1.
Dominican War of Independence
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The Dominican Independence War gave the Dominican Republic autonomy from Haiti on February 27,1844. Previously known as the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo, the class within the country overthrew the Spanish crown in 1821 before unifying with Haiti a year later. Since then, Dominican-Haitian relations have been unstable, at the beginning of the 1800s, the colony of Santo Domingo, which had once been the headquarters of Spanish power in the New World was in its worst decline. Spain during this time was embroiled in the Peninsular War in Europe, with Spains resources spread among its global interest, Santo Domingo became neglected. This period is referred to as the España Boba era, the population of the Spanish colony stood at approximately 80,000 with the vast majority being European descendants and free people of color. During this period in time the Spanish crown wielded little to no influence in the colony of Santo Domingo, some wealthy cattle ranchers had become leaders, and sought to bring control and order in the southeast of the colony where the law of machete ruled the land. Haiti had been by far the richest colony in the hemisphere and was known as the Pearl of the Antilles. The population of Haiti had a ratio of 8,1 compared to the Dominican population of 1822. On February 9,1822, Boyer formally entered the city, Santo Domingo. Boyer then proclaimed, I have not come into this city as a conqueror, the island was thus united from Cape Tiburon to Cape Samana in possession of one government. Eventually the Haitian government became extremely unpopular throughout the country, the Dominican population grew increasingly impatient with Haitis poor management and perceived incompetence, and the heavy taxation that was imposed on their side. The country was hit with an economic crisis after having been forced to pay a huge indemnity to France. A debt was accrued by Haiti in order to pay for their own independence from the European nation, in 1838 Juan Pablo Duarte, an educated nationalist, founded a resistance movement called La Trinitaria along with Matías Ramón Mella and Francisco del Rosario Sánchez. It was so named because its nine members had organized themselves into cells of three. Many recruits quickly came to the group, but it was discovered and forced to change its name to La Filantrópica, in 1843 the revolution made a breakthrough, they worked with a liberal Haitian party that overthrew President Jean-Pierre Boyer. However, the Trinitarios work in the overthrow gained the attention of Boyers replacement, Rivière-Hérard imprisoned some Trinitarios and forced Duarte to leave the island. While gone, Duarte searched for support in Colombia and Venezuela, in December 1843 the rebels told Duarte to return since they had to act quickly because they were afraid the Haitians had learned of their insurrection plans. On February 27,1844, thereafter celebrated as Dominican Independence Day, the Haitian garrison, taken by surprise and apparently betrayed by at least one of its sentries, retreated in disarray
2.
Dominican Restoration War
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The Dominican Restoration War was a guerrilla war between 1863 and 1865 in the Dominican Republic between nationalists and Spain, who had recolonized the country 17 years after its independence. It ended with a Dominican victory and the withdrawal of Spanish forces from the country, General Pedro Santana had wrested the presidency from Buenaventura Báez, who had bankrupted the nations treasury at great profit to himself. Faced with a crisis as well as the possibility of renewed attack from Haiti, Santana asked Spain to retake control of the country. Spain was wary at first, but with the U. S. occupied with its own war and unable to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. On March 18,1861, the annexation was announced, however, this act was not well received by everyone. On May 2, General José Contreras led a rebellion, and Francisco del Rosario Sánchez led an invasion from Haiti. Santana himself did not fare well under the new regime and he discovered that he was unable to wield the same amount of power under Spanish rule, and resigned his post in January 1862. This was especially problematic in the Cibao region in the north, a second factor was cultural, the new archbishop from Spain was appalled to find that a large number of Dominican couples were not married within the Catholic Church. This situation had come about due to a number of priests in the country, as well as poverty. Economically, the new government also imposed tariffs on non-Spanish goods and ships and attempted to establish a monopoly on tobacco. By late 1862, Spanish officials were beginning to fear the possibility of rebellion in the Cibao region, lastly, despite explicit statements to the contrary, rumors spread that Spain would re-institute slavery and ship black Dominicans to Cuba and Puerto Rico. Meanwhile, Spain had issued an order in January 1862 declaring its intent to regain the territories that Toussaint Louverture had taken for Haiti in 1794. In attempting to quell disturbances in Dominica, Spanish troops had evicted Haitians living in areas along the Haitian–Dominican border. Haitian president Fabre Geffrard gave up his position of neutrality and began to aid the Dominican rebels. On August 16,1863, a new group under the leadership of Gregorio Luperón and Santiago Rodríguez made a raid on the capital Santo Domingo. This action, known as El grito de Capotillo, was the beginning of the war. Town after town in Cibao joined the rebellion, and on September 3, the rebels established a new government the following day, with José Antonio Salcedo as president, and immediately denounced Santana, who was now leading the Spanish forces, as a traitor. Salcedo attempted to engage the U. S. for assistance, Spanish troops fought tolerably well, but almost 7,000 perished from malaria, yellow fever, and other illnesses
3.
Dominican Civil War
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The Dominican Civil War took place between April 24,1965, and September 3,1965, in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. It started when civilian and military supporters of constitutionally elected former President Juan Bosch overthrew acting President Donald Reid Cabral, allegations of foreign support for the rebels led to a US military intervention in the conflict, which later transformed into an Organization of American States occupation of the country. Elections were held in 1966, in the aftermath of which Joaquín Balaguer was elected into the presidential seat, later in the same year international troops departed from the country. On 19 November 1911, General Luis Tejera led a group of conspirators in an ambush on the carriage of Dominican President Ramón Cáceres. During the shootout, Cáceres was killed and Tejera wounded in the leg, in the ensuing power vacuum, General Alfredo Victoria, commander of the army, seized control and forced the Congress to elect his uncle, Eladio Victoria, as the new president. The general was widely suspected of bribing the Congress, and his uncle, the former president Horacio Vásquez soon returned from exile to lead his followers, the horacistas, in a popular uprising against the new government. The result was several years of political instability and civil war. U. S. mediation by the William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson administrations achieved only a short respite each time, a political deadlock in 1914 was broken after an ultimatum by Wilson telling Dominicans to choose a president or see the U. S. impose one. A provisional president was chosen, and later the same year relatively free elections put former president Juan Isidro Jimenes Pereyra back in power, to achieve a more broadly supported government, Jimenes named opposition individuals to his Cabinet. But this brought no peace and, with his former Secretary of War Desiderio Arias maneuvering to depose him and despite a U. S. offer of military aid against Arias, Wilson thus ordered the U. S. occupation of the Dominican Republic. Marines landed on May 16,1916, and had control of the two months later. The occupation regime kept most Dominican laws and institutions and largely pacified the general population, vigorous opposition to the occupation continued, nevertheless, and after World War I it increased in the U. S. as well. There, President Warren G. Harding, Wilsons successor, worked to put an end to the occupation, the U. S. governments rule ended in October 1922, and elections were held in March 1924. The victor was former president Horacio Vásquez Lajara, who had cooperated with the U. S and he was inaugurated on July 13, and the last U. S. forces left in September. Vásquez gave the six years of stable governance, in which political and civil rights were respected. A rebellion against President Horacio Vásquez broke out in February 1930 in Santiago, Rafael Trujillo secretly cut a deal with rebel leader Rafael Estrella Ureña, in return for Trujillo letting Estrella take power, Estrella would allow Trujillo to run for president in new elections. As the rebels marched toward Santo Domingo, Vásquez ordered Trujillo to suppress them, however, feigning neutrality, Trujillo kept his men in barracks, allowing Estrellas rebels to take the capital virtually unopposed. On March 3, Estrella was proclaimed acting president, with Trujillo confirmed as head of the police, as per their agreement, Trujillo became the presidential nominee of the newly formed Patriotic Coalition of Citizens, with Estrella as his running mate
4.
Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic
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The president is the commander in chief for the military. The primary missions are to defend the nation and protect the integrity of the country. The Dominican Republics military is second in size to Cubas in the Caribbean, the Air Force operates two main bases, one in southern region near Santo Domingo and one in the northern region of the country, the air force operates approximately 40 aircraft including helicopters. The Navy maintains three aging vessels which were donated from the United States, around 25 patrol crafts and interceptor boats, there is a counter-terrorist group formed by members of the three branches. This group is highly trained in counter-terrorism missions, the armed forces participate fully in counter-illegal drug trade efforts, for this task there is a taskforce known as DEPROSER 24/7. They also are active in efforts to control contraband and illegal immigration from Haiti to the Dominican Republic, the requisition taken, the schooner Maria Luisa,3 guns, the schooner March 30,3 guns, and the schooner Hope,3 guns. These men were skilled in handling machete and spear and his deputy commander was Brigadier General Antonio Duvergé. The other expeditionary army was the Northern Borders created to defend these borders, Dominican forces come to reach a great level of organization and efficiency. This body, purely police function disappears in 1917, leading to the creation of a National Guard,631 of Rear Admiral Thomas Snowden, who was at that time the military governor of Santo Domingo. After the US military occupation in 1924, Horacio Vásquez wins the elections of that same year. Among his first decisions, decrees the change of the Dominican National Police in National Brigade, a situation that continues until 17 May 1928, when new turn changes the name of the Army by Law No. 928, but basically inheriting a structure Police, who obeyed schemes imposition of public order demanded by the country at that time, over the years and already existing National Police created by decree No
5.
