1.
Downtown Aquarium, Denver
–
Downtown Aquarium is a public aquarium and restaurant located in Denver, Colorado at the intersection of I-25 and 23rd Ave. The 107,000 square feet main building sits on a 17-acre site adjacent to the South Platte River and its freshwater and marine aquaria total approximately 1,000,000 US gallons, and exhibit a variety of fish and other animals. The Downtown Aquarium in Denver is owned and operated by Landrys Restaurants and it is accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums. Colorados Ocean Journey was founded by Bill Fleming and Judy Petersen Fleming as a nonprofit entity and it was partially funded by a $57 million bond loan as well as loans by the department of Housing and Urban Development, and its total cost was $93 million. The facility opened June 21,1999 and soon earned accreditation by the Association of Zoos, the aquarium was not able to make payments on its high construction debt, and Colorado Ocean Journey Liquidation Inc. filed bankruptcy April 2002 with a $62.5 million debt. After a last-minute bidding war with Ripleys Entertainment, Landrys Restaurants, after the purchase, the facility remained open to the public until the summer of 2005, when it closed briefly for renovations. These included the addition of a restaurant, bar. A150, 000-US-gallon marine aquarium was added to the restaurant area, upon its reopening July 14,2005, the facility was renamed Downtown Aquarium. A major theme for this landlocked aquarium is the relationship between inland freshwater ecosystems and the ocean, the original design of the aquarium was zoogeographic. It focused on the path to the ocean taken by two rivers, the Colorado River in North America and the Kampar River in Indonesia. The Colorado River Journey included exhibits of endangered fish, including desert pupfish, gamefish such as bass and it ended with a large exhibit depicting the Sea of Cortez, into which the actual Colorado River empties. The Indonesia River Journey included exhibits of such as Asian arowanas, rainbowfish. It ended with an exhibit depicting the southern Pacific Ocean. In addition to two journeys, the aquarium housed a large sea otter exhibit. After the 2005 renovations, the two journey paths remain, but are no longer arranged in a strictly zoogeographic pattern, for example, tanks on the second pathway depict African and South American freshwater ecosystems, other tanks are mixed community aquaria. The sea otter exhibit was removed to make room for the restaurant tank, the facility features several interactive exhibits, including a horseshoe crab touch tank and a stingray touch-and-feed tank. The aquarium continues to focus on conservation, to that end, it houses numerous endangered or threatened species,12 species of fish, six of reptiles, two of mammals, and two of birds. It participates in the AZAs Species Survival Plan for Sumatran tigers, a volunteer program administered by the Deep Blue Sea Foundation, a nonprofit group, is in place
2.
Houston
–
Houston is the most populous city in the state of Texas and the fourth-most populous city in the United States. With a census-estimated 2014 population of 2.239 million within an area of 667 square miles, it also is the largest city in the southern United States and the seat of Harris County. Located in Southeast Texas near the Gulf of Mexico, it is the city of Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land. Houston was founded on August 28,1836, near the banks of Buffalo Bayou and incorporated as a city on June 5,1837. The city was named after former General Sam Houston, who was president of the Republic of Texas and had commanded, the burgeoning port and railroad industry, combined with oil discovery in 1901, has induced continual surges in the citys population. Houstons economy has an industrial base in energy, manufacturing, aeronautics. Leading in health care sectors and building equipment, Houston has more Fortune 500 headquarters within its city limits than any city except for New York City. The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled, the city has a population from various ethnic and religious backgrounds and a large and growing international community. Houston is the most diverse city in Texas and has described as the most diverse in the United States. It is home to cultural institutions and exhibits, which attract more than 7 million visitors a year to the Museum District. Houston has a visual and performing arts scene in the Theater District. In August 1836, two real estate entrepreneurs from New York, Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen, purchased 6,642 acres of land along Buffalo Bayou with the intent of founding a city. The Allen brothers decided to name the city after Sam Houston, the general at the Battle of San Jacinto. The great majority of slaves in Texas came with their owners from the slave states. Sizable numbers, however, came through the slave trade. New Orleans was the center of trade in the Deep South. Thousands of enslaved African Americans lived near the city before the Civil War, many of them near the city worked on sugar and cotton plantations, while most of those in the city limits had domestic and artisan jobs. Houston was granted incorporation on June 5,1837, with James S. Holman becoming its first mayor, in the same year, Houston became the county seat of Harrisburg County and the temporary capital of the Republic of Texas
3.
