1.
OASIS (organization)
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OASIS was founded under the name SGML Open in 1993. The focus of the activities also moved from promoting adoption to developing technical specifications. In July 2000 a new technical committee process was approved, with the adoption of the process the manner in which technical committees were created, operated, and progressed their work was regularized. At the adoption of the process there were five technical committees, during 1999, OASIS was approached by UN/CEFACT, the committee of the United Nations dealing with standards for business, to jointly develop a new set of specifications for electronic business. The joint initiative, called ebXML and which first met in November 1999, was chartered for a three-year period, in 2004 OASIS submitted its completed ebXML specifications to ISO TC154 where they were approved as ISO15000. The consortium has its headquarters in Burlington, Massachusetts, shared with other companies, on September 4,2014, the consortium moved from 25 Corporate Drive Suite 103 to 35 Corporate Dr Suite 150, still on the same loop route. The following standards are under development by OASIS technical committees, AMQP — Advanced Message Queuing Protocol, BCM — Business Centric-Methodology, BCM is a comprehensive approach and proven techniques that enable a service-oriented architecture and support enterprise agility and interoperability. CAP — Common Alerting Protocol, is an XML-based data format for exchanging public warnings, CAM — Content Assembly Mechanism, is a generalized assembly mechanism for using templates of XML business transaction content and the associated rules. CAM templates augment schema syntax and provide implementers with the means to specify interoperable interchange patterns, CAMP — Cloud Application Management for Platforms, is an API for managing public and private cloud applications. CMIS — Content Management Interoperability Services, is a model and Web services standard for working with Enterprise content management repositories. CIQ — Customer Information Quality, is an XML Specifications for defining, representing, interoperating and managing party information, DocBook — DocBook, a markup language for technical documentation. It was originally intended for authoring technical documents related to hardware and software. DITA — Darwin Information Typing Architecture, a modular and extensible XML-based language for topic-based information, such as for help, documentation. KMIP — The Key Management Interoperability Protocol tries to establish a single, legal XML LegalDocumentML, LegalRuleML, Electronic Court Filing, and eNotarization standards. OASIS as a body is working to approve the protocol in a way that will align. OpenDocument — OASIS Open Document Format for Office Applications, a document file format for saving office documents such as spreadsheets, memos, charts. OSLC — Open Services for Lifecycle Collaboration, develops standards that make it easy, see the OSLC community web site for more details. SAML — Security Assertion Markup Language, a standard XML-based framework for the exchange of authentication and authorization information
2.
Markup language
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A markup language is a system for annotating a document in a way that is syntactically distinguishable from the text. The idea and terminology evolved from the marking up of manuscripts, i. e. the revision instructions by editors. In digital media this blue pencil instruction text was replaced by tags, examples include typesetting instructions such as those found in troff, TeX and LaTeX, or structural markers such as XML tags. Markup instructs the software displays the text to carry out appropriate actions. Some markup languages, such as the widely used HTML, have pre-defined presentation semantics—meaning that their specification prescribes how to present the structured data, others, such as XML, do not have them and are general purpose. Such markup is usually hidden from users, even authors or editors. Procedural markup Markup is embedded in text and provides instructions for programs that are to process the text, well-known examples include troff, TeX, and PostScript. It is expected that the processor will run through the text from beginning to end, Text with such markup is often edited with the markup visible and directly manipulated by the author. Popular procedural-markup systems usually include programming constructs, so macros or subroutines can be defined and invoked by name, descriptive markup Markup is used to label parts of the document rather than to provide specific instructions as to how they should be processed. Well-known examples include LaTeX, HTML, and XML, the objective is to decouple the inherent structure of the document from any particular treatment or rendition of it. Such markup is often described as semantic, an example of descriptive markup would be HTMLs <cite> tag, which is used to label a citation. Descriptive markup—sometimes called logical markup or conceptual markup—encourages authors to write in a way that describes the material conceptually, there is considerable blurring of the lines between the types of markup. In modern word-processing systems, presentational markup is often saved in descriptive-markup-oriented systems such as XML, the programming constructs in procedural-markup systems such as TeX may be used to create higher-level markup systems that are more descriptive, such as LaTeX. In recent years, a number of small and largely unstandardized markup languages have developed to allow authors to create formatted text via web browsers, for use in wikis. These are sometimes called lightweight markup languages, Markdown or the markup language used by Wikipedia are examples of such wiki markup. It is computer jargon used in coding proof, Markup was also commonly applied by editors, proofreaders, publishers, and graphic designers, and indeed by document authors. The first well-known public presentation of markup languages in computer processing was made by William W. Tunnicliffe at a conference in 1967. It can be seen as a response to the emergence of such as RUNOFF that each used their own control notations
3.
SGML
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The Standard Generalized Markup Language is a standard for defining generalized markup languages for documents. Declarative markup is less likely to conflict with unforeseen future processing needs, Markup should be rigorous so that the techniques available for processing rigorously-defined objects like programs and databases can be used for processing documents as well. HTML was theoretically an example of an SGML-based language until HTML5, DocBook SGML and LinuxDoc are better examples, as they were used almost exclusively with actual SGML tools. SGML, in 1996, resulted from a Technical Corrigendum to add extended naming rules allowing arbitrary-language, SGML, in 1998, resulted from a Technical Corrigendum to better support XML and WWW requirements. Full SGML is rarely found or used in new projects, DSSSL —Document processing and styling language based on Scheme. DSSSL was reworked into W3C XSLT and XSL-FO which use an XML syntax, nowadays, DSSSL is rarely used in new projects apart from Linux documentation. HyTime—Generalized hypertext and scheduling. HyTime was partially reworked into W3C XLink, HyTime is rarely used in new projects. SGML descended from IBMs Generalized Markup Language, which Charles Goldfarb, Edward Mosher, Goldfarb, editor of the international standard, coined the “GML” term using their surname initials. Goldfarb also wrote the work on SGML syntax in The SGML Handbook. The syntax of SGML is closer to the COCOA format, as a document markup language, SGML was originally designed to enable the sharing of machine-readable large-project documents in government, law, and industry. Many such documents must remain readable for several long time in the information technology field. SGML also was applied by the military, and the aerospace, technical reference. The advent of the XML profile has made SGML suitable for application for small-scale. SGML defines two kinds of validity, according to the revised Terms and Definitions of ISO8879, A conforming SGML document must be either a type-valid SGML document, a tag-valid SGML document, or both. Note, A user may wish to enforce additional constraints on a document, a type-valid SGML document is defined by the standard as An SGML document in which, for each document instance, there is an associated document type declaration to whose DTD that instance conforms. A tag-valid SGML document is defined by the standard as An SGML document, there need not be a document type declaration associated with any of the instances. Note, If there is a document type declaration, the instance can be parsed with or without reference to it, the standard calls this fully tagged. Integrally stored reflects the XML requirement that elements end in the entity in which they started
4.