Dominican Navy
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The Navy of the Dominican Republic or Armada de Republica Dominicana, is one of the three branches of the Military of the Dominican Republic, together with the Army and the Air Force. After the Dominican Republic gained its independence from Haiti on February 27,1844, three schooners were commissioned for this, the Separación Dominicana, the María Chica and the Leonor. Even though, the three schooners had been in action since April 15 at the Battle of Tortuguero, where they were led by Adm. Juan Bautista Cambiaso and sank 6 Haitian ships. On the other side of the conflict, The Elite Navy Force Hombres Ranas under Commander Ramon Montes Arache, the other navy commanders were afraid of Hombres Ranas taking control over Las Calderas Naval Base. Base Naval de Las Calderas, located in Peravia Province, is the largest Naval Base, the Bahia Las Calderas Naval Shipyard is located here. This shipyard is responsible for the maintenance of naval units of the fleet, Military and civilian vessels, such as tugs, boats, barges, pilot boats have also been built at this site. Notes, The Dominican Navy has other vessels of less draft, in the Dominican Navy, the ranks are organized in Admirals Officers, Senior Officers, Junior Officers and Enlisted. The Dominican Naval Auxiliary Corps is a force that possesses its own resources to assist in search operations, rescue. This organization was created by the Executive by Decree 887-09 and it is composed of a group of business, the organization operates private boats, barges and aircraft made available to the Navy, in order to assist with non-military activities or public order and safety at sea. The Dominican Naval Auxiliary has a presence in the north, northeast, east, south, the Naval Commandos are the Special Operations component of the Dominican Navy and are only employed in emergency situations. The Naval Commandos are capable of undertaking unconventional warfare, hostage rescue, counter-terrorism, VBSS and are experts in handling explosives and they are also trained in parachuting, hand-to-hand combat, CQC and other key skills. The teams armament includes the M16 rifle with the M203 grenade launcher, the Colt M4A1, M14 rifle, Mossberg 500 shotgun, the team operates inflated zodiac boats, RHIBs, and night vision goggles, among other equipment. Some team members first saw action during Operation Iraqi Freedom, Dominican troops, comprising a battalion of special components of the Dominican Armed forces, were under constant mortar attacks but suffered no casualties. While in Iraq, the troops were serving in the Plus Ultra Brigade, raised in 2008 the MIC serves as the youngest arm of service in the Dominican Navy, which is tasked for amphibious and landing operations. One Marine Battalion is of service as of the present. It also the youngest Marine unit in all of Latin America, the Navy plans to build a ship called a Multipurpose Platform, which will be between 164 and 190 feet long. Its construction will be in Bahia de Las Calderas, at the Astilleros Navales Bahia de Las Calderas shipyard, there are also plans for the construction of a new building in Santo Domingo that will house the Chief of Staff. Military of the Dominican Republic Marina de Guerra Dominicana
6.
Dominican Air Force
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The Air Force of the Dominican Republic or Fuerza Aérea de República Dominicana, is one of the three branches of the Military of the Dominican Republic, together with the Army and the Navy. In 1932 the El Arma de Aviación del Ejército Nacional was formed as part of the Dominican Army, until 1942 only about a dozen aircraft were purchased. The service was renamed Compañia de Aviación del Ejército Nacional on October 26,1942, whilst granting base facilities to the United States during World War II the Dominican Republic received limited quantities of Lend-Lease military equipment. In 1947 a group of Dominican Republic exiles from Cuba tried to invade the country, but agents of the president managed to buy some Beaufighter and Mosquito aircraft from the United Kingdom. After signing the Rio Treaty 1947 the Dominican Republic received large quantities of aircraft, with this influx of aircraft the Compañia de Aviación expanded and became an independent service on January 15,1948, and was renamed Cuerpo de Aviación Militar Dominicana. It moved its headquarters to Base Aérea Presidente Trujillo, in the suburb of San Isidro. The Air Force underwent several changes during the 1950s, being known as the Dominican Military Aviation during 1952-55 and 1957–62. In 1962 it again became known as the Dominican Air Force, in 1952,25 Vampires and 32 North American P-51D were bought from Sweden but similar purchases from Canada and Japan were again blocked by the United States. By 1956 the Fuerza Aérea Dominicana had about 240 aircraft, during the next years most of the post-war equipment was at the end of its useful life. After the assassination of President Trujillo in 1961 funds for the Air Force decreased, during the next 15 years the number of aircraft in the Air Force declined again and only second-line material, such as training aircraft or helicopters, were acquired. In the early 1980s the Fuerza Aérea Dominicana had about 80 aircraft in five operational squadrons with most of the aircraft and helicopters operating out of San Isidro Air Base in Santo Domingo. On the 22nd of September 1998 Hurricane George struck San Isidro the main FAD base and destroyed one hangar and severely damaged another, destroying the aircraft in both hangars. The natural disaster saw the FAD new aircraft enter service such as eight ENAER T-35 Pilláns that were delivered in two batches, the first in November 1999 and the second in January 2000, during the same period three CASA 212-400 transport planes were ordered. In 2007 the Dominican Air Force announced that it will purchase 8 Embraer EMB314 Super Tucano aircraft from Brazil, by the end of 2008 the purchase was approved and the first two aircraft were delivered in 2009. The Dominican Air force recently acquired an EL/M-2106NG - Air Defense Search Radar - ADSR from Israel, in January 2015 the president of the Anti-narcotics agency announced that a Tecnam MMA will be acquired for maritime surveillance. Previous combat aircraft operated by the Air Force consisted of the P-51D Mustang, de Havilland Mosquito, PBY Catalina, B-17, A-37 Dragonfly, other retired training aircraft and helicopters were the BT-13 Valiant, T-6 Texan, Alouette II/III, Sikorsky H-19, and the Hughes OH-6. This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook document 2003 edition, World Aircraft information files Brightstar publishing London File 342 Sheet 1 Fuerza Aérea Dominicana
7.
Constanza, Dominican Republic
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Constanza is a town and municipality in La Vega Province, Dominican Republic. The name of Constanza has its origin in the legend the daughter of a local taino cacique who lived in the valley, in 1852, the British explorer and consul Sir Robert Hermann Schomburgk mentions the existence of a farm in the valley of Constanza. The town was founded in 1894. It has been incorporated into a municipality in the La Vega province on September 9,1907, on June 14,1959 a plane landed in an airstrip with more than forty rebels with the purpose of deposing the dictator Rafael Trujillo. They fought guerrillas in the mountains, and after two months against the Dominican Army managed to end the rebellion. Constanza is located at a height of 1220 meters in the middle of the Cordillera Central, annual average temperatures range from 41 °F to 68 °F, depending on altitude. The valley is 8 km long and 4 km wide, Constanza has an oceanic climate, with moderately warm and humid summers, and dry and mild winters, due to its tropical location and high elevation. The average annual temperature varies less than 10 °C in highlands to 18 °C in town. In summer, temperatures range between 25 °C to 27 °C during the day, and between 12 °C to 15 °C at night, in winter, the temperatures are between 21 and 24 °C at day, and 8 to 12 °C at night. The last time that Constanza had freezing temperatures was on 1958, snow can fall in the highest peaks of Valle Nuevo, but it is becoming a rare event and accumulation almost no longer occurs. The highest temperature recorded in town was 32.5 °C. The coldest temperature was –1 °C, recorded on February 6,1958, the local economy is based upon agriculture. It is known for its strawberries, peaches, apples, garlic, Constanza is also known for its wide variety of flowers, especially its roses. Constanza is known for its mountain climate despite being located in a tropical island. Local tourism is often during winter time. The nearby scientific reserve of Ebano Verde is the stronghold of the widest variety of flora, the mountains surrounding the valley of Constanza are covered in Hispaniolan pine forests. The town can be reached either by local airlines through the Constanza Airport or through local bus companies, now some two or three generations on their presence is still substantial in the area. They were attracted by the climate that goes on all year round
8.
Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic
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San Felipe de Puerto Plata, Puerto de Plata, often referred to as simply Puerto Plata, is the ninth-largest city in the Dominican Republic, and capital of the province of Puerto Plata. The city serves as one of the most important trading ports in the country, Puerto Plata is famous for resorts such as Playa Dorada and Costa Dorada, located east of San Felipe de Puerto Plata. There are a total of 100,000 hotel beds in the city, the only aerial tramway in the Caribbean is located in Puerto Plata, in which visitors can ride up to the Pico Isabel de Torres, a 793 meter high mountain within the city. The fortification Fortaleza San Felipe, which was built in the 16th century and served as a prison under Rafael Trujillos dictatorship, the amber museum, is also a well-known attraction in this city. La Isabela, a settlement built by Christopher Columbus, is located near Puerto Plata, in April 1563, the Spanish settlement became notorious when the English slave trader, Sir John Hawkins, brought 400 people he had abducted from Sierra Leone. Hawkins traded his victims with the Spanish for pearls, hides and sugars and this was the start of British involvement in the trans-Atlantic slave trade, in which 20 million people were forced into slavery. The city sits on land that rises abruptly from the sea making it almost completely visible from the port and it is bordered on the north by the Atlantic Ocean and to the south and southwest by the hill Isabel de Torres. The small bay around which the city was built provides a natural harbor, Puerto Plata is the largest city on the northern seaboard. Its subdivisions include, El Cupey, Maimón, Los Mameyes, Sabana Grande, El Toro, Tubagua, Yásica Abajo, the mountain, Isabel de Torres, is situated some 5 km to the southwest of the city of San Felipe. Geographically it forms part of the Cordillera Septentrional, reaching a height of 800 m above sea level. It is possible to drive to the top of the mountain by following the highway Don José Ginebra, the area surrounding Loma Isabel de Torres has been declared a National Monument with an area that covers approximately 20 km2. At the summit, there is a botanical garden covering about 7 acres. The most significant rivers are Camú del Norte, San Marcos, Corozo, Muñoz, Maimón, El Violón, San Piñez, Río Seco, as well as the streams Fú, Blanco, Caballo, Culebra and San Cristóbal. The Municipality of San Felipe de Puerto Plata is prominent in agrobusiness and tourism, other forms of income and economic development that serve to support some segments of the population include port management, sea vessel production, fishing, and textiles. The port has a significant impact in the national and provincial economy, the port frequently receives cruise ships as well as general bulk freighters. They export a variety of merchandise, including farm products. In 1508, Serrano and Diego Nicuëza were sent to the Spanish court to beg the king to treat their cities as the cities in their home country, on December 6,1508 the Spanish king granted the cities of Hispaniola their seal and their rights. The initials are for the King and Queen of the Spanish Empire, since the founding of La Isabela, the first village in the New World, on January 2,1494, Puerto Plata has been a town of firsts in the Americas
9.