Texas
–
Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
4.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Association of Zoos and Aquariums
–
The AZA is headquartered in Silver Spring, Maryland. In October 1924, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums was formed as an affiliate of the American Institute of Park Executives, in 1966, the AAZPA became a professional branch affiliate of the newly formed National Recreation and Park Association. In January 1994, the shorter name American Zoo and Aquarium Association was adopted, in 1998, there were 134 million visits to North American zoos and aquariums. Ten years later, in 2008, there were 175 million visits to AZA-accredited zoos, the organization is active in institution accreditation, animal care initiatives, education and conservation programs, collaborative research and advocacy in order to achieve this goal. It serves as a body for zoos and aquariums and ensures that accredited facilities meet higher standards of animal care than are required by law. Institutions are evaluated every five years in order to ensure standards are met, the association also facilitates both Species Survival Plans and Population Management Plans, which serve to sustainably manage genetically diverse captive populations of various animal species. In addition, the association sponsors the scientific journal Zoo Biology, the association has established a computerized database called the Annual Report on Conservation and Science. It provides a model for a database to help track research projects worldwide. The database can be searched by key word, name of researcher, topic, country or region, name of institution, conservation program title, name of cooperating institution, type of research, or date. In 2000-2001, member institutions reported that they participated in over 2,230 conservation projects in 94 countries and they published 1,450 books, book chapters, journal articles, conference proceeding papers, posters and theses or dissertations. The publications can be searched using keywords, name of author, type of publication, institution name, or date. Depending on the animals they exhibit, the activities of zoos are regulated by laws including the Endangered Species Act, the Animal Welfare Act, additionally, zoos in North America may choose to pursue accreditation by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums. They shall further be defined as having as their business the exhibition, conservation and preservation of the earths fauna in an educational. Inspection is performed by three experts and then reviewed by a panel of experts before accreditation is awarded. This accreditation process is repeated every five years. The AZA estimates that there are approximately 2,400 animal exhibits operating under USDA license as of February 2007, list of AZA member zoos and aquariums Official website
6.
Public aquarium
–
A public aquarium is the aquatic counterpart of a zoo, which houses living aquatic animal and plant specimens for public viewing. Most public aquariums feature tanks larger than those kept by home aquarists, since the first public aquariums were built in the mid-19th century, they have become popular and their numbers have increased. Most modern accredited aquariums stress conservation issues and educating the public, the first public aquarium was opened in London Zoo in May 1853, the Fish House, as it came to be known, was constructed much like a greenhouse. P. T. Barnum quickly followed in 1856 with the first American aquarium as part of his established Barnums American Museum, in 1859, the Aquarial Gardens were founded in Boston. The old Berlin Aquarium opened in 1869, the building site was to be Unter den Linden, in the centre of town, not at the Berlin Zoo. The aquariums first director, Alfred Brehm, former director of the Hamburg Zoo from 1863 to 1866, with its emphasis on education, the public aquarium was designed like a grotto, part of it made of natural rock. The Geologische Grotte depicted the strata of the earths crust, the grotto also featured birds and pools for seals. The Aquarium Unter den Linden was a three-story building, machinery and water tanks were on the ground floor, aquarium basins for the fish on the first floor. Because of Brehms special interest in birds, a huge aviary, the Artis aquarium at Amsterdam Zoo was constructed inside a Victorian building in 1882, and was renovated in 1997. At the end of the 19th century the Artis aquarium was considered state-of-the-art, prior to its closing on September 30,2013, the oldest American aquarium was the National Aquarium in Washington, D. C. founded in 1873. This was followed by the opening of public aquariums, San Francisco, Woods Hole, New York, La Jolla, Honolulu, Detroit, Philadelphia, San Francisco. For many years, the Shedd Aquarium was the largest aquarium in the United States until the Georgia Aquarium in Atlanta opened 2005, the first Japanese public aquarium, a small freshwater aquarium, was opened at the Ueno Zoo in 1882. In 2005, the Georgia Aquarium, with more than 8 million U. S. gallons of marine and fresh water, the aquariums notable specimens include whale sharks and beluga whales. Modern aquarium tanks can hold millions of litres of water and can house large species, including dolphins and this is accomplished through thick, clear acrylic glass windows. Aquatic and semiaquatic mammals, including otters, and seals are cared for at aquariums. Some establishments, such as the Oregon Coast Aquarium or the Monterey Bay Aquarium, have aquatic aviaries, modern aquariums also include land animals and plants that spend time in or near the water. For marketing purposes, many aquariums promote special exhibits, in addition to their permanent collections, some have aquatic versions of a petting zoo. The Monterey Bay Aquarium has a tank filled with common types of rays which visitors are encouraged to touch
7.