XML
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In computing, Extensible Markup Language is a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. The W3Cs XML1.0 Specification and several other related specifications—all of them free open standards—define XML, the design goals of XML emphasize simplicity, generality, and usability across the Internet. It is a data format with strong support via Unicode for different human languages. Although the design of XML focuses on documents, the language is used for the representation of arbitrary data structures such as those used in web services. Several schema systems exist to aid in the definition of XML-based languages, hundreds of document formats using XML syntax have been developed, including RSS, Atom, SOAP, SVG, and XHTML. XML-based formats have become the default for many office-productivity tools, including Microsoft Office, OpenOffice. org and LibreOffice, XML has also provided the base language for communication protocols such as XMPP. Applications for the Microsoft. NET Framework use XML files for configuration, apple has an implementation of a registry based on XML. XML has come into use for the interchange of data over the Internet. IETF RFC7303 gives rules for the construction of Internet Media Types for use when sending XML and it also defines the media types application/xml and text/xml, which say only that the data is in XML, and nothing about its semantics. The use of text/xml has been criticized as a source of encoding problems. RFC7303 also recommends that XML-based languages be given media types ending in +xml, further guidelines for the use of XML in a networked context appear in RFC3470, also known as IETF BCP70, a document covering many aspects of designing and deploying an XML-based language. The material in this section is based on the XML Specification and this is not an exhaustive list of all the constructs that appear in XML, it provides an introduction to the key constructs most often encountered in day-to-day use. Character An XML document is a string of characters, almost every legal Unicode character may appear in an XML document. Processor and application The processor analyzes the markup and passes structured information to an application, the specification places requirements on what an XML processor must do and not do, but the application is outside its scope. The processor is often referred to colloquially as an XML parser, Markup and content The characters making up an XML document are divided into markup and content, which may be distinguished by the application of simple syntactic rules. Generally, strings that constitute markup either begin with the character < and end with a >, or they begin with the character &, strings of characters that are not markup are content. However, in a CDATA section, the delimiters <. > are classified as markup, in addition, whitespace before and after the outermost element is classified as markup. Tag A tag is a construct that begins with <
5.
International standard
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International standards are standards developed by international standards organizations. International standards are available for consideration and use worldwide, the most prominent organization is the International Organization for Standardization. International standards may be used either by application or by a process of modifying an international standard to suit local conditions. Technical barriers arise when different groups together, each with a large user base. Establishing international standards is one way of preventing or overcoming this problem, the implementation of standards in industry and commerce became highly important with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the need for high-precision machine tools and interchangeable parts. Henry Maudslay developed the first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe in 1800, maudslays work, as well as the contributions of other engineers, accomplished a modest amount of industry standardization, some companies in-house standards spread a bit within their industries. Joseph Whitworths screw thread measurements were adopted as the first national standard by companies around the country in 1841 and it came to be known as the British Standard Whitworth, and was widely adopted in other countries. By the end of the 19th century differences in standards between companies were making trade increasingly difficult and strained, the Engineering Standards Committee was established in London in 1901 as the worlds first national standards body. After the First World War, similar national bodies were established in other countries, by the mid to late 19th century, efforts were being made to standardize electrical measurement. An important figure was R. E. B, Crompton, who became concerned by the large range of different standards and systems used by electrical engineering companies and scientists in the early 20th century. Many companies had entered the market in the 1890s and all chose their own settings for voltage, frequency, current, adjacent buildings would have totally incompatible electrical systems simply because they had been fitted out by different companies. Crompton could see the lack of efficiency in this system and began to consider proposals for a standard for electric engineering. In 1904, Crompton represented Britain at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in Saint Louis as part of a delegation by the Institute of Electrical Engineers. He presented a paper on standardisation, which was so well received that he was asked to look into the formation of a commission to oversee the process. By 1906 his work was complete and he drew up a permanent constitution for the first international standards organization, the body held its first meeting that year in London, with representatives from 14 countries. In honour of his contribution to electrical standardisation, Lord Kelvin was elected as the bodys first President, the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations was founded in 1926 with a broader remit to enhance international cooperation for all technical standards and specifications. The body was suspended in 1942 during World War II, after the war, ISA was approached by the recently formed United Nations Standards Coordinating Committee with a proposal to form a new global standards body. List of international common standards List of technical standard organisations Global Frameworks and standards organized along function lines, accessed 2014 ^ Cordova
6.
Documentation
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Documentation is a set of documents provided on paper, or online, or on digital or analog media, such as audio tape or CDs. Examples are user guides, white papers, on-line help, quick-reference guides and it is becoming less common to see paper documentation. Documentation is distributed via websites, software products, and other on-line applications, professionals educated in this field are termed documentalists. This field changed its name to information science in 1968, but some uses of the term documentation still exists, while associated ISO standards are not easily available publicly, a guide from other sources for this topic may serve the purpose. David Berger has provided several principles of document writing, regarding the terms used, procedure numbering and even lengths of sentences, etc. In general, these may involve document drafting, formatting, submitting, reviewing, approving, distributing, reposting and tracking and it could also involve creating content from scratch. Documentation should be easy to read and understand, if its too long and too wordy, it may be misunderstood or ignored. Clear, Short, Familiar words should be used to a maximum of 15 words to a sentence, only gender hyper neutral word should be used and cultural biases should be avoided. Procedures should be numbered when they are to be performed, Technical writers and corporate communicators are professionals whose field and work is documentation. Ideally, technical writers have a background in both the matter and also in writing and managing content. Corporate communications includes other types of documentation that is required for most companies. Marketing Communications, MarCom writers endeavor to convey the companys value proposition through a variety of print, electronic and this area of corporate writing is often engaged in responding to proposals. Technical Communication, Technical writers document a companys product or service, Technical publication include user guides, installation an configuration manuals, and troubleshooting/repair/replace procedures. Legal Writing, This type of documentation is often prepared by attorneys or paralegals who could be in practice or retained as corporate council. Compliance documentation, This type of documentation codifies Standard Operating Procedures, for any regulatory compliance needs, as for safety approval, taxation, financing, technical approval, there are many types of software and applications used to create documentation. SOFTWARE DOCUMENTATION FOLDER A common type of software document written by software engineers in the industry is the SDF. The document can be a page, MS word document or other environment. They should contain a section, an interface section to detail the communication interface of the software
7.