Bell OH-58 Kiowa
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The Bell OH-58 Kiowa is a family of single-engine, single-rotor, military helicopters used for observation, utility, and direct fire support. Bell Helicopter manufactured the OH-58 for the United States Army based on its Model 206A JetRanger helicopter, the OH-58 has been in continuous use by the U. S. Army since 1969. The latest model, the OH-58D Kiowa Warrior, is operated in an armed reconnaissance role in support of ground troops. The OH-58 has been exported to Austria, Canada, Croatia, the Dominican Republic, Taiwan and it has also been produced under license in Australia. On 14 October 1960, the United States Navy asked 25 helicopter manufacturers on behalf of the Army for proposals for a Light Observation Helicopter, Bell Helicopter entered the competition along with 12 other manufacturers, including Hiller Aircraft and Hughes Tool Co. Bell submitted the D-250 design, which would be designated as the YHO-4, on 19 May 1961, Bell and Hiller were announced as winners of the design competition. Bell developed the D-250 design into the Model 206 aircraft, redesignated as YOH-4A in 1962, the first prototype flew on 8 December 1962. The YOH-4A also became known as the Ugly Duckling in comparison to the other contending aircraft, following a flyoff of the Bell, Hughes and Fairchild-Hiller prototypes, the Hughes OH-6 Cayuse was selected in May 1965. When the YOH-4A was rejected by the Army, Bell went about solving the problem of marketing the aircraft, in addition to the image problem, the helicopter lacked cargo space and only provided cramped quarters for the planned three passengers in the back. The solution was a fuselage redesigned to be more sleek and aesthetic, the redesigned aircraft was designated as the Model 206A, and Bell President Edwin J. Ducayet named it the JetRanger denoting an evolution from the popular Model 47J Ranger. In 1967, the Army reopened the LOH competition for bids because Hughes Tool Co, Aircraft Division could not meet the contractual production demands. Bell resubmitted for the program using the Bell 206A, Fairchild-Hiller failed to resubmit their bid with the YOH-5A, which they had successfully marketed as the FH-1100. In the end, Bell underbid Hughes to win the contract, following the U. S. Armys naming convention for helicopters, the OH-58A was named Kiowa in honor of the Native American tribe. In the 1970s, the U. S. Army began evaluating the need to improve the capabilities of their scout aircraft, the stated goals of the program included prototypes that would. The program was approved by the System Acquisition Review Council and the Army prepared for development to begin the next year. While no development occurred during the few years, the program survived as a requirement without funding. Both the UH-1 and the OH-58 were evaluated as NTSH candidates, the OH-58, on the other hand demonstrated a dramatic reduction in detectability with a Mast-Mounted Sight. The Armys decision to acquire the NTSH resulted in the Army Helicopter Improvement Program, both Bell Helicopter and Hughes Helicopters redesigned their scout aircraft to compete for the contract
10.
Robinson R22
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The Robinson R22 is a two-bladed, single-engine light utility helicopter manufactured by Robinson Helicopter Company. The two-seat R22 was designed in 1973 by Frank Robinson and has been in production since 1979, the majority of flight testing was performed at Zamperini Field in Torrance, California. Flight testing and certification was performed in the late 1970s by test pilot Joseph John Tym Tymczyszyn, the R22 has a very low inertia rotor system and the control inputs are operated directly by push rods with no hydraulic assistance. Thus, the controls are very sensitive and require a light touch to avoid over correcting. A student that masters an R22 generally does not have a problem transitioning to a heavier helicopter, tip weights were added to increase rotor inertia, but the small rotor limits weight. The R22 is a light, two-place, single reciprocating-engined helicopter with a semi-rigid two-bladed main rotor, the main rotor has a teetering hinge and two coning hinges. The tail rotor has only a teetering hinge, the normal production variant has skid landing gear. The Mariner version — which is no longer manufactured — provided floats, the basic structure is welded chromoly steel tubing. The forward fuselage is made of fiberglass and aluminum with a Plexiglas canopy, the tailcone and vertical and horizontal stabilizers are aluminum. It has a cabin with side-by-side seating for a pilot. The doors may be removed for flight, as is often done for photographic flights, interior cooling in high temperatures, the first version was produced as the R22, followed by the R22 HP, R22 Alpha, R22 Beta, and R22 Beta II. The R22 HP was fitted with a 160 bhp Lycoming O-320-B2C engine, the R22 Beta added an engine speed governor, rotor brake, and auxiliary fuel tank. The battery was moved from below the instrument cluster to the compartment for better balance. The R22 has been offered as an instrument trainer version, with fixed floats as the R22 Mariner, and other special configurations for police work, electronic news gathering. The R22 Beta II received a larger Lycoming O-360 engine de-rated for sea level operation and it allows greater altitudes for hovering in and out of ground effect. The R22 Beta II also made the engine speed governor standard, only the basic skid style is currently being sold. Instead of floor-mounted cyclic sticks between the knees, the R22 uses a unique teetering T-Bar control connected to a stick that emerges from the console between the seats. This makes it easier for occupants to enter and exit the cabin, the teetering bar has a hand grip on both sides that hangs down between the pilots legs
11.
Robinson R44
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The Robinson R44 is a four-seat light helicopter produced by Robinson Helicopter Company since 1992. Based on the companys two-seat Robinson R22, the R44 features hydraulically assisted flight controls and it was first flown on 31 March 1990 and received FAA certification in December 1992, with the first delivery in February 1993. The R44 has been the worlds best-selling general aviation helicopter every year since 1999 and it is the most-produced GA aircraft of the 21st century, with 5,805 deliveries from 2000-2017. The R44 is a helicopter with a semi-rigid two-bladed main rotor, a two-bladed tail rotor. It has a cabin with two rows of side-by-side seating for a pilot and three passengers. Tail rotor direction of rotation on the R44 is reversed compared to the R22 for improved yaw control authority, on the R44 the advancing blade is on the bottom. Designed during the 1980s by Frank Robinson and his staff of engineers, the R44 Astro was awarded an FAA Type Certificate in December 1992, with the first deliveries taking place in January 1993. The first R44 Newscopter featuring onboard electronic news gathering equipment was delivered in 1998, in January 2000, Robinson introduced the Raven with hydraulically assisted controls and adjustable pedals. In July 2002, Robinson introduced the Raven II featuring a powerful, fuel-injected engine and wider blades, allowing a higher gross weight. Robinson produced 186 R44s in 2014, during November 2015 Robinson announced the Cadet, a Raven I with a cargo area instead of the two back seats, a slightly less powerful engine and a more efficient muffler. The aircraft is operated by private individuals, companies and flying clubs. In 1997, a Robinson R44 was piloted by Jennifer Murray for the first helicopter circumnavigation of the world by a woman, as of 2014, an R44 holds the piston speed record of 227 km/h. In 2009, the company began installing bladder-type fuel tanks in all new R44 helicopters, the company recommended that the change should be done as soon as practical, but no later than 31 December 2014. The compliance date was moved to 30 April 2013. Preliminary analysis by the ATSB of the NTSBs accident database found a similar statistic, the ATSB recommended that the Australian Civil Aviation Safety Authority take further action to urge R44 owners to fit bladder-type tanks. This was the largest-scale grounding of any aircraft in New Zealands history, the CAA determined through laboratory tests that the rotor blade had failed due to overload during the crash and was not the cause of the accident and the fleet was ungrounded on 24 February 2015. The CAA left the Airworthiness Directive requiring repetitive inspections in place, following the grounding in New Zealand, Australias Civil Aviation Safety Authority also grounded R44 Helicopters with the same rotor blades. Data from Robinson R44 Raven II Pilots Operating Handbook and FAA approved rotorcraft flight manual, Main tank capacity,31.6 US gallons Main tank usable fuel,30.6 US gallons Auxiliary tank capacity,18.5 US gallons Auxiliary tank usable fuel,18
12.
Piper PA-28 Cherokee
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The Piper PA-28 Cherokee is a family of light aircraft built by Piper Aircraft and designed for flight training, air taxi, and personal use. The PA-28 family of aircraft are all-metal, unpressurized, single-engine, piston-powered airplanes with low-mounted wings and they have a single door on the copilot side, which is entered by stepping on the wing. The first PA-28 received its type certificate from the Federal Aviation Administration in 1960, current models are the Warrior, Arrow and the Archer TX and LX. The Archer was discontinued in 2009, but with investment from new company ownership, the PA-28 series competes with the high-winged Cessna 172, and the similarly low-winged Grumman American AA-5 series and Beechcraft Musketeer designs. The Piper PA-32 is a larger, six-seat variant of the PA-28, the PA-32R Saratoga variant was in production until 2009. The original Cherokees were the Cherokee 150 and Cherokee 160, which started production in 1961, in 1962, Piper added the Cherokee 180 powered by a 180-horsepower Lycoming O-360 engine. The extra power made it practical to fly with all four seats filled, in 1968, the cockpit was modified to replace the push-pull style engine throttle controls with quadrant levers. In addition, a window was added to each side. Piper continued to expand the line rapidly, in 1963, the company introduced the even more powerful Cherokee 235, which competed favorably with the Cessna 182 Skylane for load-carrying capability. The Cherokee 235 featured a Lycoming O-540 engine derated to 235 horsepower and it included tip tanks of 17-gallon capacity each, bringing the total fuel capacity of the Cherokee 235 to 84 gallons. The aircraft had its fuselage stretched in 1973 giving much more leg room in the rear, the stabilator area was increased as well. In 1973 the marketing name was changed from 235 to Charger, in 1974 it was changed again to Pathfinder. Production of the Pathfinder continued until 1977, there was no 1978 model year. In 1979 the aircraft was given the Piper tapered wing and the name was changed again, in 1964, the company filled in the bottom end of the line with the Cherokee 140, which was designed for training, and initially shipped with only two seats. The PA-28-140 engine was modified shortly after its introduction to produce 150 horsepower. In 1967, Piper introduced the PA-28R-180 Cherokee Arrow and this aircraft featured a constant-speed propeller, retractable landing gear and was powered by a 180-horsepower Lycoming IO-360-B1E engine. A 200-hp version powered by a Lycoming IO-360-C1C was offered as a beginning in 1969 and designated the PA-28R-200. At the time the Arrow was introduced, Piper removed the Cherokee 150, the Arrow II came out in 1972, featuring a five-inch fuselage stretch to increase legroom for the rear-seat passengers
13.