Restaurant
–
A restaurant, or an eatery, is a business which prepares and serves food and drinks to customers in exchange for money. Meals are generally served and eaten on the premises, but many also offer take-out and food delivery services. In Western countries, most mid- to high-range restaurants serve alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, some restaurants serve all the major meals, such as breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Other restaurants may serve a single meal or they may serve two meals or even a kids meal. Restaurants may be classified or distinguished in different ways. The primary factors are usually the food itself, the cuisine and/or the style of offering, beyond this, restaurants may differentiate themselves on factors including speed, formality, location, cost, service, or novelty themes. In the former case, customers usually wear casual clothing, in the latter case, depending on culture and local traditions, customers might wear semi-casual, semi-formal or formal wear. Typically, at mid- to high-priced restaurants, customers sit at tables, their orders are taken by a waiter, after eating, the customers then pay the bill. Another restaurant approach which uses few waiters is the buffet restaurant, customers serve food onto their own plates and then pay at the end of the meal. Buffet restaurants typically still have waiters to serve drinks and alcoholic beverages, fast food restaurants are also considered a restaurant. The travelling public has long been catered for with ships messes and railway restaurant cars which are, in effect, many railways, the world over, also cater for the needs of travellers by providing railway refreshment rooms, a form of restaurant, at railway stations. In the 2000s, a number of travelling restaurants, specifically designed for tourists, have been created and these can be found on trams, boats, buses, etc. A restaurants proprietor is called a restaurateur /ˌrɛstərəˈtɜːr/, like restaurant, professional cooks are called chefs, with there being various finer distinctions. Most restaurant will have various waiting staff to serve food, beverages and alcoholic drinks, including busboys who remove used dishes and cutlery. In finer restaurants, this may include a host or hostess, a maître dhôtel to welcome customers and to them. A new route to becoming a restauranter, rather than working ones way up through the stages, is to operate a food truck, once a sufficient following has been obtained, a permanent restaurant site can be opened. This trend has become common in the UK and the US, a chefs table is a table located in the kitchen of a restaurant, reserved for VIPs and special guests. Patrons may be served a themed tasting menu prepared and served by the head chef, Restaurants can require a minimum party and charge a higher flat fee
8.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
9.
Landry's, Inc.
