across the country, knowledge of French cooking has contributed significantly to Western cuisines. Its criteria are used widely in Western cookery school boards and culinary education, in November 2010, French gastronomy was added by the UNESCO to its lists of the worlds intangible cultural heritage. In French medieval cuisine, banquets were common among the aristocracy, multiple courses would be prepared, but served in a style called service en confusion, or all at once. Food was generally eaten by hand, meats being sliced off in large pieces held between the thumb and two fingers, the sauces were highly seasoned and thick, and heavily flavored mustards were used. Meals often ended with an issue de table, which changed into the modern dessert. The ingredients of the time varied according to the seasons and the church calendar, and many items were preserved with salt, spices, honey. Late spring, summer, and autumn afforded abundance, while winter meals were more sparse, livestock were slaughtered at the beginning of winter. Beef was often salted, while pork was salted and smoked, bacon and sausages would be smoked in the chimney, while the tongue and hams were brined and dried. Cucumbers were brined as well, while greens would be packed in jars with salt, fruits, nuts and root vegetables would be boiled in honey for preservation. Whale, dolphin and porpoise were considered fish, so during Lent, artificial freshwater ponds held carp, pike, tench, bream, eel, and other fish. Poultry was kept in yards, with pigeon and squab being reserved for the elite. Game was highly prized, but very rare, and included venison, wild boar, hare, rabbit, kitchen gardens provided herbs, including some, such as tansy, rue, pennyroyal, and hyssop, which are rarely used today
21.
South Asian cuisine
–
South Asian cuisine is the cuisine of South Asia, comprising the traditional cuisines from Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Chapati, a type of bread from the former regions, is a common part of meals to be had in many parts of Indian subcontinent. Other staples from many of the cuisines include rice, roti made from atta flour, foods in this area of the world are flavoured with various types of chilli, black pepper, cloves, and other strong herbs and spices along with the flavoured butter ghee. Ginger is an ingredient that can be used in savory and sweet recipes in South Asian cuisine. Chopped ginger is fried with meat and pickled ginger is often an accompaniment to boiled rice, ginger juice and ginger boiled in syrup are used to make desserts. Turmeric and cumin are used to make curries. Common meats include lamb, goat, fish and chicken, beef is less common than in Western cuisines because cattle have a special place in Hinduism. Prohibitions against beef extend to the meat of buffalo and yaks to some extent, pork is considered as a taboo food item by all Muslims and is avoided by most Hindus, though it is commonly eaten in Goa, which has a notable Roman Catholic population from Portuguese rule. A variety of very sweet desserts which use dairy products is also found in South Asian cuisines, the main ingredients to South Asian desserts are reduced milk, ground almonds, lentil flour, ghee and sugar. Kheer is a dairy based rice pudding, a popular and common dessert, many of Indias foods go back as far as five thousand years. The Indus Valley peoples, who settled in what is now northern Pakistan, hunted turtles and they also collected wild grains, herbs and plants. Many foods and ingredients from the Indus period are common today. Some consist of wheat, barley, rice, tamarind, eggplant, the Indus Valley peoples cooked with oils, ginger, salt, green peppers, and turmeric root, which would be dried and ground into an orange powder. Indians have used leafy vegetables, lentils, and milk products such as yogurt and they also used spices such as cumin and coriander. Black pepper which is native to India was often used by 400 A. D, the Greeks brought saffron and the Chinese introduced tea. They also used water, cashews, raisins and almonds
22.
Indian cuisine
–
Indian cuisine encompasses a wide variety of regional and traditional cuisines native to India. Indian food is heavily influenced by religious and cultural choices. Also, Middle Eastern and Central Asian influences have occurred on North Indian cuisine from the years of Mughal rule, Indian cuisine is still evolving, as a result of the nations cultural interactions with other societies. Historical incidents such as invasions, trade relations, and colonialism have played a role in introducing certain foods to the country. For instance, the potato, a staple of the diet in some regions of India, was brought to India by the Portuguese, Indian cuisine has shaped the history of international relations, the spice trade between India and Europe was the primary catalyst for Europes Age of Discovery. Spices were bought from India and traded around Europe and Asia, Indian cuisine has influenced other cuisines across the world, especially those from the Middle East, North Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, the British Isles, Fiji, and the Caribbean. Indian cuisine reflects an 8, 000-year history of groups and cultures interacting with the subcontinent, leading to diversity of flavours. Later, trade with British and Portuguese influence added to the already diverse Indian cuisine, early diet in India mainly consisted of legumes, vegetables, fruits, grains, dairy products, honey, and sometimes fish, eggs, and meat. Staple foods eaten today include a variety of lentils, whole-wheat flour, rice, and pearl millet, over time, segments of the population embraced vegetarianism during Śramaṇa movement while an equitable climate permitted a variety of fruits, vegetables, and grains to be grown throughout the year. A food classification system that categorised any item as saatvic, raajsic, the Bhagavad Gita proscribes certain dietary practices. Consumption of beef is taboo, due to cows being considered sacred in Hinduism, beef is generally not eaten by Hindus in India except for Kerala and the north east. During the Middle Ages, several Indian dynasties were predominant, including the Gupta dynasty, travellers to India during this time introduced new cooking methods and products to the region, including tea. India was later invaded by tribes from Central Asian cultures, which led to the emergence of Mughlai cuisine, hallmarks include seasonings such as saffron. Staple foods of Indian cuisine include pearl millet, rice, whole-wheat flour, and a variety of lentils, such as masoor, toor, urad, lentils may be used whole, dehusked—for example, dhuli moong or dhuli urad—or split. Split lentils, or dal, are used extensively, some pulses, such as channa or cholae, rajma, and lobiya are very common, especially in the northern regions. Channa and moong are also processed into flour, many Indian dishes are cooked in vegetable oil, but peanut oil is popular in northern and western India, mustard oil in eastern India, and coconut oil along the western coast, especially in Kerala. Gingelly oil is common in the south since it imparts a fragrant, in recent decades, sunflower, safflower, cottonseed, and soybean oils have become popular across India. Hydrogenated vegetable oil, known as Vanaspati ghee, is another popular cooking medium, butter-based ghee, or deshi ghee, is used frequently, though less than in the past
23.