Separation of content and presentation
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It is a specific instance of the more general philosophy, separation of concerns. When invoked as an idiom, the concept is to make a distinction between the actual meaning of a document, and how this meaning is presented to its readers. Words with a louder or higher-pitched voice by the text-to-speech synthesizer, Separation of content and presentation means that markup elements are always used for document structure, never for presentation. The general aim of separation of presentation and content is machine readability, for example, a human being reading a document has little trouble to grab from context that an oblique rendering in one place would be emphasized text, but in another place is a title of a book. Machine readability allows affordably serving the information to a variety of users. This requires the ability to recast abstractions in new instances quickly and cheaply and these may be ones that people cannot do, but machines can do. In the book Understanding Media, Marshall McLuhan stated that The medium is the message, one interpretation is that the choice of medium affects the message. It is possible for the choice of content and choice of medium to affect the quality of the presentation, the degree that content may be separated from presentation depends on how much the quality of the medium affects the quality of the message. In many cases, the possibility and degrees of separation are as subjective as the content itself, internationalization and localization Model-view-controller Separation of concerns Style sheet Style sheet Template Template systems What You See Is What You Mean Semantic HTML
8.
HTML
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Hypertext Markup Language is the standard markup language for creating web pages and web applications. With Cascading Style Sheets and JavaScript it forms a triad of cornerstone technologies for the World Wide Web, Web browsers receive HTML documents from a webserver or from local storage and render them into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the document, HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and other objects, such as interactive forms and it provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets, tags such as <img /> and <input /> introduce content into the page directly. Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty, by carefully following the W3Cs compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML1.0 and have made compatible in this way. When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, HTML4 defined three different versions of the language, Strict, Transitional and Frameset. The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup, which is omitted in the Strict version, instead, cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve the presentation of HTML documents. Because XHTML1 only defines an XML syntax for the language defined by HTML4, as this list demonstrates, the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support, rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions. The primary achievement in the move from XHTML1.0 to XHTML1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification, the strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML1.1 specification. Likewise, someone looking for the loose or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML1.1 support, the modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable. So for example, XHTML1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML, in summary, the HTML4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML. XHTML1.0, ported this specification, as is, next, XHTML1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach. The WHATWG considers their work as living standard HTML for what constitutes the state of the art in major browser implementations by Apple, Google, Mozilla, Opera, hTML5 is specified by the HTML Working Group of the W3C following the W3C process. HTML lacks some of the found in earlier hypertext systems, such as source tracking, fat links
9.
XHTML
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Extensible Hypertext Markup Language is part of the family of XML markup languages. It mirrors or extends versions of the widely used Hypertext Markup Language, XHTML documents are well-formed and may therefore be parsed using standard XML parsers, unlike HTML, which requires a lenient HTML-specific parser. XHTML1.0 became a World Wide Web Consortium Recommendation on January 26,2000, XHTML1.1 became a W3C Recommendation on May 31,2001. The standard known as XHTML5 is being developed as an XML adaptation of the HTML5 specification, XHTML1.0 is a reformulation of the three HTML4 document types as applications of XML1.0. The World Wide Web Consortium also continues to maintain the HTML4.01 Recommendation, and the specifications for HTML5 and XHTML5 are being actively developed. In the current XHTML1.0 Recommendation document, as published and revised to August 2002, by migrating to XHTML today, content developers can enter the XML world with all of its attendant benefits, while still remaining confident in their contents backward and future compatibility. However, in 2005, the Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group formed, independently of the W3C, the WHATWG eventually began working on a standard that supported both XML and non-XML serializations, HTML5, in parallel to W3C standards such as XHTML2. In 2007, the W3Cs HTML working group voted to officially recognize HTML5, in 2009, the W3C allowed the XHTML2 Working Groups charter to expire, acknowledging that HTML5 would be the sole next-generation HTML standard, including both XML and non-XML serializations. Of the two serializations, the W3C suggests that most authors use the HTML syntax, rather than the XHTML syntax, XHTML was developed to make HTML more extensible and increase interoperability with other data formats. In addition, browsers were forgiving of errors in HTML, and most websites were displayed despite technical errors in the markup, the XML standard, approved in 1998, provided a simpler data format closer in simplicity to HTML4. By using namespaces, XHTML documents could provide extensibility by including fragments from other XML-based languages such as Scalable Vector Graphics, finally, the renewed work would provide an opportunity to divide HTML into reusable components and clean up untidy parts of the language. There are various differences between XHTML and HTML, the Document Object Model is a tree structure that represents the page internally in applications, and XHTML and HTML are two different ways of representing that in markup. Both are less expressive than the DOM, and generally XHTMLs XML syntax is a more expressive than HTML. First off, one source of differences is immediate, XHTML uses an XML syntax, secondly however, because the expressible contents of the DOM in syntax are slightly different, there are some changes in actual behavior between the two models. XML is case-sensitive for element and attribute names, while HTML is not, there are numerous other technical requirements surrounding namespaces and precise parsing of whitespace and certain characters and elements. The exact parsing of HTML in practice has been undefined until recently, see the HTML5 specification for full details, Second, in contrast to these minor syntactical differences, there are some behavioral differences, mostly arising from the underlying differences in serialization. For example, Most prominently, behavior on parse errors differ, a fatal parse error in XML causes document processing to be aborted. Most content requiring namespaces will not work in HTML, except the built-in support for SVG, javaScript processing is a little different in XHTML, with minor changes in case sensitivity to some functions, and further precautions to restrict processing to well-formed content
10.
EPUB
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EPUB is an e-book file format with the extension. epub that can be downloaded and read on devices like smartphones, tablets, computers, or e-readers. It is a standard published by the International Digital Publishing Forum. The term is short for electronic publication and is sometimes styled ePub, EPUB became an official standard of the IDPF in September 2007, superseding the older Open eBook standard. The Book Industry Study Group endorses EPUB3 as the format of choice for packaging content and has stated that the book publishing industry should rally around a single standard. EPUB is the most widely supported vendor-independent XML-based e-book format, that is, EPUB2.0 was approved in October 2007, with a maintenance update approved in September 2010. The EPUB3.0 specification became effective in October 2011, new major features include support for precise layout or specialized formatting, such as for comic books, and MathML support. The current version of EPUB is 3.1, effective January 5,2017, the format specification underwent reorganization and clean-up, format supports remotely-hosted resources and new font formats and uses more pure HTML and CSS. In May 2016 IDPF Members approved World Wide Web Consortium merger, to align the publishing industry. Like an HTML web site, the format supports inline raster and vector images, metadata and this could affect the level of support for various DRM systems on devices and the portability of purchased e-books. Consequently, such DRM incompatibility may segment the EPUB format along the lines of DRM systems, undermining the advantages of a standard format. It is also used on many software readers such as iBooks on iOS and Google Books on Android. IBooks also supports the proprietary format, which is based on the EPUB format. As final product As in the eBook market PDF format is not generally sold at sites that sell eBooks, the main EPUB producers are suppliers of public domain and open licensed content, as Project Gutenberg, PubMed Central, SciELO and many others. In that context is growing and replacing the PDF format, data interchange EPUB is a popular way to feed ebook creation process, because is an open format and is based in HTML, while Amazons format is proprietary. EPUB is the first step content format in many production process, an EPUB file is a ZIP archive that contains, in effect, a website—including HTML files, images, CSS style sheets, and other assets. EPUB3 is the latest version, by using HTML5, publications can contain video, audio, and interactivity, just like websites in web browsers. An ePub publication is delivered as a single file and this file is an unencrypted zipped archive containing a set of interrelated resources. An OCF Abstract Container defines a system model for the contents of the container
11.