–
Landrys, Inc. is an American, privately owned, multi-brand dining/hospitality/entertainment/gaming corporation. Headquartered in Houston, Texas, Landrys, Inc. owns and operates more than 500 restaurant/hotel/casino/entertainment destinations in 35 states, the company also owns and operates numerous international locations. Landrys, Inc. is owned entirely by President & CEO Tilman J. Fertitta, a partner in the companys first Landrys Seafood. A year later, Fertitta helped open Willie Gs, a restaurant in Houston. In 1986, Fertitta gained controlling interests in both restaurants and he became CEO and took the company public in 1993, with a valuation of $30 million. Under the leadership of Fertitta, the company expanded, in 2010, already being the majority shareholder, Fertitta acquired all outstanding shares of company stock, gaining sole control and ownership. By 2011, the value had risen to more than $1.7 billion. Throughout the 1990s, Landrys, Inc. expanded, developing and acquiring restaurant, entertainment, hospitality, in 1994, Landrys, Inc. acquired Joes Crab Shack. In 2006, Landrys, Inc. sold Joes Crab Shack, during the decade, the company acquired a number of other restaurants, including The Crab House and Cadillac Bar. In 2004, Landrys, Inc. partnered with the City of Galveston to open a 140,000 square foot convention center, in 2003, the company acquired the adjacent Holiday Inn Resort Galveston – On the Beach. In 2004, the adjacent Hilton Galveston Island Resort was acquired, in total, the San Luis Resort includes 700 guest rooms,10 restaurants, and 200,000 square feet of event space. The companys hospitality division also includes The Westin Houston Downtown in Downtown Houston, in 1998, the company developed the 35-acre Kemah Boardwalk, with a hotel, a marina, more than 10 restaurants, and dozens of midway games, amusement rides, and attractions. After 2000, Landrys, Inc. continued to grow, in 2000, the company acquired Rainforest Cafe, a collection of jungle-inspired restaurants and retail villages. In 2002, the company acquired three national restaurants, including Saltgrass Steak House, Chart House, and Muer Restaurants, a series of seafood restaurants, a train carries guests into a tunnel running through a 250, 000-gallon shark tank. Other Aquarium restaurants have opened in Denver, Nashville. In 2005, the company acquired Golden Nugget Hotel & Casinos, with locations in Las Vegas and Laughlin, Landrys, Inc. has since opened two additional locations in Atlantic City, New Jersey, and Biloxi, Mississippi. A fifth location opened in Lake Charles, Louisiana, in 2014, in 2010, Landrys, Inc. acquired three new restaurants. Bubba Gump Shrimp Company, a collection of restaurants, is themed on the hit movie Forrest Gump
10.
Animal Legal Defense Fund
–
The Animal Legal Defense Fund is an American non-profit law organization that aims to protect the rights and advance the interests of animals through the legal system. It was founded in 1979, by attorneys active in shaping the field of animal law. The ALDF has campaigned for stronger enforcement of anti-animal cruelty laws, in addition to their national headquarters in Cotati, California, the Animal Legal Defense Fund maintains an office in Portland, Oregon. ALDF has hundreds of dedicated attorneys that may bring suits themselves and their civil actions include filing amicus curiae briefs arguing the case for recognition of the bonds between humans and nonhuman animals. Examples of litigation by ALDF include suits filed in North Carolina, one sought custody of 106 dogs held in negligent conditions by a dog breeder. A settlement was reached whereby the breeder surrendered ownership of the dogs, in 2005, the organization sued a Californian animal trainer who had they accused of violating the Endangered Species Act and anti-cruelty statutes by beating chimpanzees with sticks. The suit was settled without the trainer acknowledging any wrongdoing, however the chimps were retired from performing and transferred to an animal sanctuary in Florida. The organization sought an order to improve the treatment of the animals. In 2008, the suit was dropped when the company stopped breeding pigs at the farm for a variety of business reasons and they aim to ensure that state criminal anti-cruelty statutes are vigorously enforced and that those convicted of animal cruelty and neglect receive appropriate sentences. They also work with legislators to enact felony anti-cruelty statutes in states that do not yet have them. The Criminal Justice Program also maintains a database of animal cruelty cases and current. ALDF’s Animal Law Program works closely with law students and law professionals to advance the field of animal law. ALDF and PETA believe that the current confinement conditions that Lolita is subjected to are prohibited by the ESA and this action opens the door to the prospect that she could be retired from performing and transferred to a seaside sanctuary. In January Caltrans agreed to remove bird-killing nets at a highway project. 2013 In July, ALDF filed the first lawsuit in the nation to challenge the constitutionality of an ag gag law, utah’s law, which criminalizes the videotaping on factory farms, attacks activity protected under the U. S. Constitution’s First and Fourteenth Amendments. 2012 In March, the Clay County Circuit Court entered an order of judgment resolving ALDFs lawsuit against the county to stop systematic abuses at the local animal shelter. Following the lawsuit, which was based on a video, Cal-Cruz is no longer in operation. Ben had languished for years on cement in a chain-link kennel—he now has the chance to live like a bear should, with plenty of space to roam, play,2011 In February, Guam voted to dramatically strengthen the territorys laws protecting animals
11.