Cessna 206
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The family was originally developed from the popular retractable-gear Cessna 210 and is produced by Cessna. The lines combination of an engine, rugged construction and a large cabin has made these aircraft popular bush planes. Cessna describes the 206 as the sport-utility vehicle of the air and these airplanes are also used for aerial photography, skydiving and other utility purposes. They can also be equipped with floats, amphibious floats and skis, alternatively, they can be fitted with luxury appointments for use as a personal air transport. From 1962 to 2006 Cessna produced 8,509 aircraft in the 205,206 and 207 variants, the Cessna 205 was introduced late in 1962 as a 1963 model year. The six-seat aircraft was essentially a Cessna 210 with fixed landing gear and with changes to the crew and passenger door arrangement, the 205 retained the early 210’s engine cowling bulge, originally where the 210 stowed its nosewheel on retraction. This distinctive cowling was more streamlined on the later Cessna 206. The 205 is powered by a Continental IO-470-S engine producing 260 hp, the 205 was produced in only two model years -1963 and 1964 before being replaced in production by the Cessna 206. A total of 576 Cessna 205s were produced, the six-seat Model 206 was introduced as a 1964 model and was built until 1986, when Cessna halted production of its single-engined product line. It was then re-introduced in 1998 and remains in production in 2013, there were many sub-variants, including the U206, P206 all certified to CAR3 standards and later 206H certified to FAR Part 23. The total Model 206 production between 1964 and 2004 was 6,581 aircraft, the original 1964 model was the U206, powered by a 285 hp Continental IO-520-A. The “U” designation indicated “utility” and this model was equipped with a side door. There was a TU206 turbocharged version powered by the Continental TSIO-520-C engine producing 285 hp, after 1967 the turbo TU206 was powered by a TSIO-520-F of 300 hp. The extra 15 hp was obtained by turning the engine at a higher rpm, due to the large propeller diameter, the additional engine speed meant that the propeller tips were pushed to transonic speeds, which required much more power. From 1964 to 1969 the U206 was known as the “Super Skywagon”, from 1970 it was named the “Stationair”, a contraction of “Station Wagon of the Air”, which is a good description of the aircrafts intended role. Sub-variants were designated U206 to U206G, in 1977 the U206 had its engine upgraded to a Continental IO-520-F of 300 hp and the TU206 powerplant was changed to the TSIO-520-M producing 310 hp. Production of all versions of the U206 was halted in 1986 when Cessna stopped manufacturing all piston-engined aircraft, a total of 5,208 U206s had been produced. The P206 was added to the line in 1965, in this case the “P” stood for “people”, as the P206 had passenger doors similar to the Cessna 210 from which it was derived, on both sides
14.
M16 rifle
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The M16 rifle, officially designated Rifle, Caliber 5.56 mm, M16, is a United States military adaptation of the Armalite AR-15 rifle. The original M16 was a select-fire,5. 56×45mm rifle with a 20-round magazine, in 1964, the M16 entered American military service and the following year was deployed for jungle warfare operations during the Vietnam War. In 1969, the M16A1 replaced the M14 rifle to become the U. S. militarys standard service rifle, the M16A1 improvements include a bolt-assist, chrome plated bore and a new 30-round magazine. In 1983, the USMC adopted the M16A2 rifle and the U. S. Army adopted it in 1986, the M16A2 fires the improved 5. Adopted in 1998, the M16A4 is the generation of the M16 series. It is equipped with a carrying handle and Picatinny rail for mounting optics. The M16 has also widely adopted by other militaries around the world. Total worldwide production of M16s has been approximately 8 million, making it the most-produced firearm of its 5.56 mm caliber. The U. S. Army has largely replaced the M16 in combat units with the shorter and lighter M4 carbine, however, early experiments with select-fire versions of the M1 Garand proved disappointing. During the Korean War, the select-fire M2 carbine largely replaced the gun in US service. However, combat experience suggested that the.30 Carbine round was under-powered, American weapons designers concluded that an intermediate round was necessary, and recommended a small-caliber, high-velocity cartridge. This culminated in the development of the 7. 62×51mm NATO cartridge, the US also adopted the M60 general purpose machine gun. Its NATO partners adopted the FN FAL and HK G3 rifles, as well as the FN MAG, the first confrontations between the AK-47 and the M14 came in the early part of the Vietnam War. Battlefield reports indicated that the M14 was uncontrollable in full-auto and that soldiers could not carry enough ammo to maintain fire superiority over the AK-47, and, while the M2 carbine offered a high rate of fire, it was under-powered and ultimately outclassed by the AK-47. A replacement was needed, a medium between the traditional preference for high-powered rifles such as the M14, and the firepower of the M2 Carbine. As a result, the Army was forced to reconsider a 1957 request by General Willard G. Wyman, continental Army Command to develop a.223 caliber select-fire rifle weighing 6 lb when loaded with a 20-round magazine. This request ultimately resulted in the development of a version of the Armalite AR-10. However, despite overwhelming evidence that the AR-15 could bring more firepower to bear than the M14, in January 1963, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara concluded that the AR-15 was the superior weapon system and ordered a halt to M14 production
15.
M4 carbine
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The M4 carbine is a shorter and lighter variant of the M16A2 assault rifle. The M4 is a 5. 56×45mm NATO, air-cooled, direct impingement gas-operated, magazine-fed carbine and it has a 14.5 in barrel and a telescoping stock. The M4 carbine is used by the United States Armed Forces and is replacing the M16 rifle in most United States Army. The M4 is also capable of mounting the M203 and M320 grenade launchers, the distinctive step in its barrel is for mounting the M203 with the standard hardware. The M4 is capable of firing in semi-automatic and three-round burst modes, while the M4A1 is capable of firing in semi-auto, following the adoption of the M16 rifle, carbine variants were also adopted for close quarters operations. The CAR-15 family of weapons served through the Vietnam War, nevertheless, as a short-range weapon it is quite adequate and thus, its caliber, is classed as a submachine gun. In 1988, Colt began work on a new design called the XM4 combining the best features of the Colt Commando. The XM4 was given a longer 14. 5-inch barrel with the M16A2s 1,7 inch rifle twist, the extended barrel improved the XM4s ballistics, reduced muzzle blast and gave the XM4 the ability to mount a bayonet and the M203 grenade launcher. The XM4 was also given the M16A2s improved rear sight and cartridge deflector, in 1994, the U. S. military officially accepted the XM4 into service as the M4 carbine to replace M16A2s in certain roles. The United States Marine Corps has ordered its officers and staff non-commissioned officers to carry the M4 carbine instead of the M9 handgun and this is in keeping with the Marine Corps doctrine, Every Marine a rifleman. The Marine Corps, however, chose the full-sized M16A4 over the M4 as its infantry rifle. United States Navy corpsmen E5 and below are also issued M4s instead of the M9, as of 2013, the U. S. Marine Corps had 80,000 M4 carbines in their inventory. By July 2015, major Marine Corps commands were endorsing switching to the M4 over the M16A4 as the infantry rifle. Approval of the change would move the M16 to support personnel, in October 2015, Commandant Robert Neller formally approved of making the M4 carbine the primary weapon for all infantry battalions, security forces, and supporting schools in the U. S. Marine Corps. The switch is to begin in early 2016 and be completed by September 2016, on 1 July 2009, the U. S. Army took complete ownership of the M4 design. This allowed companies other than Colt to compete with their own M4 designs, the Army planned on fielding the last of its M4 requirement in 2010. On 30 October 2009, Army weapons officials proposed a series of changes to the M4 to Congress, requested changes included an electronic round counter that records the number of shots fired, a heavier barrel, and possibly replacing the direct impingement system with a gas piston system. The benefits of this, however, have come under scrutiny from both the military and civilian firearms community. S
16.
Colt AR-15
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The Colt AR-15 is a lightweight,5. 56×45mm, magazine-fed, air-cooled semi-automatic, gas-operated rifle with a rotating bolt. It was designed to be manufactured with the use of aluminum alloys. Introduced in 1964, Colt has made many different types of AR-15 rifle and carbine models, including the AR-15, AR-15A2, AR-15A3, Sporter, HBAR, Government, Target, Match and it is based on the ArmaLite AR-15 rifle, a select-fire weapon intended for military sales. In 1959, ArmaLite sold the design to Colt due to financial difficulties, after some modifications, the rifle eventually became the United States military M16 rifle. Shortly thereafter, Colt began to make semi-automatic versions for civilian sales, the term AR-15 is a Colt registered trademark, which they use to denote only the semi-automatic rifle versions available for civilian and law enforcement sales. The term AR-15 signifies Armalite rifle, design 15, other manufacturers make AR-15 clones and variants marketed under separate designations, although these are frequently referred to as AR-15s. This article discusses the semiautomatic version manufactured by Colt, the Colt AR-15 is based on the 5.56 mm ArmaLite AR-15 rifle, which is a smaller lighter version of the 7.62 mm ArmaLite AR-10. Both of these rifles were designed by Eugene Stoner, Robert Fremont, in 1959, ArmaLite sold its rights to the AR-10 and AR-15 to Colt. After a Far East tour, Colt made its first sale of Colt made ArmaLite AR-15 rifles to Malaya on September 30,1959, Colt manufactured their first batch of 300 select-fire Colt ArmaLite AR-15 Model 01 rifles in December 1959. Colt marketed the Colt made ArmaLite AR-15 rifle to various military services around the world, after modifications, the new redesigned rifle was adopted by the United States military as the M16 rifle. Most Colt ArmaLite AR-15 rifles in U. S. service have long ago been upgraded to M16 rifle configuration, Colt continued to use the AR-15 trademark for its semi-automatic variants that were marketed to civilian and law-enforcement customers. The original AR-15 was a lightweight weapon, weighing less than 6 pounds with empty magazine. Later heavy-barrel versions of the civilian AR-15 can weigh upwards of 8.5 lb, patent 2,951,424 describes the cycling mechanism used in the original AR-15. The bolt carrier acts as a cylinder and the bolt itself acts as a stationary piston. This mechanism is called direct gas impingement, although it differs from prior gas systems. Stoner did not consider the AR-15 to be a direct impingement mechanism. Gas is tapped from the barrel as the bullet moves past a gas port located above the front sight base. The gas expands into the port and down a gas tube, here, the gas tube protrudes into a gas key, which accepts the gas and funnels it into the bolt carrier
17.