Portable Document Format
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The Portable Document Format is a file format used to present documents in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems. Each PDF file encapsulates a complete description of a fixed-layout flat document, including the text, fonts, graphics, PDF was developed in the early 1990s as a way to share computer documents, including text formatting and inline images. It was among a number of competing formats such as DjVu, Envoy, Common Ground Digital Paper, Farallon Replica, in those early years before the rise of the World Wide Web and HTML documents, PDF was popular mainly in desktop publishing workflows. Adobe Systems made the PDF specification available free of charge in 1993 and these proprietary technologies are not standardized and their specification is published only on Adobe’s website. Many of them are not supported by popular third-party implementations of PDF. So when organizations publish PDFs which use proprietary technologies, they present accessibility issues for some users. In 2014, ISO TC171 voted to deprecate XFA for ISO 32000-2, on January 9,2017, the final draft for ISO 32000-2 was published, thus reaching the approval stage. The PDF combines three technologies, A subset of the PostScript page description programming language, for generating the layout, a font-embedding/replacement system to allow fonts to travel with the documents. A structured storage system to bundle these elements and any associated content into a single file, PostScript is a page description language run in an interpreter to generate an image, a process requiring many resources. It can handle graphics and standard features of programming such as if. PDF is largely based on PostScript but simplified to remove flow control features like these, often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized, any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected. Then, everything is compressed to a single file, therefore, the entire PostScript world remains intact. PDF supports graphic transparency, PostScript does not, PostScript is an interpreted programming language with an implicit global state, so instructions accompanying the description of one page can affect the appearance of any following page. Therefore, all preceding pages in a PostScript document must be processed to determine the appearance of a given page. A PDF file is a 7-bit ASCII file, except for elements that may have binary content. A PDF file starts with a header containing the magic number, the format is a subset of a COS format. A COS tree file consists primarily of objects, of which there are eight types, Boolean values, representing true or false Numbers Strings, enclosed within parentheses, objects may be either direct or indirect
12.
Man page
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A man page is a form of software documentation usually found on a Unix or Unix-like operating system. Topics covered include computer programs, formal standards and conventions, a user may invoke a man page by issuing the man command. By default, man uses a terminal pager program such as more or less to display its output. To read a page for a Unix command, a user can type, Pages are traditionally referred to using the notation name, for example. The same page name may appear in more than one section of the manual, such as when the names of system calls, user commands, examples are man and man, or exit and exit. The syntax for accessing the non-default manual section varies between different man implementations, on Solaris and illumos, for example, the syntax for reading printf is, On Linux and BSD derivatives the same invocation would be, which searches for printf in section 3 of the man pages. In the first two years of the history of Unix, no documentation existed, the Unix Programmers Manual was first published on November 3,1971. The first actual man pages were written by Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson at the insistence of their manager Doug McIlroy in 1971. Aside from the man pages, the Programmers Manual also accumulated a set of papers, some of them tutorials. Later versions of the documentation imitated the first man pages terseness, Ritchie added a How to get started section to the Third Edition introduction, and Lorinda Cherry provided the Purple Card pocket reference for the Sixth and Seventh Editions. Versions of the software were named after the revision of the manual, for the Fourth Edition the man pages were formatted using the troff typesetting package and its set of -man macros. At the time, the availability of online documentation through the manual system was regarded as a great advance. The modern descendants of 4. 4BSD also distribute man pages as one of the forms of system documentation. Few alternatives to man have enjoyed popularity, with the possible exception of GNU Projects info system. In addition, some Unix GUI applications now provide end-user documentation in HTML, man pages are usually written in English, but translations into other languages may be available on the system. The default format of the man pages is troff, with either the macro package man or mdoc and this makes it possible to typeset a man page into PostScript, PDF, and various other formats for viewing or printing. Most Unix systems have a package for the command, which enables users to browse their man pages using an html browser. A consequence of this is that section 8 is sometimes relegated to the 1M subsection of the main commands section, Some subsection suffixes have a general meaning across sections, Some versions of man cache the formatted versions of the last several pages viewed
13.
W3C XML Schema
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XSD, a recommendation of the World Wide Web Consortium, specifies how to formally describe the elements in an Extensible Markup Language document. It can be used by programmers to verify each piece of content in a document. They can check if it adheres to the description of the element it is placed in, like all XML schema languages, XSD can be used to express a set of rules to which an XML document must conform in order to be considered valid according to that schema. Such a post-validation infoset can be useful in the development of XML document processing software, XML Schema, published as a W3C recommendation in May 2001, is one of several XML schema languages. It was the first separate schema language for XML to achieve Recommendation status by the W3C, in Version 1.1 the W3C has chosen to adopt XSD as the preferred name, and that is the name used in this article. In its appendix of references, the XSD specification acknowledges the influence of DTDs and other early XML schema efforts such as DDML, SOX, XML-Data and it has adopted features from each of these proposals but is also a compromise among them. Of those languages, XDR and SOX continued to be used and supported for a while after XML Schema was published, a number of Microsoft products supported XDR until the release of MSXML6.0 in December 2006. Commerce One, Inc. supported its SOX schema language until declaring bankruptcy in late 2004, the XSD1.0 specification was originally published in 2001, with a second edition following in 2004 to correct large numbers of errors. XSD1.1 became a W3C Recommendation in April 2012, technically, a schema is an abstract collection of metadata, consisting of a set of schema components, chiefly element and attribute declarations and complex and simple type definitions. These components are created by processing a collection of schema documents. In popular usage, however, a document is often referred to as a schema. Schema documents are organized by namespace, all the named schema components belong to a namespace. A schema document may include other schema documents for the same namespace, XML Schema Documents usually have the filename extension. xsd. A unique Internet Media Type is not yet registered for XSDs, so application/xml or text/xml should be used, the main components of a schema are, Element declarations, which define properties of elements. These include the element name and target namespace, an important property is the type of the element, which constrains what attributes and children the element can have. In XSD1.1, the type of the element may be conditional on the values of its attributes. An element may belong to a group, if element E is in the substitution group of element H, then wherever the schema permits H to appear. Element declarations may be global or local, allowing the name to be used for unrelated elements in different parts of an instance document
14.