Alligator
–
An alligator is a crocodilian in the genus Alligator of the family Alligatoridae. The two living species are the American alligator and the Chinese alligator, in addition, several extinct species of alligator are known from fossil remains. Alligators first appeared during the Paleocene epoch about 37 million years ago, the name alligator is probably an anglicized form of el lagarto, the Spanish term for the lizard, which early Spanish explorers and settlers in Florida called the alligator. Later English spellings of the name included allagarta and alagarto, an average adult American alligators weight and length is 360 kg and 4.0 m, but they sometimes grow to 4.4 m long and weigh over 450 kg. The largest ever recorded, found in Louisiana, measured 5.84 m, the Chinese alligator is smaller, rarely exceeding 2.1 m in length. In addition, it considerably less, with males rarely over 45 kg. Adult alligators are black or dark olive-brown with white undersides, while juveniles have strongly contrasting white or yellow marks which fade with age, no average lifespan for an alligator has been measured. In 1937, a specimen was brought to the Belgrade Zoo in Serbia from Germany. It is now at least 80 years old, although no valid records exist about its date of birth, this alligator, officially named Muja, is considered the oldest alligator living in captivity. Alligators are native only to the United States and China, according to the 2005 Scholastic Book of World Records, Louisiana has the largest alligator population. The majority of American alligators inhabit Florida and Louisiana, with over a million alligators in each state, southern Florida is the only place where both alligators and crocodiles live side by side. American alligators live in environments, such as ponds, marshes, wetlands, rivers, lakes. When they construct alligator holes in the wetlands, they increase plant diversity and they are, therefore, considered an important species for maintaining ecological diversity in wetlands. Further west, in Louisiana, heavy grazing by coypu and muskrat are causing damage to coastal wetlands. Large alligators feed extensively on coypu, and provide a vital ecological service by reducing coypu numbers. The Chinese alligator currently is only in the Yangtze River valley and parts of adjacent provinces and is extremely endangered. Indeed, far more Chinese alligators live in zoos around the world than can be found in the wild, rockefeller Wildlife Refuge in southern Louisiana has several in captivity in an attempt to preserve the species. Miami MetroZoo in Florida also has a pair of Chinese alligators
12.
Alligator snapping turtle
–
The alligator snapping turtle is a species of turtle in the family Chelydridae. M. temminckii is one of the heaviest freshwater turtles in the world and it is often associated with, but not closely related to, the common snapping turtle, which is in the genus Chelydra. The specific epithet temminckii is in honor of Dutch zoologist Coenraad Jacob Temminck, the alligator snapping turtle is found primarily in southeastern United States waters. Typically, only nesting females venture onto open land and they are a solid gray, brown, black, or olive-green in color, and often covered with algae. They have radiating yellow patterns around their eyes, serving to break up the outline of the eyes to keep the turtle camouflaged and their eyes are also surrounded by a star-shaped arrangement of fleshy, filamentous eyelashes. Though not verified, a 183 kg alligator snapping turtle was found in Kansas in 1937, another weighing 107 kg was housed at the Brookfield Zoo in suburban Chicago. Another large turtle reportedly weighed 135 kg and they generally do not grow quite that large. Breeding maturity is attained around 8 kg, when the length is around 33 cm, excluding exceptionally large specimens, adult alligator snapping turtles generally range in carapace length from 35 to 80.8 cm and weigh from 8.4 to 80 kg. Males are typically larger than females,88 adult alligator snapping turtles averaged 21.05 kg,92 averaged 19.72 kg, and 249 averaged 13.5 kg. Usually very old males comprise the specimens that weigh in excess of 45 kg per most population studies, among extant freshwater turtles, only the little-known giant softshell turtles of the genera Chitra, Rafetus, and Pelochelys, native to Asia, reach comparable sizes. In mature specimens, males and females can be differentiated by the position of the cloaca from the carapace, a mature males cloaca extends beyond the carapace edge, a females is placed exactly on the edge if not nearer to the plastron. The base of the tail of the male is also thicker as compared to females because of the reproductive organs. The inside of the mouth is camouflaged, and it possesses a vermiform appendage on the tip of its tongue used to lure fish. The turtle hunts by lying motionless in the water with its wide open. The vermiform tongue imitates the movements of a worm, luring prey to the turtles mouth, the mouth is then closed with tremendous speed and force, completing the ambush. Still, these turtles must be handled with care and considered potentially dangerous. This species can bite through the handle of a broom and rare cases have been reported where human fingers have been bitten off by the species. No human deaths have been reported to have been caused by alligator snapping turtles, Alligator snappers are opportunistic feeders that are almost entirely carnivorous
13.