Saffron
–
Saffron is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, commonly known as the saffron crocus. Saffron crocus grows to 20–30 cm and bears up to four flowers, the styles and stigmas, called threads, are collected and dried to be used mainly as a seasoning and colouring agent in food. Saffron, long among the worlds most costly spices by weight, is native to Southwest Asia and was probably first cultivated in or near Greece. As a genetically monomorphic clone, it was slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was brought to parts of North Africa, North America. Saffrons taste and iodoform or hay-like fragrance result from the chemicals picrocrocin and it also contains a carotenoid pigment, crocin, which imparts a rich golden-yellow hue to dishes and textiles. Its recorded history is attested in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical treatise compiled under Ashurbanipal, Iran now accounts for approximately 90% of the world production of saffron. A degree of uncertainty surrounds the origin of the English word saffron and it might stem from the 12th-century Old French term safran, which comes from the Latin word safranum or from Arabic, az-zafaran, having unknown origin. Safranum comes from the Persian intercessor zafarān, the domesticated saffron crocus, Crocus sativus, is an autumn-flowering perennial plant unknown in the wild. Its progenitors are possibly the eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering Crocus cartwrightianus, which is known as wild saffron. The saffron crocus probably resulted when C. cartwrightianus was subjected to artificial selection by growers seeking longer stigmata. C. thomasii and C. pallasii are other possible sources, a corm survives for one season, producing via this vegetative division up to ten cormlets that can grow into new plants in the next season. Corms also bear vertical fibres, thin and net-like, that grow up to 5 cm above the plants neck, the plant grows to a height of 20–30 cm, and sprouts 5–11 white and non-photosynthetic leaves known as cataphylls. These membrane-like structures cover and protect the crocuss 5 to 11 true leaves as they bud and develop. The latter are thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves, which are 1–3 mm in diameter, C. sativus cataphylls are suspected by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigated relatively early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures, bear bracteoles, or specialised leaves, that sprout from the flower stems, after aestivating in spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to 40 cm in length. The flowers possess a sweet, honey-like fragrance, upon flowering, plants average less than 30 cm in height. A three-pronged style emerges from each flower, each prong terminates with a vivid crimson stigma 25–30 mm in length. The saffron crocus, unknown in the wild, probably descends from Crocus cartwrightianus, if C. sativus is a mutant form of C. cartwrightianus, then it may have emerged via plant breeding, which would have selected for elongated stigmata, in late Bronze Age Crete
24.
Cinnamon
–
Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several tree species from the genus Cinnamomum. Cinnamon is used in sweet and savoury foods. The term cinnamon also refers to its mid-brown colour, Cinnamon is the name for perhaps a dozen species of trees and the commercial spice products that some of them produce. All are members of the genus Cinnamomum in the family Lauraceae, only a few Cinnamomum species are grown commercially for spice. The English word cinnamon, attested in English since the 15th century, derives from the Greek κιννάμωμον kinnámōmon, via Latin, the Greek was borrowed from a Phoenician word, which was similar to the related Hebrew qinnamon. The name cassia, first recorded in English around AD1000, was borrowed via Latin and ultimately derives from Hebrew qtsīʿāh, Cinnamon has been known from remote antiquity. It was imported to Egypt as early as 2000 BCE, the first Greek reference to kasia is found in a poem by Sappho in the seventh century BCE. According to Herodotus, both cinnamon and cassia grew in Arabia, together with incense, myrrh, and ladanum, the phoenix was reputed to build its nest from cinnamon and cassia. Herodotus mentions other writers who believed the source of cassia was the home of Dionysos, egyptian recipes for kyphi, an aromatic used for burning, included cinnamon and cassia from Hellenistic times onward. The gifts of Hellenistic rulers to temples sometimes included cassia and cinnamon, as well as incense, myrrh, Cinnamon was brought around the Arabian peninsula on rafts without rudders or sails or oars, taking advantage of the winter trade winds. Pliny also mentions cassia as a agent for wine. According to Pliny, a Roman pound of cassia, cinnamon, or serichatum cost up to 300 denarii, diocletians Edict on Maximum Prices from 301 AD gives a price of 125 denarii for a pound of cassia, while an agricultural labourer earned 25 denarii per day. Malabathrum leaves were used in cooking and for distilling an oil used in a sauce for oysters by the Roman gourmet Gaius Gavius Apicius. Malabathrum is among the spices that, according to Apicius, any good kitchen should contain, through the Middle Ages, the source of cinnamon was a mystery to the Western world. From reading Latin writers who quoted Herodotus, Europeans had learned that cinnamon came up the Red Sea to the ports of Egypt. Marco Polo avoided precision on the topic, Pliny the Elder wrote in the first century that traders had made this up to charge more, but the story remained current in Byzantium as late as 1310. The first mention that the spice grew in Sri Lanka was in Zakariya al-Qazwinis Athar al-bilad wa-akhbar al-‘ibad about 1270 and this was followed shortly thereafter by John of Montecorvino in a letter of about 1292. Indonesian rafts transported cinnamon directly from the Moluccas to East Africa, venetian traders from Italy held a monopoly on the spice trade in Europe, distributing cinnamon from Alexandria
25.