Vz. 58
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While externally the vz.58 resembles the Soviet AK-47, it is a different design based on a short-stroke gas piston. It shares no parts with Kalashnikov rifles, including the magazine, development of the weapon began in 1956, leading the project was chief engineer Jiří Čermák assigned to the Konstrukta Brno facility in the city of Brno. The Soviet Union had begun insisting that the Warsaw Pact forces standardize on a common ammunition, another recent contender is the ČZW-556 assault rifle and ČZW-762 light machine gun which both use lever-delayed blowback which has more reliable accuracy and performance over the gas operation. In 2011, the Czech army started replacing vz.58 with CZ-805 BREN, while vz.58 still remains the main assault rifle of the Slovak army, the Slovak army has also been eyeing CZ-805 as a possible replacement to the aging vz.58 rifles. The vz.58 does not have a gas regulator and the force of the gas pressure is exerted on the piston head. The piston is driven back only 19 mm when a shoulder on the piston rod butts against the seating, there is a light return spring held between the piston shoulder and the seating which returns the piston to its forward position. The gas cylinder is vented after the piston has traveled back 16 mm, the entire piston rod is chromium-plated to prevent fouling. The weapon is unlocked by the short stroke of the piston rod as it strikes the bolt carrier. After 22 mm of unrestricted travel, a surface on the bolt carrier moves under the breech locking piece and lifts it up. The breech locking piece swings up and this movement provides the leverage required for primary extraction, the breech block is then carried rearwards extracting the empty cartridge casing from the chamber. A fixed ejector passes through a cut in the underside of the bolt. The spring-loaded extractor and firing pin are both housed inside the lock, while the fixed ejector is located at the base of the receiver. At the open end of the striker, a plate is welded and this hammer-striker enters the hollow bolt and drives a fully floating firing pin forward with each shot. The rifle uses a mechanism with a lever-type fire mode selector. The forward setting of the selector lever disables the disconnector, the rifle also has an internal safety, which prevents the weapon from discharging when out of battery. The right striker-hammer catch disables the striker-hammer, and it can only be released by pulling the charging handle back, the weapon is fed from a detachable box magazine with a 30-round cartridge capacity and made from a lightweight alloy. When the last round from the magazine is fired, the bolt will remain locked open on the bolt catch, the magazine release tab is located at the base of the receiver on the left side, behind the magazine well. The bolt carrier has a guide rail used for reloading from 10-round stripper clips
18.
Czech Republic
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The Czech Republic, also known as Czechia, is a nation state in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west, Austria to the south, Slovakia to the east and Poland to the northeast. The Czech Republic covers an area of 78,866 square kilometres with mostly temperate continental climate and it is a unitary parliamentary republic, has 10.5 million inhabitants and the capital and largest city is Prague, with over 1.2 million residents. The Czech Republic includes the territories of Bohemia, Moravia. The Czech state was formed in the late 9th century as the Duchy of Bohemia under the Great Moravian Empire, after the fall of the Empire in 907, the centre of power transferred from Moravia to Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty. In 1002, the duchy was formally recognized as part of the Holy Roman Empire, becoming the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1198 and reaching its greatest territorial extent in the 14th century. Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the whole Crown of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy alongside the Archduchy of Austria, the Protestant Bohemian Revolt against the Catholic Habsburgs led to the Thirty Years War. After the Battle of the White Mountain, the Habsburgs consolidated their rule, reimposed Roman Catholicism, the Czech part of Czechoslovakia was occupied by Germany in World War II, and was liberated in 1945 by the armies of the Soviet Union and the United States. The Czech country lost the majority of its German-speaking inhabitants after they were expelled following the war, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia won the 1946 elections. Following the 1948 coup détat, Czechoslovakia became a one-party communist state under Soviet influence, in 1968, increasing dissatisfaction with the regime culminated in a reform movement known as the Prague Spring, which ended in a Soviet-led invasion. Czechoslovakia remained occupied until the 1989 Velvet Revolution, when the communist regime collapsed, on 6 March 1990, the Czech Socialistic Republic was renamed to the Czech Republic. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully dissolved, with its constituent states becoming the independent states of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. The Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004, it is a member of the United Nations, the OECD, the OSCE, and it is a developed country with an advanced, high income economy and high living standards. The UNDP ranks the country 14th in inequality-adjusted human development, the Czech Republic also ranks as the 6th most peaceful country, while achieving strong performance in democratic governance. It has the lowest unemployment rate in the European Union, the traditional English name Bohemia derives from Latin Boiohaemum, which means home of the Boii. The current name comes from the endonym Čech, spelled Cžech until the reform in 1842. The name comes from the Slavic tribe and, according to legend, their leader Čech, the etymology of the word Čech can be traced back to the Proto-Slavic root *čel-, meaning member of the people, kinsman, thus making it cognate to the Czech word člověk. The country has traditionally divided into three lands, namely Bohemia in the west, Moravia in the southeast, and Czech Silesia in the northeast. Following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia at the end of 1992, the Czech part of the former nation found itself without a common single-word geographical name in English, the name Czechia /ˈtʃɛkiə/ was recommended by the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs
19.
AK-47
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The AK-47, or AK as it is officially known is a selective-fire, gas-operated 7. 62×39 mm assault rifle, developed in the Soviet Union by Mikhail Kalashnikov. It is officially known in the Soviet documentation as Avtomat Kalashnikova, Design work on the AK-47 began in the last year of World War II. In 1946, the AK-47 was presented for military trials, and in 1948. An early development of the design was the AKS, which was equipped with a metal shoulder stock. In the spring of 1949, the AK-47 was officially accepted by the Soviet Armed Forces, as of 2004, Of the estimated 500 million firearms worldwide, approximately 100 million belong to the Kalashnikov family, three-quarters of which are AK-47s. During World War II, the Sturmgewehr 44 assault rifle used by German forces made an impression on their Soviet counterparts. The select-fire rifle was chambered for a new cartridge, the 7. 92×33mm Kurz. On 15 July 1943, a model of the Sturmgewehr was demonstrated before the Peoples Commissariat of Arms of the USSR. The Soviets soon developed the 7. 62×39mm M43 cartridge, the semi-automatic SKS carbine, shortly after World War II, the Soviets developed the AK-47 assault rifle, which would quickly replace the SKS in Soviet service. Mikhail Kalashnikov began his career as a designer in 1941, while recuperating from a shoulder wound. I was a soldier, and I created a gun for a soldier. It was called an Avtomat Kalashnikova, the weapon of Kalashnikov—AK—and it carried the date of its first manufacture,1947. The AK-47 is best described as a hybrid of previous rifle technology innovations, Kalashnikov decided to design an automatic rifle combining the best features of the American M1 and the German StG44. Kalashnikovs team had access to weapons and had no need to reinvent the wheel. Kalashnikov himself observed, A lot of Russian Army soldiers ask me how one can become a constructor, each designer seems to have his own paths, his own successes and failures. But one thing is clear, before attempting to create something new, I myself have had many experiences confirming this to be so. There are claims about Kalashnikov copying other designs, like Bulkins TKB-415 or Simonovs AVS-31, Kalashnikov started work on a submachine gun design in 1942 and with a light machine gun in 1943. Early in 1944, Kalashnikov was given some M19437. 62×39mm cartridges and it was suggested to him that this new weapon might well lead to greater things, and he undertook work on the new rifle
20.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
21.