Writing system
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A writing system is any conventional method of visually representing verbal communication. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a form of information storage. The processes of encoding and decoding writing systems involve shared understanding between writers and readers of the meaning behind the sets of characters that make up a script, the general attributes of writing systems can be placed into broad categories such as alphabets, syllabaries, or logographies. Any particular system can have attributes of more than one category, in the alphabetic category, there is a standard set of letters of consonants and vowels that encode based on the general principle that the letters represent speech sounds. In a syllabary, each symbol correlates to a syllable or mora, in a logography, each character represents a word, morpheme, or other semantic units. Other categories include abjads, which differ from alphabets in that vowels are not indicated, alphabets typically use a set of 20-to-35 symbols to fully express a language, whereas syllabaries can have 80-to-100, and logographies can have several hundreds of symbols. Systems will also enable the stringing together of these groupings in order to enable a full expression of the language. The reading step can be accomplished purely in the mind as an internal process, writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, which used pictograms, ideograms and other mnemonic symbols. Proto-writing lacked the ability to capture and express a range of thoughts. Soon after, writing provided a form of long distance communication. With the advent of publishing, it provided the medium for a form of mass communication. Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that a system is always associated with at least one spoken language. In contrast, visual representations such as drawings, paintings, and non-verbal items on maps, such as contour lines, are not language-related. Some other symbols, such as numerals and the ampersand, are not directly linked to any specific language, every human community possesses language, which many regard as an innate and defining condition of humanity. However, the development of writing systems, and the process by which they have supplanted traditional oral systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven, once established, writing systems generally change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Thus they often preserve features and expressions which are no current in the spoken language. One of the benefits of writing systems is that they can preserve a permanent record of information expressed in a language. In the examination of individual scripts, the study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines, thus, the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field
15.
XML editor
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An XML editor is a markup language editor with added functionality to facilitate the editing of XML. There are also graphical XML editors that hide the code in the background and present the content to the user in a more user-friendly format, approximating the rendered version or editing forms. This is helpful for situations where people who are not fluent in XML code need to enter information in XML based documents such as time sheets and expenditure reports. And even if the user is familiar with XML, use of such editors, other features of an editor designed specifically for editing XML might include element word completion and automatic appending of a closing tag whenever an opening tag is entered. These features can help to prevent typographically originating errors in the XML code, some XML editors provide for the ability to run an XSLT transform, or series of transforms, over a document. Some of the larger XML packages even offer XSLT debugging features, text XML editors generally provide features dealing with working with element tags. Syntax highlighting is a standard of any XML editor, that is. Element and attribute completion based on a DTD or schema is also available from many text XML editors, displaying line numbers is also a common and useful feature, as is providing the ability to reformat a document to conform to a particular style of indenture. Here is an example of edition in an editor with syntax coloring. They provide a more granular way to control the formatting of the file, to do low-level operations, graphical editors based on GUIs may be easier for some people to use than text editors, and may not require knowledge of XML syntax. When they are not WYSIWYG, they do not display the graphical end result of a document and they use DTDs or XML schemas and/or configuration files to map XML elements to graphical components. These kinds of editors are more useful for XML languages for data rather than for storing documents. Documents tend to be fairly free-form in structure, which tends to defy the generally rigid nature of many graphical editors and it is using this information to display the table based on this structuring information, in order to make editing easier. Schema and configuration files information can also be used to ensure that users do not create invalid documents. For instance, in an editor, it is possible to create a row with too many cells in the table, while this would not be possible with the above graphical user interface. WYSIWYG editors let people edit files directly with the represented by some form of graphical viewing rather than bare XML code. Often, WYSIWYG editors attempt to emulate the end result of some transform or CSS stylesheet application and this emulation may or may not be possible, depending on the transformation from XML into the end result. Naive use of a WYSIWYG editor can lead to the creation of documents that do not have the semantics of the particular XML language
16.
WYSIWYG
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WYSIWYG is an acronym for what you see is what you get. WYSIWYG implies a user interface allows the user to view something very similar to the end result while the document is being created. In general, WYSIWYG implies the ability to manipulate the layout of a document without having to type or remember names of layout commands. The actual meaning depends on the perspective, e. g. WYSIWYG also describes ways to manipulate 3D models in stereo-chemistry, computer-aided design. Modern software does a job of optimizing the screen display for a particular type of output. For example, a processor is optimized for output to a typical printer. The software often emulates the resolution of the printer in order to get as close as possible to WYSIWYG, however, that is not the main attraction of WYSIWYG, which is the ability of the user to be able to visualize what they are producing. In many situations, the differences between what the user sees and what the user gets are unimportant. A preview mode, in which the attempts to present a representation that is as close to the final result as possible. Before the adoption of WYSIWYG techniques, text appeared in editors using the standard typeface. Users were required to enter special non-printing control codes to indicate that text should be in boldface, italics. In this environment there was little distinction between text editors and word processors. These applications typically used an arbitrary markup language to define the codes/tags, each program had its own special way to format a document, and it was a difficult and time-consuming process to change from one word processor to another. The use of tags and codes remains popular today in some applications due to their ability to store complex formatting information. When the tags are made visible in the editor, however, they occupy space in the text and so disrupt the desired layout. The Alto monitor was designed so that one page of text could be seen and then printed on the first laser printers. Bravo was released commercially and the software included in the Xerox Star can be seen as a direct descendant of it. The first release, named BRUNO, ran on the HP1000 minicomputer taking advantage of HPs first bitmapped computer terminal the HP2640, BRUNO was then ported to the HP-3000 and re-released as HP Draw
17.