Halva
–
In global, popular usage it means desserts or sweet, and describes two types of desserts, Flour-based This type of halva is slightly gelatinous and made from grain flour, typically semolina. The primary ingredients are clarified butter, flour, and sugar, nut-butter-based This type of halva is crumbly and usually made from tahini or other nut butters, such as sunflower seed butter. The primary ingredients are nut butter and sugar, Halva may also be based on various other ingredients, including beans, lentils, and vegetables such as carrots, pumpkins, yams and squashes. Halva can be kept at room temperature with little risk of spoilage, however, during hot summer months, it is better kept refrigerated, as it can turn runny after several days. The Arabic root حلو ḥelw means sweet, most types of halva are relatively dense confections sweetened with sugar or honey. For example, semolina-based halva is gelatinous and translucent, while sesame-based halva is drier and this type of halva is made by frying flour in oil, mixing it into a roux, and then cooking it with a sugary syrup. This variety is popular in India, Greece, Armenia, Iran, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Somalia, Pakistan and this variety of halva is produced and served in India, Afghanistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and surrounding countries. It is usually made with semolina, sugar or honey. Raisins, dates, other dried fruits, or nuts such as almonds or walnuts, are added to semolina halva. The halva is very sweet, with a texture similar to polenta. The standard proportions of semolina halva are, one part fat, the semolina is sautéed in the fat, while a syrup is made from the sweetener and water. Then the two are mixed carefully while hot, and any extra ingredients are added, at this point, the halva is off-white to light beige, and rather soft. Depending on recipe and taste, it can be cooked a bit further, in India, halva is prepared in different forms. The recipes use flour, melted butter or ghee, sugar and it comes in various colors like orange, brown, green and white, in a translucent appearance studded with raisins, cashew nuts, pistachios, almonds, etc. Technically- the term halva is used in native recipes throughout India, a prominent South Indian version of halva is from Tirunelveli, a city in the state of Tamil Nadu. Another semolina preparation widely enjoyed throughout South India called kesari or kesari-bath originates from the state of Karnataka, alternative vegetable-based halva recipes popular in India and Pakistan use beetroots, potatoes, yams, and most commonly carrots, mung beans, or bottle gourds instead of semolina. Prepared with condensed milk and ghee, without semolina to bind it together, other examples include the famous Agra Petha- easily available at Taj Mahal, Agra. Cornstarch halva is popular in Greece, and has many variations, the Farsala recipe is the most well known
26.
Eid al-Fitr
–
Eid al-Fitr is an important religious holiday celebrated by Muslims worldwide that marks the end of Ramadan, the Islamic holy month of fasting. The religious Eid is the first and only day in the month of Shawwal during which Muslims are not permitted to fast, the holiday celebrates the conclusion of the 29 or 30 days of dawn-to-sunset fasting during the entire month of Ramadan. The day of Eid, therefore, falls on the first day of the month of Shawwal, the date for the start of any lunar Hijri month varies based on the observation of new moon by local religious authorities, so the exact day of celebration varies by locality. Eid al-Fitr has a particular Salat consisting of two Rakats and generally offered in a field or large hall. Other Sunni schools usually have twelve Takbirs, seven in the first and this Eid al-Fitr salat is, depending on which juristic opinion is followed, Fard فرض, Mustahabb مستحب or mandoob مندوب. Muslims believe that they are commanded by Allah, as mentioned in the Quran, to continue their fast until the last day of Ramadan and pay the Zakat and fitra before offering the Eid prayers. If the moon is not observed immediately after the 29th day of the lunar month. Before the advent of Islam in Arabia, there is mention of festivals as well as some others among the Arabs, the Israelites had festivals as well, some directly prescribed in the Old Testament and others commemorating important days of their history. Eid al-Fitr was originated by the Islamic prophet Muhammad and it is observed on the first of the month of Shawwal at the end of the month of Ramadan, during which Muslims undergo a period of fasting. According to certain traditions, these festivals were initiated in Medina after the migration of Muhammad from Mecca, anas reports, When the Prophet arrived in Madinah, he found people celebrating two specific days in which they used to entertain themselves with recreation and merriment. He asked them about the nature of these festivities at which they replied that these days were occasions of fun, Eid al-Fitr is celebrated for one, two or three days. Common greetings during this holiday are the Arabic greeting ‘Eid Mubārak or ‘Eid Sa‘īd. In addition, many countries have their own greetings in the local language – in Turkey, for example, Muslims are also encouraged on this day to forgive and forget any differences with others or animosities that may have occurred during the year. It is forbidden to fast on the Day of Eid and it is customary to acknowledge this with a small sweet breakfast, preferably of date, before attending a special Eid prayer. As an obligatory act of charity, money is paid to the poor and you can speak once youve left the Masjid, or mosque or any other place you were praying. Say Eid Mubarak to other Muslims Muslims recite the following incantation in a low voice while going to the Eid prayer, Allāhu Akbar, Allāhu Akbar, lā ilāha illà l-Lāh wal-Lāhu akbar, Allahu akbar walil-Lāhi l-ḥamd. Recitation ceases when they get to the place of Eid or once the Imam commences activities, Muslims are recommended to use separate routes to and from the prayer grounds. No call to prayer is given for this Eid prayer, the Eid prayer is followed by the sermon and then a supplication asking for Allahs forgiveness, mercy, peace and blessings for all living beings across the world
27.