IMI Galil
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The Galil is a family of Israeli small arms designed by Yisrael Galili and Yaacov Lior in the late 1960s and produced by Israel Military Industries Ltd of Ramat HaSharon. The rifle design borrows heavily from the RK-62 and has a modified gas diversion system similar to the RK-62 to reduce the recoil of the making it easier to fire especially in automatic mode. It is named one of its inventors, Yisrael Galili. The Galil series of weapons is in use with military and police forces in over 25 countries, there are four basic configurations of the Galil, the standard-length rifle, a carbine variant known as the SAR, a compact MAR version, and an ARM light machine gun. A lighter-weight version of the Galil is currently in production, called the Galil ACE, in the late 1950s, the Israel Defense Forces adopted the FN FAL battle rifle chambered for the 7. 62×51mm cartridge. Two models were fielded, the Aleph individual weapon and the Beth squad automatic weapon and it first saw major combat with the Israelis during the Six-Day War in 1967. Furthermore, it was a long and bulky weapon and its length and malfunctions became so much of an issue that during the 1973 Yom Kippur War, some soldiers armed themselves with an Uzi submachine gun with an extended barrel. During the Six-Day War, the Israelis captured thousands of AK-47 assault rifles, because of this, the IDF began the process of procuring a new automatic rifle that would offer the same benefits of low-maintenance as the AK-47 but with the accuracy of the M16 and FAL. Several weapons were submitted for the deal of becoming the Israeli Armys standard-issue assault rifle, America offered the M16A1 and Stoner 63 series. The AK-47 design was considered, but difficulty in procurement limited its viability. One indigenous design was offered by Uziel Gal, creator of the Uzi submachine gun, another indigenous design was offered by Yisrael Galil. His rifle was based on the Finnish RK62, while the AK-47 and RK62 fired the 7. 62×39 mm Soviet round, Galilis rifle fired the smaller 5. 56×45mm M193 55-grain round. At the time, the United States was replacing France as Israels main partner, the U. S. would not supply Russian ammunition, so the design of the gun was altered to use the American cartridge. To accommodate the round, the Kalashnikov-type rifles 4.2 mm gas hole was reduced to 1.8 mm. Tests conducted from the end of the 1960s to the early 1970s led to Galilis rifle emerging as the winner and it was named the Galil after its designer and formally adopted as the Israeli Armys next assault rifle in 1972 to replace the FN FAL. However, issuing of the Galil was delayed by the onset of the Yom Kippur War in 1973. The Galil was the standard service-rifle of Israel from the mid-1970s to the early 1990s, around 1975, M16A1s from the U. S. Military Aid Program began to arrive for Israel, which were integrated into IDF service but were mostly relegated to NCOs
22.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
23.
Heckler & Koch G3
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The G3 is a 7. 62×51mm NATO battle rifle developed in 1956 by the German armament manufacturer Heckler & Koch GmbH in collaboration with the Spanish state-owned design and development agency CETME. It was realized that with careful attention to the mechanical ratios, the resultant weapon, the Gerät 06H was assigned the designation StG45 but was not produced in any significant numbers and the war ended before the first production rifles were completed. The German technicians involved in developing the StG45 were taken to work in France at CEAM, the StG45 mechanism was modified by Ludwig Vorgrimler and Theodor Löffler at the Mulhouse facility between 1946 and 1949. Three versions were made, chambered in.30 Carbine,7. 92×33 mm Kurz as well as the experimental 7. 65×35 mm French short cartridge developed by Cartoucherie de Valence in 1948, a 7. 5×38 mm cartridge using a partial aluminium bullet was abandoned in 1947. Löfflers design, designated the Carabine Mitrailleuse Modèle 1950, was retained for trials among 12 different prototypes designed by CEAM, MAC, engaged in the Indochina War and being the second NATO contributor, France canceled the adoption of these new weapons for financial reasons. In 1950, Vorgrimler moved to Spain where he created the LV-50 rifle chambered for the Kurz cartridge and later, at this point, the rifle was renamed the Modelo 2. The Modelo 2 drew the attention of the West German Border Guards, not willing to accept a cartridge outside of the NATO specification, the Germans asked CETME to develop a 7. 62×51mm version of the rifle. The resulting CETME Model A was chambered for the 7. 62×51mm CETME cartridge which was identical in dimensions but had a reduced-power load compared to the 7. 62×51mm NATO round. In 1958, this rifle was accepted into service with the Spanish Army as the Modelo 58, in 1956, the Bundesgrenzschutz canceled their planned procurement of the CETME rifles, adopting the Belgian-made FN FAL instead. However, the newly formed West German Army now showed interest, the CETME, known as the Automatisches Gewehr G3 according to German nomenclature, competed successfully against the Swiss SIG SG510 and the American AR-10 to replace the previously favored G1 rifle. In January 1959, the Bundeswehr officially adopted the CETME proposal, the West German government wanted the G3 rifle to be produced under license in Germany, purchase of the G1 had previously fallen through over FNs refusal to grant such a license. In the case of the G3, the Dutch firm Nederlandse Wapen en Munitiefabriek held production, to acquire production rights, the West German government offered NWM contracts to supply the German Air Force with 20mm ammunition. Production of the G3 was then assigned to Rheinmetall and H&K, the latter company already had ties to CETME, and had worked to further optimize the CETME rifle for use with the full-power 7. 62×51mm NATO cartridge. In 1969, Rheinmetall gave up rights to the G3 in exchange for H&Ks promise not to bid on MG3 production. Later in 1977, the West German government ceded ownership of G3 production, the weapon was modernized during its service life, resulting in the most recent production models, the G3A3 and the G3A4. The rifle proved successful in the market, being adopted by the armed forces of over 40 countries. Of that figure,18 countries undertook domestic production of the G3 under license. Known manufacturers of the included, France, Greece, Iran, Luxembourg, Mexico, Myanmar, Norway, Pakistan, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Sweden, Thailand, Turkey
24.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
25.
Daewoo Precision Industries USAS-12
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The Daewoo Precision Industries USAS-12 is an automatic shotgun designed as a combat shotgun manufactured in South Korea by Daewoo Precision Industries during the 1980s. The USAS-12 is a gas-operated, selective fire weapon, designed to provide sustained firepower in close-combat scenarios and it accepts detachable 10-round box magazines or 20-round drum magazines. Both types of magazine are made of polymer, and drum magazines have their side made from translucent polymer for quick determination of the number of shot shells left. It has a range of 40 m. In the early 1990s, a new CQ model of the USAS-12 was created and it looks similar to the original model, but unlike the original, it lacks the front sight and has a re-modeled carry handle. The history of the USAS-12 dates from the 1980s vintage designs of Maxwell Atchisson, in about 1989, Gilbert Equipment Co. decided to bring up the selective fired weapon, broadly based on principles employed in Atchisson shotguns. The design of the new weapon was produced by John Trevor, since Gilbert Equipment Co. had no manufacturing capabilities, it started to look for possible manufacturers. It turned out that the only maker that agreed to produce this weapon was the South Korean company Daewoo Precision Industries, Daewoo engineers adapted the new weapon to their manufacturing techniques, and mass production commenced in the early 1990s. The USAS-12 sold well to military and security forces of countries in Asia. This greatly restricted its civilian use, today, this shotgun is still being manufactured by S&T Daewoo in Korea for military and law enforcement sales only. The manufacturer stated that the WM-12 is not a destructive device, as of January 2008, however, the WM-12 was no longer to be found on Ameetec Arms online catalogs, because it was discontinued after its pre-production run. Only a few WM-12s were built using USAS-12 demilitarized shotguns, colombia Dominican Republic South Korea Atchisson Assault Shotgun — another automatic shotgun List of shotguns Saiga-12 Modern Firearms Patent USAS-12 Combat Shotgun on YouTube — disassembly video
26.
South Korea
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South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a sovereign state in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The earliest Korean pottery dates to 8000 BC, with three kingdoms flourishing in the 1st century BC and its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. Annexed into Imperial Japan in 1910, Korea was divided after its surrender in 1945, peace has since mostly continued with the two agreeing to work peacefully for reunification and the South solidifying peace as a regional power with the worlds 10th largest defence budget. South Koreas tiger economy soared at an average of 10% for over 30 years in a period of rapid transformation called the Miracle on the Han River. A long legacy of openness and focus on innovation made it successful, today, it is the worlds fifth largest exporter with the G20s largest budget surplus and highest credit rating of any country in East Asia. It has free trade agreements with 75% of the economy and is the only G20 nation trading freely with China, the US. Since 1988, its constitution guarantees a liberal democracy with high government transparency, high personal freedoms led to the rise of a globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and K-drama, a phenomenon called the Korean Wave, known for its distinctive fashionable and trendy style. Home of the UN Green Climate Fund and GGGI, South Korea is a leader in low carbon growth, committed to helping developing countries as a major DAC. It is the third least ignorant country in the Index of Ignorance, ranking eighth highest for peaceful tolerance. It is the worlds largest spender on R&D per GDP, leading the OECD in graduates in science, the name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the name for the entire territory. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon, in 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk. The name Daehan, which means great Han literally, derives from Samhan, however, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted, there were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea was adopted as the name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the part of the Korean Peninsula
27.
Mossberg 500
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Mossberg 500 is a series of pump action shotguns manufactured by O. F. Model numbers included in the 500 series are the 500,505,510,535, introduced in 1960, all model 500s are based on the same basic concept designed by Carl Benson. A single large locking lug is used to secure the breech, the magazine tube is located below the barrel, and is screwed into the receiver. The slide release is located to the rear of the trigger guard. Sights vary from model to model, from simple bead sight to a receiver mounted ghost ring or a base for a telescopic sight. Most models come with the receiver drilled and tapped for the installation of a sight or a scope base. The factory scope base is attached to the barrel via a cantilever-type mount, intended for use in harsh and dirty conditions, such as waterfowl hunting or combat, the Model 500 series is designed to be easy to clean and maintain. All Model 500s feature interchangeable barrels, which may be removed without the use of tools, by loosening a screw on the end of the magazine tube, allowing the barrel to be removed. The Model 500s bolt locks into a recess located on the top of the barrel instead of the receiver itself. The trigger housing and safety button are made of plastic to reduce cost, the trigger assembly, which includes the trigger, hammer, sear, and trigger body with guard, can be removed by pushing out one retaining pin and pulling downwards on the guard. The elevator can be removed by putting the gun on safety and squeezing the sides together, the fore-end can then be moved to the rear, allowing the bolt and bolt carrier to drop out, and then the forend can be removed by moving it forward. The cartridge stop and interrupter will then free, leaving just the ejector. The magazine spring and follower may be removed by unscrewing the tube from the receiver and this level of field stripping is sufficient to allow all components to be cleaned. The name Model 500 covers an entire family of pump shotguns designed to chamber 3-inch magnum shells, the standard model holds five 2. 75-inch or five 3-inch shells in the magazine and one in the chamber. The Model 500 is available in 12 gauge,20 gauge, a 16 gauge was offered at one time but has been discontinued. The standard finish for the Model 500 is an aluminum alloy receiver. Some models come with a matte black matte-anodized receiver, and a blued barrel. Some 500 models are anodized to look parkerized, with parkerized barrels and this is also true of the 590 series since an aluminum receiver cannot be parkerized
28.