Tarpon
–
Tarpons are large fish of the genus Megalops, one species is native to the Atlantic, and the other to the Indo-Pacific Seas. They are the members of the family Megalopidae. The two species of tarpon are Megalops atlanticus and the Megalops cyprinoides, M. atlanticus is found on the western Atlantic coast from Virginia to Brazil, throughout the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and throughout the Caribbean. Tarpon are also found along the eastern Atlantic coast from Senegal to South Angola, M. cyprinoides is found along the eastern African coast, throughout southeast Asia, Japan, Tahiti, and Australia. Both species are found in saltwater and freshwater habitats, usually ascending rivers to access freshwater marshes. They are able to survive in water, waters of varying pH, and habitats with low dissolved O2 content due to their swim bladders. They are also able to rise to the surface and take gulps of air, the habitats of tarpon vary greatly with their developmental stages. Stage-one larvae are found in clear, warm, oceanic waters. Stage-two and -three larvae are found in marshes, tidal pools, creeks. The habitats are characteristically warm, shallow, dark bodies of water with sandy mud bottoms, Tarpon commonly ascend rivers into freshwater. As they progress from the stage to adulthood, they move back to the open waters of the ocean. Tarpon grow to about 4–8 ft long and weigh 60–280 lbs and they have dorsal and anal soft rays and have bluish or greenish backs. Tarpon possess shiny, silvery scales that cover most of their bodies and they have large eyes with adipose eyelids and broad mouths with prominent lower jaws that jut out farther than the rest of the face. Tarpon breed offshore in warm, isolated areas, females have high fecundity and can lay up to 12 million eggs at once. They reach sexual maturity once they are about 75–125 cm in length, spawning usually occurs in late spring to early summer. Their three distinct levels of development usually occur in varying habitats, the first stage, the leptocephalus stage, or stage one, is completed after 20–30 days. It takes place in clear, warm waters, usually within 10–20 m of the surface. The leptocephalus shrinks as it develops into a larva, the most shrunken larva and this is due to a negative growth phase followed by a sluggish growth phase
14.
Spotted gar
–
It has a profusion of dark spots on its body, head, and fins. Spotted gar are long and have a mouth with many teeth used to eat other fish. They grow to 0. 61–0.91 metres in length and weigh 1. 8–2.7 kilograms on average, the name Lepisosteus is Greek for bony scale. Habitat for spotted gar is clear pools of water in creeks, rivers. The spotted gar is a part of the gar family and they are notable for being one of the few extant fish species with ganoid scales. They have been known to hybridize with Florida gar and it occurs in quiet, clear pools and backwaters of lowland creeks, small to large rivers, oxbow lakes, swamps, and sloughs. The fish is a predator, feeding on various kinds of fishes. The lifespan for L. oculatus varies between males and females, the maximum lifespan for a gar is 18 years. Males mature at the age of two or three, whereas females mature at three or four years old, females on average are known to be larger and live longer than the males. Females also have less annual mortality rates, the gar population is small in the north and is being threatened in Lake Erie by the destruction of their habitat and pollution. The gar is more common in the waters like the Mississippi River basin from southern Minnesota to Alabama. Historical records indicate the spotted gar resided in the Thames and Sydenham Rivers in Ontario, other invertebrates filled the remaining 23. 6% of the stomach. Gar are also known to eat insect larvae and algae, herbivorous fish eat the algae and zooplankton, and then herbivorous invertebrates are eaten by gar. Another food chain would be algae are eaten by herbivorous invertebrates and other carnivorous fish eat them, Gar do not have many predators, only carnivorous fish would eat them, mainly at an early life stage. Gar are a predator in the aquatic food chain in lakes. The fish would compete with other fish such as the bowfin. In one study, most spotted gar were shoreline oriented, preferred submerged branches as cover, during a flood pulse, a floodplain provides habitat for spawning and nursery habitat for gar eggs. Movement rates were higher during the summer than during the fall and winter, the temperature greatly affects their moving rates and their ability to range their home turf
15.