Corn starch
–
Corn starch, cornstarch, cornflour or maize starch or maize is the starch derived from the corn grain or wheat. The starch is obtained from the endosperm of the kernel, corn starch is a popular food ingredient used in thickening sauces or soups, and is used in making corn syrup and other sugars. When mixed with a fluid, cornstarch can rearrange itself into a non-Newtonian fluid, for example, adding water transforms cornstarch into a material commonly known as Oobleck while adding oil transforms cornstarch into a Electrorheological fluid. The concept can be explained through the mixture termed cornflour slime, cornstarch was discovered in 1840 by Thomas Kingsford, superintendent of a wheat starch factory in Jersey City, New Jersey. Until 1851, corn starch was used primarily for starching laundry, cornstarch is used as a thickening agent in liquid-based foods, usually by mixing it with a lower-temperature liquid to form a paste or slurry. It is sometimes preferred over flour alone because it forms a translucent mixture, as the starch is heated, the molecular chains unravel, allowing them to collide with other starch chains to form a mesh, thickening the liquid. It is usually included as an agent in powdered sugar. A common substitute is arrowroot, which replaces cornstarch on a 1,1 ratio, chicken nuggets with a thin outer layer of cornstarch allows increased oil absorption and crispness after the latter stages of frying. Baby powder often includes cornstarch among its ingredients, cornstarch can be used to manufacture bioplastics. Food producers reduce production costs by adding varying amounts of cornstarch to foods, for example to cheese and this is more common in the United States of America where the Congress and the Department of Agriculture subsidize and reduce its cost to food manufacturers. When roasted in a standard oven it produced dextrin, a compound with uses ranging from adhesive to binder for fireworks. Cornstarch is the preferred anti-stick agent on medical products made from latex, including condoms, diaphragms. Prior usage of talc was abandoned as talc was believed to be a carcinogen, cornstarch has properties that allows it to slowly releases a type of glucose over time. Thus, cornstarch has been used to supply glucose and maintain blood sugar levels to humans who have glycogen storage disease, cornstarch can be used starting at age 6 –12 months which allows feeds to be spaced and glucose fluctuations to be minimized. The corn is steeped for 30 to 48 hours, which ferments it slightly, the germ is separated from the endosperm and those two components are ground separately. Next the starch is removed from each by washing, the starch is separated from the corn steep liquor, the cereal germ, the fibers and the corn gluten mostly in hydrocyclones and centrifuges, and then dried. This process is called wet milling, finally, the starch may be modified for specific purposes. Called cornstarch in the United States and Canada, called cornflour in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Israel and some Commonwealth countries
28.
Cardamom
–
Cardamom, sometimes Cardamon or Cardamum, is a spice made from the seeds of several plants in the genera Elettaria and Amomum in the family Zingiberaceae. Both genera are native to India, Bhutan, Indonesia and Nepal, some other countries, such as Sri Lanka, have also begun to cultivate it. Cardamom is the worlds third-most expensive spice, surpassed in price per weight only by vanilla, the modern genus name Elettaria is derived from the local name. The root ēlam is attested in all Dravidian languages viz. Kannada elakki, Telugu yelakulu, Tamil elakkai, the second element kai means seed or fruit. The Malabar region had historical connections and was a prominent area of cardamom cultivation. A related root is present in Hindi ilaychi, Bengali ælachi. In Sindhi it is called Photta, in Sanskrit it was known as ela or ellka. In Marathi it is known as velchi or veldoda. In Sri Lanka, the plant is known as Enasal by Sinhala language, there are two main types of cardamom, True or green cardamom comes from the species Elettaria cardamomum and is distributed from India to Malaysia. What is often referred to as white cardamon is actually Siam cardamom, the two types of cardamom, κάρδαμομον and ἄμωμον, were distinguished in the fourth century BCE by the Greek father of botany, Theophrastus. Theophrastus and informants knew that these varieties were originally and solely from India, both forms of cardamom are used as flavorings and cooking spices in both food and drink, and as a medicine. E. cardamomum is used as a spice, a masticatory, Cardamom has a strong, unique taste, with an intensely aromatic, resinous fragrance. Black cardamom has a distinctly more smokey, though not bitter, aroma, green cardamom is one of the more expensive spices by weight, but little is needed to impart flavor. It is best stored in the pod as exposed or ground seeds quickly lose their flavor, grinding the pods and seeds together lowers both the quality and the price. For recipes requiring whole cardamom pods, a generally accepted equivalent is 10 pods equals 1 1⁄2 teaspoons of ground cardamom and it is a common ingredient in Indian cooking. In the Middle East, green cardamom powder is used as a spice for sweet dishes, as well as traditional flavouring in coffee, Cardamom is used to a wide extent in savoury dishes. In Asia both types of cardamom are used in both sweet and savory dishes, particularly in the south. Both are frequent components in spice mixes, such as Indian and Nepali masalas, green cardamom is often used in traditional Indian sweets and in masala chai
29.