Franchi SPAS-15
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The Franchi SPAS-15 is a dual-mode 12 gauge combat shotgun manufactured by the Italian company Luigi Franchi S. P. A. The weapon is based on the SPAS-12, and has similar pump-action/semi-automatic firing modes, in semi-automatic mode a gas piston drives a bolt carrier and rotating bolt. In pump-action mode the same components are driven by sliding the fore-end backwards, pump-action mode is required to reliably fire low-pressure ammunition such as tear gas rounds or less-lethal bean bags. Switching between firing modes is done by pressing a button above the foregrip, and sliding the foregrip slightly forwards or backwards, the barrel is chrome lined and features screw-in choke tubes. Unlike its predecessor, the SPAS-15 is fed by a box magazine. The gun features a stock and a pistol grip safety. Amongst Italian troops the weapon is known by the nickname La Chiave dellIncursore because it is used to blast the locks of closed doors, in 1994, the United States banned the importation of the SPAS-15 with close to 180 shotguns imported, but later abolished the relevant regulations. In Canada, the SPAS-15 is classified as a Prohibited Weapon, in Italy the SPAS-15 is not subject to any kind of restriction for sale, purchase or possession, and despite no longer being in production it is still fairly common on the civilian market. Argentina, Used by Gendarmeria Nacional Argentina, belarus, Used by the Almaz anti-terrorist group. Brazil, Used by Military Police GRT unit and BOPE, Italy,2,000 acquired in 1999 by the Italian Army. Israel, Israeli special forces Portugal, Portuguese Army, india, special forces, National Security Guard List of shotguns Manual Franchi SPAS-15 at Modern Firearms Franchi Homepage in English magazine patent
29.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
30.
Heckler & Koch MP5
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The Heckler & Koch MP5 is a 9mm submachine gun of German design, developed in the 1960s by a team of engineers from the German small arms manufacturer Heckler & Koch GmbH of Oberndorf am Neckar. There are over 100 variants of the MP5, including some semi-automatic versions, the MP5 is one of the most widely used submachine guns in the world, having been adopted by 40 nations and numerous military, law enforcement, intelligence, and security organizations. It is widely used by SWAT teams in North America, in 1999, Heckler & Koch developed the Heckler & Koch UMP, the MP5s successor, both are available as of 2017. The MP5 was created within the group of firearms and was initially known as the HK54. Work on the MP5 began in 1964 and two later it was adopted by the German Federal Police, border guard and army special forces. The MP5 became a mainstay of SWAT units of law enforcement agencies in the United States since then, however, in the late 1990s, as a result of the North Hollywood shootout, police special response teams have supplanted some MP5s with AR-15-based assault rifles. The MP5 is manufactured under license in several nations including Greece, Iran, Mexico, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. The primary version of the MP5 family is the MP5A2, which is a lightweight, air-cooled and it fires from a closed bolt position. The fixed, free floating, cold hammer-forged barrel has 6 right-hand grooves with a 1 in 250 mm rifling twist rate and is pressed and pinned into the receiver. The first MP5 models used a straight box magazine, but since 1977, slightly curved. The adjustable iron sights consist of a rotating rear diopter drum, the MP5 has a hammer firing mechanism. The trigger group is housed inside a polymer trigger module. The S or Sicher position in white denotes weapon safe, E or Einzelfeuer in red represents single fire, the SEF symbols appear on both sides of the plastic trigger group. The selector lever is actuated with the thumb of the hand and is located only on the left side of the original SEF trigger group or on both sides of the ambidextrous trigger groups. The safety/selector is rotated into the various firing settings or safety position by depressing the tail end of the lever, tactile clicks are present at each position to provide a positive stop and prevent inadvertent rotation. The safe setting disables the trigger by blocking the release with a solid section of the safety axle located inside the trigger housing. The non-reciprocating cocking handle is located above the handguard and protrudes from the cocking handle tube at approximately a 45° angle. This rigid control is attached to a piece within the cocking lever housing called the cocking lever support
31.
FN P90
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The FN P90, also known as the FN Project 1990, is a personal defense weapon designed and manufactured by FN Herstal in Belgium. Featuring a compact design with an integrated reflex sight and fully ambidextrous controls. Its design incorporates several innovations such as a unique top-mounted magazine and FNs small-caliber, high-velocity 5. 7×28mm ammunition. The P90 is currently in service with military and police forces in over 40 nations, such as Austria, Brazil, Canada, France, Greece, India, Malaysia, Poland, and the United States. In the United States, the P90 is in use with over 200 law enforcement agencies, while developed and initially marketed as a PDW, it can also be considered a submachine gun or compact assault rifle. The standard selective fire P90 is restricted to military and law enforcement customers, but since 2005, the P90 and its 5. 7×28mm ammunition were developed by FN Herstal in response to NATO requests for a replacement for the 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge and associated pistols and submachine guns. NATO called for two types of weapons chambered for a new cartridge—one a shoulder-fired weapon, and the other a handheld weapon. According to NATO, these new weapons, termed personal defense weapons, were to provide protection in last-resort situations when the user is directly endangered by the enemy. Additionally, it was to be capable of penetrating body armor, the shoulder-fired personal defense weapon was to weigh less than 3 kg, with a magazine capacity of at least 20 rounds. The handheld personal defense weapon was to weigh less than 1 kg, although a weight of 700 g was deemed desirable, the original 5. 7×28mm cartridge, called the SS90, went into production with the P90 in 1990. The SS90 propelled a 1.5 g plastic-core projectile from the P90 at a velocity of roughly 850 m/s. Shortly after its introduction, the P90 was adopted and used in service with the Belgian special forces group in the 1991 Gulf War, following the P90s introduction, FN revised the 5. 7×28mm ammunition. The new variation, designated the SS190, used a projectile 2.7 mm shorter in length than that of the SS90 and this allowed it to be used more conveniently in the 5. 7×28mm FN Five-seven pistol, which was under development at that time. The SS190 projectile had a weight, and a more conventional construction with an aluminium. The first prototypes of the SS190 were created in 1992, a modified version of the P90, with a magazine adapted to use the shortened ammunition, was then introduced in the same year. Several special cartridge variations were developed, such as the L191 tracer round, in 2002 and 2003, NATO conducted a series of tests with the intention of standardizing a PDW cartridge as a replacement for the 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge. The tests compared the merits of the FN5. 7×28mm cartridge and the HK4. 6×30mm cartridge. However, the German delegation and others rejected the NATO recommendation that 5. 7×28mm be standardized, as a result, both the 4. 6×30mm and 5
32.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
33.
Uzi
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The Uzi pronunciation, /ˈuːzi/ is a family of Israeli open-bolt, blowback-operated submachine guns. Smaller variants are considered to be machine pistols, the Uzi was one of the first weapons to use a telescoping bolt design which allows the magazine to be housed in the pistol grip for a shorter weapon. The first Uzi submachine gun was designed by Major Uziel Gal in the late 1940s, the prototype was finished in 1950. First introduced to IDF special forces in 1954, the weapon was placed into general issue two years later. The Uzi has found use as a defense weapon by rear-echelon troops, officers, artillery troops and tankers. The Uzi has been exported to over 90 countries, over its service lifetime, it has been manufactured by Israel Military Industries, FN Herstal, and other manufacturers. From the 1960s through the 1980s, more Uzi submachine guns were sold to military, law enforcement. The open bolt design exposes the breech end of the barrel, however, it means that since the bolt is held to the rear when cocked, the receiver is more susceptible to contamination from sand and dirt. It uses a telescoping bolt design, in which the bolt wraps around the end of the barrel. This allows the barrel to be moved far back into the receiver, the weapon is constructed primarily from stamped sheet metal, making it less expensive per unit to manufacture than an equivalent design machined from forgings. With relatively few moving parts, the Uzi is easy to strip for maintenance or repair, the magazine is housed within the pistol grip, allowing for intuitive and easy reloading in dark or difficult conditions, under the principle of hand finds hand. The pistol grip is fitted with a safety, making it difficult to fire accidentally. However, the protruding vertical magazine makes the gun awkward to fire when prone, the Uzi features a bayonet lug. The non-reciprocating charging handle on the top of the cover is used to retract the bolt. Variants have a safety mechanism which will catch the bolt and lock its movement if it is retracted past the magazine. When the handle is fully retracted to the rear, the bolt will cock on the sear mechanism, the cover will remain forward during firing since it does not reciprocate with the bolt. The military and police versions will fire immediately upon chambering a cartridge as the Uzi is an open bolt weapon, there are two external safety mechanisms on the Uzi. The first is the selector lever located at the top of the grip
34.