Word processor
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A word processor is an electronic device or computer software application, that performs the task of composing, editing, formatting, and printing of documents. Later models introduced innovations such as spell-checking programs, and improved formatting options, as of 2009 there were only two U. S. companies, Classic and AlphaSmart, which still made them. Many older machines, however, remain in use, since 2009, Sentinel has offered a machine described as a word processor, but it is more accurately a highly specialised microcomputer used for accounting and publishing. Most are powerful systems consisting of one or more programs that can produce a combination of images, graphics and text, the latter handled with type-setting capability. In its simplest form, a processor is like an Expensive Typewriter or Typewriter machine, with the improvement of being able to proofread. Microsoft Word is the most widely used word processing software according to a tracking system built into the software. Microsoft estimates that half a billion people use the Microsoft Office suite. Many other word processing applications exist, including WordPerfect and open source applications OpenOffice. org Writer, LibreOffice Writer, AbiWord, KWord, web-based word processors, such as Office Online or Google Docs are a relatively new category. Word processors evolved dramatically once they became software programs rather than dedicated machines and they can usefully be distinguished from text editors, the category of software they evolved from. A text editor is a program that is used for typing, copying, pasting, text editors do not format lines or pages. Text editors are now used mainly by programmers, website designers, computer system administrators and they are also useful when fast startup times, small file sizes, editing speed, and simplicity of operation are valued, and when formatting is unimportant. Due to their use in managing complex software projects, text editors can sometimes provide better facilities for managing large writing projects than a word processor. Word processing added to the editor the ability to control type style and size, to manage lines, to format documents into pages. Functions now taken for granted were added incrementally, sometimes by purchase of independent providers of add-on programs, spell checking, grammar checking and mail merge were some of the most popular add-ons for early word processors. Word processors are capable of hyphenation, and the management. More advanced features found in recent word processors include, Collaborative editing, allowing users to work on the same document. Management, editing, and positioning of visual material, and sometimes sound files, automatically managed cross-references to pages or notes. Version control of a document, permitting reconstruction of its evolution, styles, which automate consistent formatting of text body, titles, subtitles, highlighted text, and so on
18.
Usenet
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Usenet is a worldwide distributed discussion system available on computers. It was developed from the general-purpose UUCP dial-up network architecture, tom Truscott and Jim Ellis conceived the idea in 1979, and it was established in 1980. Users read and post messages to one or more categories, known as newsgroups, Usenet resembles a bulletin board system in many respects and is the precursor to Internet forums that are widely used today. Discussions are threaded, as with web forums and BBSs, though posts are stored on the server sequentially, the name comes from the term users network. One notable difference between a BBS or web forum and Usenet is the absence of a server and dedicated administrator. Usenet is distributed among a large, constantly changing conglomeration of servers that store, individual users may read messages from and post messages to a local server operated by a commercial usenet provider, their Internet service provider, university, employer, or their own server. Usenet has significant cultural importance in the world, having given rise to, or popularized, many widely recognized concepts and terms such as FAQ, flame. The name Usenet emphasized its creators hope that the USENIX organization would take a role in its operation. The articles that users post to Usenet are organized into topical categories called newsgroups, for instance, sci. math and sci. physics are within the sci. * hierarchy, for science. Or, talk. origins and talk. atheism are in the talk. * hierarchy, when a user subscribes to a newsgroup, the news client software keeps track of which articles that user has read. In most newsgroups, the majority of the articles are responses to some other article, the set of articles that can be traced to one single non-reply article is called a thread. Most modern newsreaders display the articles arranged into threads and subthreads, when a user posts an article, it is initially only available on that users news server. Each news server talks to one or more servers and exchanges articles with them. In this fashion, the article is copied from server to server, the later peer-to-peer networks operate on a similar principle, but for Usenet it is normally the sender, rather than the receiver, who initiates transfers. Usenet was designed under conditions when networks were much slower and not always available, many sites on the original Usenet network would connect only once or twice a day to batch-transfer messages in and out. This is largely because the POTS network was used for transfers. The format and transmission of Usenet articles is similar to that of Internet e-mail messages, today, Usenet has diminished in importance with respect to Internet forums, blogs and mailing lists. The groups in alt. binaries are still used for data transfer
19.
O'Reilly Media
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OReilly Media is an American media company established by Tim OReilly that publishes books and Web sites and produces conferences on computer technology topics. Their distinctive brand features a woodcut of an animal on many of their book covers, the company began in 1978 as a private consulting firm doing technical writing, based in the Cambridge, Massachusetts area. In 1984, it began to retain publishing rights on manuals created for Unix vendors, a few 70-page Nutshell Handbooks were well-received, but the focus remained on the consulting business until 1988. After a conference displaying OReillys preliminary Xlib manuals attracted significant attention, in 1992, OReilly Media published one of the first popular books about the Internet, Ed Krols Whole Internet Users Guide and Catalog. OReilly Media also created the first web portal, the Global Network Navigator in 1993, it was sold to AOL in 1995, GNN was the first site on the World Wide Web to feature paid advertising. The firm is now recognized for the conferences and summits it organizes. In 1997, OReilly launched The Perl Conference to raise the profile of the Perl programming language, many of the companys other software bestsellers were also on topics that were off the radar of the commercial software industry. In 1998, OReilly invited many of the leaders of projects to a meeting. Originally called the summit, the meeting became known as the Open Source Summit. The OReilly Open Source Convention is now one of OReillys flagship events, other key events include the Strata Conference on big data, the Velocity Conference on Web Performance and Operations, and FOO Camp. Past events of note include the OReilly Emerging Technology Conference and the Web 2.0 Summit, overall, OReilly describes its business not as publishing or conferences, but as changing the world by spreading the knowledge of innovators. In 2001, O’Reilly launched Safari Books Online, a subscription based service providing access to ebooks as a joint venture with the Pearson Technology Group. In 2013, O’Reilly acquired Pearson’s interest in the joint venture, in 2003, after the dot com bust, O’Reilly’s corporate goal was to reignite enthusiasm in the computer industry. Dale Dougherty, an executive at O’Reilly, coined the phrase Web 2.0 during a brainstorming session and this then became the name for the Web 2.0 Summit run by OReilly Media and TechWeb. In May 2006 CMP Media learned of an event called the Web 2.0 Half day conference. Concerned over their obligation to take reasonable means to enforce their trade and service marks CMP sent a cease and this attempt to restrict through legal mechanisms the use of the term was criticized by some. In 2004, the named the Maker Movement with the launch of Make. Today, the flagship Maker Faire in San Mateo, CA, other Faires around the world collectively draw millions
20.