Nutmeg
–
Nutmeg is one of the two spices – the other being mace – derived from several species of tree in the genus Myristica. The most important commercial species is Myristica fragrans, a tree indigenous to the Banda Islands in the Moluccas of Indonesia. The first harvest of nutmeg trees takes place 7–9 years after planting, Nutmeg is usually used in powdered form. This is the tropical fruit that is the source of two different spices, obtained from different parts of the plant. Several other commercial products are produced from the trees, including essential oils, extracted oleoresins. The common or fragrant nutmeg, Myristica fragrans, is native to the Banda Islands in the Moluccas, other species used to adulterate the spice include Papuan nutmeg M. argentea from New Guinea, and M. malabarica from India. In the 17th-century work Hortus Botanicus Malabaricus, Hendrik van Rheede records that Indians learned the usage of nutmeg from the Indonesians through ancient trade routes, Nutmeg trees are dioecious plants which are propagated sexually and asexually, the latter being the standard. Sexual propagation by seedling yields 50% male seedlings, which are unproductive, epicotyl grafting, approach grafting, and patch budding have proved successful, with epicotyl grafting being the most widely adopted standard. Air-layering, or marcotting, is an alternative though not preferred method because of its low success rate, Nutmeg and mace have similar sensory qualities, with nutmeg having a slightly sweeter and mace a more delicate flavour. Mace is often preferred in light dishes for the bright orange, Nutmeg is used for flavouring many dishes, usually in ground or grated form, and is best grated fresh in a nutmeg grater. In Indonesian cuisine, nutmeg is used in dishes, mainly in many spicy soups, such as some variant of soto, konro, oxtail soup, sup iga, bakso. It is also used in gravy for meat dishes, such as beef stew, ribs with tomato, to European derived dishes such as bistik, rolade. Sliced nutmeg fruit flesh could be made as manisan, either wet, in Penang cuisine, dried, shredded nutmeg rind with sugar coating is used as toppings on the uniquely Penang ais kacang. Nutmeg rind is also blended or boiled to make iced nutmeg juice, in Indian cuisine, nutmeg is used in many sweet, as well as savoury, dishes. It is also added in quantities as a medicine for infants. It may also be used in quantities in garam masala. Ground nutmeg is also smoked in India, in Middle Eastern cuisine, ground nutmeg is often used as a spice for savoury dishes. In traditional European cuisine, nutmeg and mace are used especially in dishes and in processed meat products, they are also used in soups, sauces
30.
Ghee
–
Ghee is a class of clarified butter that originated in ancient India and is commonly used in South Asian, Iranian and Arabic cuisines, traditional medicine, and religious rituals. Spices can be added for flavor, the texture, color, and taste of ghee depend on the quality of the butter, source of the milk used in the process and the duration of the boiling. Fire sacrifices have been performed dating back over 5,000 years and they are thought to be auspicious for ceremonies such as marriage, funerals, etc. In the Mahabharata, the kaurava were born from pots of ghee, finding ghee pure enough to use for sacred purposes is a problem these days for devout Hindus, since many large-scale producers add salt to their product. Ghee is also used in bhang in order to heat the cannabis to cause decarboxylation, Ghee is common in Indian and Pakistani cuisine, including traditional rice preparations. In Rajasthan, ghee often accompanies baati, all over north India, ghee tops roti. In Tamil Nadu, ghee tops pongal, Dosa, and Kesari Bhath. In Bengal and Gujarat, khichdi is an evening meal of rice with lentils, cooked in curry made from yogurt, cumin seeds, curry leaves, cornflour, turmeric, garlic, salt. It is also an ingredient in kadhi and Indian sweets, such as Mysore pak and varieties of halva, South Indians have a habit of adding ghee to their rice before eating it with pickles and curries. South Indians are one of the biggest consumers of Ghee. the people from Telangana and Andhra Pradesh especially use ghee for preparation of savoury, Ghee is important to traditional Punjabi cuisine, with parathas, daals and curries often using ghee instead of oil for a richer taste. Ghee is a fat for deep frying because its smoke point is 250 °C. Ghee differs slightly in its production, the process of creating traditional clarified butter is complete once the water is evaporated and the fat is separated from the milk solids. However, the production of ghee includes simmering the butter, which makes it nutty-tasting, a traditional Ayurvedic recipe for ghee is to boil raw milk, let it cool to 110 °F. After letting it sit covered at room temperature for around 12 hours, add a bit of yogurt to it and this is churned with water, to obtain cultured butter, which is used to simmer into ghee. Ayurveda considers pure un-adulterated ghee to be sāttvik or sattva-guṇi, when used as food and it is the main ingredient in some of the Ayurvedic medicines, and is included under catuh mahā sneha along with sesame oil, muscle fat, and bone marrow. Ghee is used preferentially for diseases caused by Pitta Dosha, many Ayurvedic formulations contain ghee, for example, Brāhmi ghṛta, Indukānta ghṛta, Phala ghṛta, etc. Though eight types of ghee are mentioned in Ayurvedic classics, ghee made of human breast milk, further, cows ghee has medhya and rasāyana properties. Ghee is also used in Ayurvedas for constipation and ulcers, in Sri Lankan indigenous medical traditions, ghee is included in pas tel. Indian restaurants and some households may use partially hydrogenated vegetable oil in place of ghee because of its lower cost and this vegetable ghee may contain trans fat
31.