M2 Browning
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The M2 Machine Gun or Browning.50 Caliber Machine Gun is a heavy machine gun designed toward the end of World War I by John Browning. Its design is similar to Brownings earlier M1919 Browning machine gun, the M2 uses the much larger and much more powerful.50 BMG cartridge, which was developed alongside and takes its name from the gun itself. It has been referred to as Ma Deuce, in reference to its M2 nomenclature, the design has had many specific designations, the official designation for the current infantry type is Browning Machine Gun, Cal.50, M2, HB, Flexible. It is effective against infantry, unarmored or lightly armored vehicles and boats, light fortifications, the M2 has been produced longer than any other machine gun. The Browning.50 caliber machine gun has been used extensively as a vehicle weapon and it was heavily used during World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Falklands War, the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan in the 2000s and 2010s. It is the heavy machine gun of NATO countries, and has been used by many other countries as well. The M2 has been in use longer than any firearm in U. S. inventory except the.45 ACP M1911 pistol. The current M2HB is manufactured in the U. S. by General Dynamics, Ordnance for use by the U. S. government, and for allies via Foreign Military Sales, as well as foreign manufacturers such as FN Herstal. Machine guns were used in World War I, and weapons of larger than rifle caliber were appearing. Both the British and French had large caliber machine guns, the larger rounds were needed to defeat the armor that was being introduced to the battlefield. Armor was also appearing in the skies, during World War I, the Germans introduced a heavily armored airplane, the Junkers J. I. The armor made aircraft machine guns using conventional rifle ammunition ineffective, consequently, the American Expeditionary Forces commander General John J. Pershing asked for a larger caliber machine gun. Pershing asked the Army Ordnance Department to develop a gun with a caliber of at least 0.50 inches. U. S. Col. John Henry Parker, commanding a machine gun school in France, the Army Ordnance Department ordered eight experimental Colt machine guns rechambered for the French 11 mm cartridge. The French had developed a machine gun for an even larger caliber. The French 11 mm round was found to be unsuitable because its velocity was too low, Pershing wanted a bullet of at least 670 gr and a muzzle velocity of 2,700 ft/s. Development with the French round was dropped, around July 1917, John M. Browning started redesigning his.30 caliber machine gun for a larger caliber. Winchester worked on the cartridge, which was a version of the. 30-06
35.
FN MAG
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The FN MAG is a Belgian 7.62 mm general-purpose machine gun, designed in the early 1950s at Fabrique Nationale by Ernest Vervier. It has been used by more than 80 countries, and it has made under licence in several countries, including Argentina, Canada, Egypt, India. The weapons name is an abbreviation for Mitrailleuse dAppui Général, meaning general-purpose machine gun, the MAG Model 60-20 is an automatic, air-cooled, gas-operated machine gun, firing belt-fed 7. 62×51mm NATO from an open bolt. The MAG uses ignited powder gases vented through a port in the barrel to propel a gas piston rod connected to the locking assembly, the barrel breech is locked with a vertically tilting, downward locking lever mechanism that is connected to the bolt carrier through an articulated joint. The locking shoulder and camming surfaces that guide the locking lever are located at the base of the receiver, the MAG fires from an open bolt. Both the spring-powered extractor and ejector are contained in the bolt, after firing, spent cartridge casings are removed through an ejection port located at the base of the receiver. The machine gun has a firing mechanism, an automatic-only trigger assembly and a manual cross-bolt push-button safety. With the safety placed in the setting, the sear mechanism is disabled. The safety can only be engaged with the weapon cocked, the MAG features a pawl-type feeding mechanism that continues to move the feed link during both the rearward and forward cycles of the reciprocating bolt carrier, producing a smooth belt flow. The feeding mechanisms three pawls are actuated by a roller connected to the bolt carrier, the feed channel rail, feed link, both feed slides and the feed tray are chrome plated. The top cover body is an aluminum casting. In the infantry role, the weapon can be fitted with a sheet metal container that houses a 50-round belt and is attached to the left side of the receiver. The quick-change barrel has a flash suppressor. The barrels chamber and bore are chromium-lined and the barrel has four grooves with a 305 mm rifling twist rate. Also attached to the barrel is the front sight base, carry handle, the machine gun is fitted with a folding bipod that can be adjusted for height. For carrying or use as a forearm, the legs can be folded back and secured in slots under the receiver by hooks. When firing from the hip, the legs remain extended. The bipod can be removed from the gas cylinder by tapping-out a roll pin in the gas cylinder head until it is flush, the rear sight is hinged to a base with protective ears that is integral with the receivers upper forging
36.
M60 machine gun
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The M60, officially the United States Machine Gun, Caliber 7.62 mm, M60, is a family of American general-purpose machine guns firing 7. 62×51mm NATO cartridges from a disintegrating belt of M13 links. There are several types of ammunition approved for use in the M60, including ball, tracer, introduced in 1957, it has served with every branch of the U. S. military and still serves with other armed forces. S. The M60 is a machine gun that fires the 7. 62×51mm NATO cartridge commonly used in larger rifles. It is generally used as a weapon and operated by a team of two or three individuals. The team consists of the gunner, the assistant gunner, the guns weight and the amount of ammunition it can consume when fired make it difficult for a single soldier to carry and operate. The gunner carries the weapon and, depending on his strength and stamina, the assistant carries a spare barrel and extra ammunition, and reloads and spots targets for the gunner. The ammunition bearer carries additional ammunition and the tripod with associated traversing and elevation mechanism, if issued, the M60 can be accurately fired at short ranges from the shoulder thanks to its design. This was a requirement for the design and a hold-over in concept from the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle. It may also be fired from the bipod, M122 tripod. M60 ammunition comes in a cloth bandolier containing a box of 100 pre-linked rounds. The M60 uses the M13 ammunition link, a change from the older M1 link system with which it was not compatible, the cloth bandolier is reinforced to allow it to be hung from the current version of the feed tray. The later models changed the ammunition box attachment point and made this adaptation unnecessary, the M60 machine gun began development in the late 1940s as a program for a new, lighter 7.62 mm machine gun. It was partly derived from German guns of World War II, early prototypes, notably the T52 and T161 bore a close resemblance to both the M1941 Johnson machine gun and the FG42. The final evaluation version was designated the T161E3 and it was intended to replace the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle and M1919A6 Browning machine gun in the squad automatic weapon role, and in the medium machine gun role. One of the weapons tested against it during its procurement process was the FN MAG, the U. S. Army officially adopted the T161E3 as the M60 in 1957. The M60 later served in the Vietnam War as an automatic weapon with many U. S. units. Every soldier in the squad would carry an additional 200 linked rounds of ammunition for the M60. The up-gunned M113 armored personnel carrier ACAV added two M60 gunners beside the main.50 caliber machine gun, and the Patrol Boat, during the Vietnam War, the M60 received the nickname The Pig due to its bulky size
37.
FN Minimi
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The Minimi is a Belgian 5. 56mm light machine gun developed by Fabrique Nationale in Herstal by Ernest Vervier. First introduced in the late 1970s, it is now in service in more than 75 countries, the weapon is currently manufactured at the FN facility in Herstal and their US subsidiary FN Manufacturing LLC. The Minimi is a gun firing from an open bolt. It is a weapon, capable of fully automatic fire only. It can be fed or fired from a magazine. The Minimi uses a gas-actuated long-stroke piston system, the barrel is locked with a rotary bolt, equipped with two massive locking lugs, forced into battery by a helical camming guide in the bolt carrier. Upon firing, the piston is forced to the rear by expanding propellant gases bled through a port in the barrel near the muzzle end. The piston rod acts against the carrier, which begins its rearward motion guided on two rails welded to the receiver walls, while the bolt itself remains locked. Gas escaping the gas cylinder is directed upward, avoiding kicking up dust, the Minimi has a manually adjustable gas valve with two positions, normal and adverse. The spring extractor is located inside the bolt, while the lever ejector is contained inside the receiver housing. Spent casings are removed through a port located at the bottom of the side of the receiver. The Minimi is striker-fired and the bolt carrier functions as the striker mechanism, the Minimi has a push-button type manual safety installed in the trigger housing, above the pistol grip. In the weapon safe position, it disables the sear mechanism, pushing the button to the right side exposes a red-colored rim on the side of the firearm. The Minimi features a welded receiver made from stamped steel, both the standard and Para variants are equipped with a fixed, folding bipod mounted to the gas tube and stowed under the handguard. The bipod can be adjusted in height and each leg has three height settings, the bipod also offers a 15° range of rotation to either side. With the bipod fully extended, the axis is elevated to a height of 465 mm. The Minimi can also be fired from the Belgian FN360° tripod or the American M122 mount using an M60 pintle, the vehicle-mounted Minimi is fitted with an electrically powered trigger that enables it to be fired remotely from within an armored fighting vehicle. The standard light gun version has a 465 mm barrel
38.
M249 light machine gun
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The M249 light machine gun, formerly designated the M249 Squad Automatic Weapon, and formally written as Light Machine Gun,5.56 mm, or the.223 military rnd. The M249, is the American adaptation of the Belgian FN Minimi, the M249 is manufactured in the United States by the local subsidiary FN Manufacturing LLC in South Carolina and is widely used in the U. S. The weapon was introduced in 1984 after being judged the most effective of a number of weapons to address the lack of automatic firepower in small units. The M249 provides infantry squads with the volume of fire of a machine gun combined with accuracy. The M249 is gas operated and air-cooled and it has a quick-change barrel, allowing the gunner to rapidly replace an overheated or jammed barrel. A folding bipod is attached near the front of the gun and it can be fed from both linked ammunition and STANAG magazines, like those used in the M16 and M4. This allows the SAW gunner to use a riflemans magazines as a source of ammunition in the event that he runs out of linked rounds. M249s have seen action in every conflict involving the United States since the U. S. invasion of Panama in 1989. Due to the weight and age of the weapon, the United States Marine Corps is fielding the M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle with plans to replace the M249 in Marine Corps service. The M249 is often referred to as a Squad Assault Weapon, in 1965, the U. S. Army and U. S. Marine Corps primary machine guns were the M2 Browning and M60. The M2 was a heavy machine gun, usually mounted on vehicles or in fixed emplacements. The M60 was a more mobile medium machine gun intended to be carried with the troops to provide heavy automatic fire, both were very heavy weapons and usually required a crew of at least two to operate efficiently. Because the M14 and M16 rifles had not been designed with sustained fire in mind. The 20-round and 30-round magazines of these weapons limited their sustained automatic effectiveness when compared to belt-fed weapons. The Army decided that a machine gun, lighter than the M60. Through the 1960s, the introduction of a gun into the infantry squad was examined in various studies. The Stoner 63 LMG saw combat for a period in Vietnam with the USMC. In 1968, the Army Small Arms Program developed plans for a new 5.56 mm caliber LMG, studies of improved 5.56 mm ammunition, with better performance characteristics, began
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