FreeBSD
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FreeBSD is a free and open source Unix-like operating system descended from Research Unix via the Berkeley Software Distribution. Although for legal reasons FreeBSD cannot use the Unix trademark, it is a descendant of BSD. FreeBSD has similarities with Linux, with two differences in scope and licensing, FreeBSD maintains a complete operating system, i. e. The FreeBSD project includes a security team overseeing all software shipped in the base distribution, a wide range of additional third-party applications may be installed using the pkgng package management system or the FreeBSD Ports, or by directly compiling source code. FreeBSDs roots go back to the University of California, Berkeley, the university acquired a UNIX source license from AT&T. The BSD project was founded in 1976 by Bill Joy, but since BSD contained code from AT&T Unix, all recipients had to get a license from AT&T first in order to use BSD. In June 1989, Networking Release 1 or simply Net-1 – the first public version of BSD – was released, after releasing Net-1, Keith Bostic, a developer of BSD, suggested replacing all AT&T code with freely-redistributable code under the original BSD license. Work on replacing AT&T code began and, after 18 months, however, six files containing AT&T code remained in the kernel. The BSD developers decided to release the Networking Release 2 without those six files and they released 386BSD via an anonymous FTP server. The first version of FreeBSD was released on November 1993, in the early days of the projects inception, a company named Walnut Creek CDROM, upon the suggestion of the two FreeBSD developers, agreed to release the operating system on CD-ROM. By 1997, FreeBSD was Walnut Creeks most successful product, the company itself later renamed to The FreeBSD Mall and later iXSystems. Today, FreeBSD is used by many IT companies such as IBM, Nokia, Juniper Networks, certain parts of Apples Mac OS X operating system are based on FreeBSD. The PlayStation 3 operating system also borrows certain components from FreeBSD, netflix, WhatsApp, and FlightAware are also examples of big, successful and heavily network-oriented companies which are running FreeBSD. 386BSD and FreeBSD were both derived from 1992s BSD release, in January 1992, BSDi started to release BSD/386, later called BSD/OS, an operating system similar to FreeBSD and based on 1992s BSD release. AT&T filed a lawsuit against BSDi and alleged distribution of AT&T source code in violation of license agreements, the lawsuit was settled out of court and the exact terms were not all disclosed. The only one that became public was that BSDi would migrate their source base to the newer 4. 4BSD-Lite sources, Although not involved in the litigation, it was suggested to FreeBSD that they should also move to 4. 4BSD-Lite. FreeBSD2.0, which was released on November 1994, was the first version of FreeBSD without any code from AT&T, Desktop Although FreeBSD does not install the X Window System by default, it is available in the FreeBSD ports collection. A number of Desktop environments such as GNOME, KDE and Xfce, embedded systems Although it explicitly focuses on the IA-32 and x86-64 platforms, FreeBSD also supports others such as ARM, PowerPC and MIPS to a lesser degree
21.
KDE
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KDE is an international free software community that develops Free and Libre software. Well-known products include the Plasma Desktop, KDE Frameworks and a range of applications designed to run on modern Unix-like. It further provides tools and documentation for developers that enables them to write software and this supporting role makes KDE a central development hub and home for many popular applications and projects like Calligra Suite, Krita or digiKam. The Plasma Desktop, being one of the most recognized projects of KDE, is the desktop environment on many Linux distributions, such as openSUSE, Mageia, Chakra, Kubuntu. It was also the default desktop environment on PC-BSD, but was replaced with Lumina. The work of the KDE community can be measured in the following figures, more than 1800 contributors participate in developing KDE software. About 20 new developers contribute their first code each month, KDE Software consists of over 6 million lines of code. KDE Software is translated in over 108 languages, KDE Software is available on more than 114 official FTP mirrors in over 34 countries. A read-only mirror of all repositories can be found on Github, K Desktop Environment was founded in 1996 by Matthias Ettrich, who was then a student at the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen. At the time, he was troubled by certain aspects of the Unix desktop, among his concerns was that none of the applications looked, felt, or worked alike. He proposed the creation of not merely a set of applications but a desktop environment in which users could expect things to look, feel, and work consistently. He also wanted to make this easy to use, one of his complaints about desktop applications of the time was that it is too complicated for end user. His initial Usenet post spurred a lot of interest, and the KDE project was born, the name KDE was intended as a wordplay on the existing Common Desktop Environment, available for Unix systems. CDE is an X11-based user environment jointly developed by HP, IBM and it was supposed to be an intuitively easy-to-use desktop computer environment. The K was originally suggested to stand for Kool, but it was decided that the K should stand for nothing in particular. Therefore, the KDE initialism expanded to K Desktop Environment before it was dropped altogether in favor of KDE = Community due to the rebranding effort. The rebranding focused on de-emphasizing the desktop environment as just another product, what would have been previously known as KDE4 was split into three products, Plasma Workspaces, KDE Applications, and KDE Platform – bundled as KDE Software Compilation 4. As of today the name KDE no longer stands for K Desktop Environment, the financial and legal matters of KDE are handled by KDE e. V
22.
GNOME
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GNOME is a desktop environment composed of free and open-source software that runs on Linux and most BSD derivatives. GNOME was originally an acronym for GNU Network Object Model Environment, GNOME is developed by The GNOME Project, which is composed of both volunteers and paid contributors, the largest corporate contributor being Red Hat. GNOME is part of the GNU Project, since GNOME2, productivity has been a key focus for GNOME. To this end, the GNOME Human Interface Guidelines were created, all GNOME programs share a coherent style of graphical user interface but are not limited to the employment of the same GUI widgets. Rather, the design of the GNOME GUI is guided by concepts described in the GNOME HIG, following the HIG, developers can create high-quality, consistent, and usable GUI programs, as it addresses everything from GUI design to recommended pixel-based layout of widgets. During the GNOME2 rewrite, many settings deemed of value to the majority of users were removed. Or even configurable to be the union of all applications that anyones ever seen on any historical platform and it turns out that preferences have a cost. Of course, some also have important benefits – and can be crucial interface features. But each one has a price, and you have to consider its value. Many users and developers dont understand this, and end up with a lot of cost, GNOME aims to make and keep the desktop environment physically and cognitively ergonomic for people with disabilities. The GNOME HIG tries to take this account as far as possible. Particular utilities are registered with ATK using Assistive Technology Service Provider Interface, several assistive technology providers, including Orca screen reader and Dasher input method, were developed specifically for use with GNOME. GNOME Shell is the user interface of the GNOME desktop environment. It features a top bar holding an Activities button, a menu, a clock. The status menu holds various system status indicators, shortcuts to system settings, and session actions including logging out, switching users, locking the screen, clicking on the Activities button, moving the mouse to the top-left hot corner or pressing the Super key brings up the Overview. The Overview gives users an overview of current activities and provides a way to switch between windows and workspaces and to launch applications, the Dash on the left houses shortcuts to favorite applications and open windows and an application picker button to show a list of all installed applications. A search bar appears at the top and a workspace list for switching between workspaces is on the right, notifications appear from the bottom of the screen. Beginning with GNOME3.8, GNOME provides a Classic Mode for those who prefer a traditional desktop experience, GNOME3.24 will extend Wayland compatibility to NVidia drivers
23.