Incense
–
Incense is aromatic biotic material which releases fragrant smoke when burned. The term refers to the material itself, rather than to the aroma that it produces, Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, and in therapy, meditation, and ceremony. It may also be used as a simple deodorant or insectifuge, Incense is composed of aromatic plant materials, often combined with essential oils. The forms taken by incense differ with the culture, and have changed with advances in technology. Incense can generally be separated into two types, indirect-burning and direct-burning. Indirect-burning incense is not capable of burning on its own, direct-burning incense is lit directly by a flame and then fanned or blown out, leaving a glowing ember that smoulders and releases fragrance. Direct-burning incense is either a paste formed around a bamboo stick, the word incense comes from Latin for incendere meaning to burn. Combustible bouquets were used by the ancient Egyptians, who employed incense within both pragmatic and mystical capacities, Incense was burnt to counteract or obscure malodorous products of human habitation, but was widely perceived to also deter malevolent demons and appease the gods with its pleasant aroma. One of the oldest extant incense burners originates from the 5th dynasty, the Temple of Deir-el-Bahari in Egypt contains a series of carvings that depict an expedition for incense. The Babylonians used incense while offering prayers to divining oracles, Incense spread from there to Greece and Rome. Incense burners have been found in the Indus Civilization, evidence suggests oils were used mainly for their aroma. India also adopted techniques from East Asia, adapting the inherited formulation to encompass aromatic roots and this comprised the initial usage of subterranean plant parts within the fabrication of incense. New herbs like Sarsaparilla seeds, frankincense, and cypress were used by Indians for incense, at around 2000 BCE, Ancient China began the use of incense in the religious sense, namely for worship. Incense was used by Chinese cultures from Neolithic times and became widespread in the Xia, Shang. Incense usage reached its peak during the Song Dynasty with numerous buildings erected specifically for incense ceremonies, during the 14th century Shogunate, a samurai warrior might perfume his helmet and armor with incense to achieve an aura of invincibility. It wasnt until the Muromachi Era during the 15th and 16th century that incense appreciation spread to the upper, a variety of materials have been used in making incense. Historically there has been a preference for using locally available ingredients, for example, sage and cedar were used by the indigenous peoples of North America. Trading in incense materials comprised a part of commerce along the Silk Road and other trade routes
32.
Frankincense
–
The English word is derived from Old French franc encens. There are four species of Boswellia that produce true frankincense. Resin from each of the four is available in various grades, the grades depend on the time of harvesting, the resin is hand-sorted for quality. Frankincense is tapped from the scraggy but hardy trees by slashing the bark, which is called striping and these hardened resins are called tears. There are several species and varieties of trees, each producing a slightly different type of resin. Differences in soil and climate create even more diversity of the resin, Boswellia sacra trees are considered unusual for their ability to grow in environments so unforgiving that they sometimes grow out of solid rock. The initial means of attachment to the rock is unknown, but is accomplished by a bulbous swelling of the trunk. This growth prevents it from being ripped from the rock during violent storms and this feature is slight or absent in trees grown in rocky soil or gravel. The trees start producing resin when they are eight to 10 years old. Tapping is done two to three times a year with the final taps producing the best tears due to their higher aromatic terpene, sesquiterpene and diterpene content, generally speaking, the more opaque resins are the best quality. Fine resin is produced in Somalia, from which the Roman Catholic Church purchases most of its stock, recent studies have indicated that frankincense tree populations are declining, partly due to over-exploitation. Heavily tapped trees produce seeds that germinate at only 16% while seeds of trees that had not been tapped germinate at more than 80%, in addition, burning, grazing, and attacks by the longhorn beetle have reduced the tree population. Conversion of frankincense woodlands to agriculture is also a major threat, Frankincense has been traded on the Arabian Peninsula, in North Africa, and Somalia for more than 5000 years. A mural depicting sacks of frankincense traded from the Land of Punt adorns the walls of the temple of ancient Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut, who died circa 1458 BC. Frankincense was one of the consecrated incenses described in the Hebrew Bible and Talmud used in Ketoret ceremonies and it was offered on a specialized incense altar in the time when the Tabernacle was located in the First and Second Temples. It is mentioned in the Book of Exodus 30,34 and it was one of the ingredients in the perfume of the sanctuary, and was used as an accompaniment of the meal-offering. It was also mentioned as a commodity in trade from Sheba, when burnt it emitted a fragrant odor, and the incense was a symbol of the Divine name and an emblem of prayer. It was often associated with myrrh, a specially pure kind, lebhonah zakkah, was presented with the showbread
33.
Dabqaad
–
The dabqaad, also known as unsi or girgire, is an incense burner, or censer. With either one or two handles, it is used in Somalia, Djibouti, Yemen, and Ethiopia. Dabqaads are traditionally used to perfume homes after large meals and/or during special occasions, Frankincense or a prepared incense, which in countries in the Arabian Peninsula is known as bukhoor, is placed on top of hot charcoal inside an incense burner, the dabqaad. It then burns for ten minutes. This keeps the house fragrant for hours, the dabqaad pot is made from a white clay or soapstone found in specific areas of both southern and northern Somalia. Meerschaum is used to make the dabqaad, with the district of El Buur serving as a center for quarrying, El Buur is also the place of origin of the local pipe-making industry. Somalis living in the West obtain their dabqaads from visits to the Horn of Africa or they have relatives residing in the region send them, the dabqaad is closely related to the Arabian mabkhara, albeit generally less elaborately decorated. The mabkhara is widely used amongst Arab communities living in the West and throughout the Middle East, bukhoor Mabkhara Frankincense Abdullahi, Mohamed Diriye
34.
African cuisine
–
Traditionally, the various cuisines of Africa use a combination of locally available fruits, cereal grains and vegetables, as well as milk and meat products, and do not usually get food imported. In some parts of the continent, the traditional diet features a lot of milk, curd and these foodstuffs have had a large influence on the local cuisine, if perhaps less on the preparation methods. Central African cooking has remained mostly traditional, nevertheless, as in other parts of Africa, Central African cuisine presents a variety of dishes. The basic ingredients are plantains and cassava, fufu-like starchy foods are served with grilled meat and sauces. A variety of ingredients are used while preparing other dishes like spinach stew cooked with tomato, peppers, chillis, onions. Cassava plants are consumed as cooked greens. Groundnut stew is prepared, containing chicken, okra, ginger. Another favorite is bambara, a porridge of rice, peanut butter, beef and chicken are favorite meat dishes, but game meat preparations containing crocodile, monkey, antelope and warthog are also served occasionally. In the inland savannah, the cuisine of cattle-keeping peoples is distinctive in that meat products are generally absent. Cattle, sheep, pigs and goats were regarded as a form of currency and a store of wealth, in some areas, traditional peoples consume the milk and blood of cattle, but rarely the meat. Elsewhere, other peoples are farmers who grow a variety of grains, maize is the basis of ugali, the local version of West Africas fufu. Ugali is a dish eaten with meats or stews. In Uganda, steamed green bananas called matoke provide the starch filler of many meals, around 1000 years ago, Omani and Yemeni merchants settled on the Swahili Coast. Some common ingredients used in this region include oranges, lemons, limes, chillis, capscium peppers, maize, the main traditional dishes in Ethiopian cuisine and Eritrean cuisine are tsebhis served with injera and hilbet. Eritrean and Ethiopian cuisine are similar, given the shared history of the two countries. Eritrean and Ethiopian food habits vary regionally, in the highlands, injera is the staple diet and is eaten daily among the Tigrinya. Injera is made out of teff, wheat, barley, sorghum or corn, when eating, diners generally share food from a large tray placed in the centre of a low dining table. Numerous injera are layered on this tray and topped with various spicy stews, diners then break into the section of injera in front of them, tearing off pieces and dipping them into the stews
35.
Cuisine of Algeria
–
The cuisine of Algeria is a distinct fusion of Berber, Al-Andalous, Mediterranean and Ottoman cuisine. Algerian cuisine differs slightly from region to region, every region has its own cuisine, including Kabylie, Algiers and Constantine. Algerian Cuisine is influenced by various cultures such as Berber, Arabic, most of the Algerian dishes are centered around, lamb or beef, olive oil, fresh vegetables and fresh herbs. Traditionally, no Algerian meal is complete without bread, normally a long French baguette or more traditionally a flat semolina bread, pork consumption is forbidden to devout Muslim inhabitants of Algeria in accordance with Sharia, religious laws of Islam. Algeria, like other Maghreb countries, produces a range of Mediterranean fruits and vegetables. Mediterranean seafood and fish are eaten and produced by the little inshore fishing. Algerians consume an amount of meat, as it is found in almost every dish. Vegetables that are used include potatoes, carrots, onions, tomatoes, zucchini, garlic, cabbages. Vegetables are often used in stews and soups or simply fried or boiled, the Kesra, traditional Algerian flatbread, is the base of Algerian cuisine and eaten at many meals. A popular Algerian meal is merguez, an originally Amazigh or Berber sausage, spices used in Algerian cuisine are dried red chillies of different kinds, caraway, Arabian ras el hanout, black pepper and cumin, among others. Algerians also use tagines, handmade in Algeria, frequently Algerian food is cooked in clay vessels, much like Maghrib cuisine. Algerian cuisine represents the north of the Sahara desert and west of the Nile. Algerian chefs take a lot of pride in cooking skills and methods, there are many different types of Algerian salads, influenced by the French and Turkish, which may include beetroot or anchovies. There are also dishes of Spanish origin in Algeria, like the Gaspacho Oranais, common pastries include makroudh, nougat and Baclava. Halwa are cookies eaten during the month of Ramadan and some pastries are prepared for occasions like for Eid-al-fitr. Algerians are the second greatest consumers of honey per capita in the world, mint tea is generally drunk in the morning and for ceremonies with pastries. Algerians are heavy coffee consumers and Turkish coffee is very popular, fruit juice and soft drinks are very common and are often drunk daily. Arab cuisine Berber cuisine Mediterranean cuisine North African cuisine List of African cuisines Algerian Recipes and Culture on Global Table Adventure
36.