GTK+
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GTK+ is a cross-platform widget toolkit for creating graphical user interfaces. It is licensed under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License and it is one of the most popular toolkits for the Wayland and X11 windowing systems, along with Qt. The GTK+ library contains a set of graphical elements, version 3.13.3 contains 203 active and 37 deprecated widgets. GTK+ is a widget toolkit written in the C programming language, it uses GObject. While GTK+ is primarily targeted at windowing systems based upon X11 and Wayland, it works on other platforms, including Microsoft Windows, there is also an HTML5 back-end called Broadway. GTK+ can be configured to change the look of the widgets drawn, several display engines exist which try to emulate the look of the native widgets on the platform in use. Starting with version 2.8, released in 2005, GTK+ began the transition to using Cairo to render the majority of its control elements. Since GTK+ version 3.0, all the rendering is done using Cairo, GDK acts as a wrapper around the low-level functions provided by the underlying windowing and graphics systems. GDK is found in the /gdk directory, GSK is the rendering and scene graph API for GTK+. GSK lies between the control elements and the rendering. GSK was finally merged into GTK+ version 3.90 released March 2017, GSK is found in the /gsk directory. GtkInspector has been introduced with version 3.14, gtkInspector can only be invoked after installing the development package libgtk-3-dev/gtk+-devel. There are several GUI designers for GTK+, the following projects are active as of July 2011, Glade, supports GtkBuilder, which is a GTK+ built-in GUI description format. Gazpacho, GUI builder for the GTK+ toolkit written in Python Crow Designer, relies on its own GuiXml format, Stetic, part of MonoDevelop, oriented towards Gtk#. GtkBuilder allows user interfaces to be designed without writing code, the interface is described in an Extensible Markup Language file, which is then loaded at runtime and the objects created automatically. The Glade Interface Designer allows creation of the interface in a WYSIWYG manner. The description of the interface is independent from the programming language being used. A library written in one programming language may be used in another language if bindings are written, Gtk# is a set of. NET bindings for the GTK+ GUI toolkit and assorted GNOME libraries
24.
Linux kernel
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The Linux kernel is a monolithic Unix-like computer operating system kernel. The Android operating system for computers, smartphones and smartwatches is also based atop the Linux kernel. While the adoption on desktop computers is low, Linux-based operating systems dominate nearly every segment of computing. As of November 2016, all but two of the worlds 500 most powerful supercomputers run Linux, Linux rapidly attracted developers and users who adopted it as the kernel for other free software projects, notably the GNU Operating System. The Linux kernel has received contributions from nearly 12,000 programmers from more than 1,200 companies, the Linux kernel API, the application programming interface through which user programs interact with the kernel, is meant to be very stable and to not break userspace programs. As part of the functionality, device drivers control the hardware. However, the interface between the kernel and loadable kernel modules, unlike in many other kernels and operating systems, is not meant to be stable by design. The Linux kernel, developed by contributors worldwide, is a prominent example of free, day-to-day development discussions take place on the Linux kernel mailing list. The Linux kernel is released under the GNU General Public License version 2, in April 1991, Linus Torvalds, at the time a 21-year-old computer science student at the University of Helsinki, Finland, started working on some simple ideas for an operating system. He started with a task switcher in Intel 80386 assembly language, on 25 August 1991, Torvalds posted the following to comp. os. minix, a newsgroup on Usenet, Im doing a operating system for 386 AT clones. This has been brewing since April, and is starting to get ready, id like any feedback on things people like/dislike in minix, as my OS resembles it somewhat. Ive currently ported bash and gcc, and things seem to work and this implies that Ill get something practical within a few months Yes - its free of any minix code, and it has a multi-threaded fs. It is NOT portable, and it never will support anything other than AT-harddisks, as thats all I have. Its mostly in C, but most people wouldnt call what I write C and it uses every conceivable feature of the 386 I could find, as it was also a project to teach me about the 386. As already mentioned, it uses a MMU, for both paging and segmentation and its the segmentation that makes it REALLY386 dependent. Some of my C-files are almost as much assembler as C, unlike minix, I also happen to LIKE interrupts, so interrupts are handled without trying to hide the reason behind them. After that, many people contributed code to the project, early on, the MINIX community contributed code and ideas to the Linux kernel. At the time, the GNU Project had created many of the components required for an operating system
25.
XSLT
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XSLT1.0 is widely supported in modern web browsers. The original document is not changed, rather, a new document is created based on the content of an existing one, XSLT is a Turing-complete language, meaning it can specify any computation that can be performed by a computer. XSLT is influenced by functional languages, and by text-based pattern matching languages like SNOBOL and its most direct predecessor is DSSSL, which did for SGML what XSLT does for XML. XSLT1.0, XSLT was part of the World Wide Web Consortium s Extensible Stylesheet Language development effort of 1998–1999, some members of the standards committee that developed XSLT, including James Clark, the editor, had previously worked on DSSSL. XSLT1.0 was published as a W3C recommendation in November 1999, building on this is XSLT2.0, developed under the editorship of Michael Kay, which reached recommendation status in January 2007. As of 2010, however, XSLT1.0 is still widely used, XSLT3.0, is a W3C Candidate Recommendation as at February 2017. The working draft allows XML streaming which will be useful for processing documents too large to fit in memory, improvements to the modularity of large stylesheets. Improved handling of errors with, for example, an xsl. Functions can now be arguments to other functions, the XSLT processor takes one or more XML source documents, plus one or more XSLT stylesheets, and processes them to produce an output document. In contrast to widely implemented imperative programming languages like C, XSLT is declarative, the basic processing paradigm is pattern matching. The processor follows a fixed algorithm, first, assuming a stylesheet has already been read and prepared, the processor builds a source tree from the input XML document. It then processes the source trees root node, finds the best-matching template for that node in the stylesheet, and evaluates the templates contents. Instructions in each template generally direct the processor to either create nodes in the result tree, output derives from the result tree. Altova RaptorXML Server, cross-platform engine that supports XSLT1.0 and 2.0, most of XPath 3.0, allows command line operations and interfaces to COM, Java, and. NET and also includes a built-in HTTP server. Exselt, A streaming XSLT3.0 processor which runs on the. NET framework written in F#, fully supports the XSLT3.0 Draft, XPath 3.0 Recommendation and XDM3.0 Recommendation standards. Libxslt is a free library released under the MIT License that can be reused in commercial applications and it is based on libxml and implemented in C for speed and portability. It supports XSLT1.0 and EXSLT extensions. It can be used at the line via xsltproc which is included in macOS and many Linux distributions. The WebKit and Blink layout engines, used for example in the Safari and Chrome web browsers respectively, bindings exist for Python, Perl, Ruby, PHP, Common Lisp, Tcl, and C++