Angolan cuisine
–
Angolan cuisine is the cuisine of Angola, a country in south-central Africa. Because Angola was a Portuguese colony for centuries, Portuguese cuisine has significantly influenced Angolan cuisine, staple ingredients include flour, beans and rice, fish, pork and chicken, various sauces, and vegetables such as sweet potato, tomatoes, onions, and okra. Spices such as garlic are also frequently seen, funge and pirão are very common dishes, and in poorer households often consumed at every meal. The dish is eaten with fish, pork, chicken. Funge de bombo, more common in northern Angola, is a paste or porridge of cassava and it is gelatinous in consistency and gray in color. Pirão, yellow in color and similar to polenta, is made from cornflour and is common in the south. Fubá is the term for the flour that is used to make either funge and pirão, also used to make angu, both foods are described as bland but filling and are often eaten with sauces and juices or with gindungo, a spicy condiment. Moamba de galinha is chicken with palm paste, okra, garlic and palm oil hash or red palm oil sauce, often served with rice, both funge and moamba de galinha have been considered the national dish. A variant dish of moamba de galinha, muamba de ginguba, other dishes common in Angolan cuisine include, Arroz dishes, including arroz da Ilha, arroz de garoupa da Ilha (, and arroz de marisco. Cabidela, a dish cooked in blood, served with rice, frequently chicken, served with vinegar, tomatoes, onion and garlic. It was also incorporated to Brazilian cuisine, caldeirada de cabrito, goat meat stew served with rice, a traditional dish for Angolan independence day, November 11. Calulu, dried fish with vegetables, often onions, tomatoes, okra, sweet potatoes, garlic, palm oil, and gimboa leaves, often served with rice, funge, palm oil beans, caruru, a shrimp and okra stew, of Brazilian origin. Catatos, caterpillar fried with garlic, served with rice, a specialty in Uíge Chikuanga, a made from manioc flour, served in a wrap of banana leaves. Cocada amarela, yellow coconut pudding made with sugar, grated coconut, egg yolks, and ground cinnamon and it is very different from what is known as cocada in Brazil. Farofa, rice and beans with toasted manioc flour on top, feijão de óleo de palma or dendem, beans, onion, and garlic cooked in palm oil, often served with fish, banana and farofa. Gafanhotos de palmeira, toasted grasshopper from a tree, a Cuanza Norte specialty. Kifula, game meat served with boiled and toasted palm tree grasshoppers, kissuto Rombo, roasted goat with garlic and lemon juice, served with rice and chips. Kitaba or quitaba, a crunchy peanut paste seasoned with chilli pepper, kitetas, clams, often cooked in a white wine sauce and served with bread
37.
Benin cuisine
–
Beninese cuisine is known in Africa for its exotic ingredients and flavorful dishes. Beninese cuisine involves lots of fresh meals served with a variety of sauces, meat is usually quite expensive, and meals are generally light on meat and generous on vegetable fat. In southern Benin cuisine, the most common ingredient is corn, fish and chicken are the most common meats used in southern Beninese cuisine, but beef, pork, goat and bush rat are also consumed. Meats are often fried in palm or peanut oil, rice, beans, tomatoes and couscous are also significant staple foods. Fruits are common in this region, including oranges, oranges, bananas, kiwi, avocados, pineapples. Yams are the staple in the northern Benin, and are also often served with peanut- or tomato-based sauces. The population in the provinces uses beef and pork meat which is also fried in palm or peanut oil or cooked in sauces. Cheese is also used in some dishes. Couscous, rice and beans are commonly eaten, along with fruits such as mangos, oranges. Frying in palm or peanut oil is the most common meat preparation, grinders are used to prepare corn flour, which is made into a dough and served with sauces. Chicken on the spit is a recipe in which chicken is roasted over fire on wooden sticks. Palm roots are sometimes tenderized by soaking in a jar with saltwater and sliced garlic, then used in various dishes. Many people have mud stoves for cooking and also mud pots which are used to preserve the meal, also mud pots are used to store water, these pots are usually kept outside of their homes. Wagasi is a specialty cows-milk cheese of northern Benin made by the Fulani people and its a soft cheese with a mild flavor and a red rind, and used often in Beninese cooking. Acarajé is a made from peeled black-eyed peas formed into a ball. It is found in most parts of the Republic of Benin, Nigeria, sodabi is a liquor made from wine palm, and often consumed at events and ceremonies. African cuisine This article uses material from the Beninese Cuisine article on the Recipes wiki and is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike License
38.
Botswana cuisine
–
The cuisine of Botswana is unique but also shares some characteristics with other cuisines of Southern Africa. Examples of Setswana food include pap, samp, vetkoek, a food unique to Botswana is seswaa, salted mashed-up meat. Watermelons are believed to have originated in Botswana, the markets of Botswana are filled with a large variety of foods. Some are grown locally using irrigation and some are imported from neighbouring countries, a large quantity of high-quality beef is raised in Botswana. Lamb, mutton, chicken and other meats are also plentiful, beef is the most popular meat, followed by goat meat. River fish are part of Botswana cuisine. Sorghum and maize are the crops grown in Botswana. Wheat and rice and other kinds of cereals not grown locally are imported, many different kinds of beans are grown, including cow peas, ditloo, and letlhodi. Many vegetables are grown, such as spinach, carrots, cabbage, onions, potatoes, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, there are some vegetables that grow in the wild that are available seasonally including thepe and Delele. Dried bean leaves are a popular Setswana food, many fruits are locally available, including marula. Watermelons, believed to have come originally from Botswana, are plentiful in season, another kind of melon, called lerotse or lekatane, is also grown. There are some kinds of wild melon found in desert areas which are an important food. Many vegetables are seasonal and are dried or salted for preservation. There are many different ways of cooking dried vegetables, seswaa, or chotlho or leswao is a very popular traditional meat dish made for most special occasions. Usually prepared by men, it is cooked in an iron pot, simmered until soft, with only salt. Another popular dish is serobe, in which the intestines and some parts of goat. If the animal is sheep or goat, the trotters are included, traditionally grown chicken is considered to be better-flavoured than commercially grown chickens. By cooking a traditionally grown chicken for a guest, a host shows special hospitality, cooking chicken in a three-legged iron pot on an open fire gives it the best flavour
.svg){kind=small}