Salamander
–
All present-day salamander families are grouped together under the scientific name Urodela. Salamander diversity is most abundant in the Northern Hemisphere and most species are found in the Holarctic ecozone, Salamanders never have more than four toes on their front legs and five on their rear legs, but some species have fewer digits and others lack hind limbs. Their permeable skin usually makes them reliant on habitats in or near water or other cool, some salamander species are fully aquatic throughout their lives, some take to the water intermittently, and others are entirely terrestrial as adults. Unique among vertebrates, they are capable of regenerating lost limbs, members of the family Salamandridae are mostly known as newts and lack the costal grooves along the sides of their bodies typical of other groups. The skin of some species contains the poison tetrodotoxin and these salamanders tend to be slow-moving and have bright warning coloration to advertise their toxicity. Salamanders typically lay eggs in water and have aquatic larvae, in some species and some harsh environments, salamanders reproduce while still in the larval state. In literature and legend, the salamander is associated with fire, being supposedly unharmed by the flames, more plausibly, salamanders were said to be intensely poisonous. Despite this, salamander brandy, a prepared by dunking live salamanders in fermenting fruit juices, is reputed to have hallucinogenic. The skin lacks scales and is moist and smooth to the touch, except in newts of the Salamandridae, the skin may be drab or brightly colored, exhibiting various patterns of stripes, bars, spots, blotches, or dots. Male newts become dramatically colored during the breeding season, cave species dwelling in darkness lack pigmentation and have a translucent pink or pearlescent appearance. Salamanders range in size from the minute salamanders, with a length of 2.7 cm, including the tail, to the Chinese giant salamander which reaches 1.8 m. Most, however, are between 10 and 20 cm in length, an adult salamander generally resembles a small lizard, having a basal tetrapod body form with a cylindrical trunk, four limbs, and a long tail. Their function seems to be to keep the skin moist by channeling water over the surface of the body. The feet are broad with short digits, usually four on the front feet, Salamanders do not have claws, and the shape of the foot varies according to the animals habitat. Climbing species have elongated, square-tipped toes, while rock-dwellers have larger feet with short, when ascending, the tail props up the rear of the body, while one hind foot moves forward and then swings to the other side to provide support as the other hind foot advances. In larvae and aquatic salamanders, the tail is flattened, has dorsal and ventral fins. In the families Ambystomatidae and Salamandridae, the tail, which is larger than that of the female, is used during the amplexus embrace to propel the mating couple to a secluded location. In terrestrial species, the moves to counterbalance the animal as it runs, while in the arboreal salamander and other tree-climbing species
16.
Catfish
–
Catfish are a diverse group of ray-finned fish. There are armour-plated types and there are also naked types, neither having scales, despite their name, not all catfish have prominent barbel. Members of the Siluriformes order are defined by features of the skull, Catfish are of considerable commercial importance, many of the larger species are farmed or fished for food. Many of the species, particularly the genus Corydoras, are important in the aquarium hobby. Many catfish are nocturnal, but others are crepuscular or diurnal, extant catfish species live inland or in coastal waters of every continent except Antarctica. Catfish have inhabited all continents at one time or another, Catfish are most diverse in tropical South America, Asia and Africa with one family native to North America and one family in Europe. More than half of all species live in the Americas. They are the only ostariophysans that have entered freshwater habitats in Madagascar, Australia and they are found in freshwater environments, though most inhabit shallow, running water. Representatives of at least eight families are hypogean with three families that are also troglobitic, one such species is Phreatobius cisternarum, known to live underground in phreatic habitats. Numerous species from the families Ariidae and Plotosidae, and a few species from among the Aspredinidae and Bagridae, are found in salt water. In the United States, catfish species may be known by a variety of names, such as mud cat, polliwogs. These nicknames are not standardized, so one area may call a bullhead catfish by the nickname chucklehead, while in state or region. Representatives of the genus Ictalurus have been introduced into European waters in the hope of obtaining a sporting, however, the European stock of American catfishes has not achieved the dimensions of these fish in their native waters, and have only increased the ecological pressure on native European fauna. Walking catfish have also introduced in the freshwaters of Florida. Flathead catfish, Pylodictis olivaris, is also a North American pest on Atlantic slope drainages, pterygoplichthys species, released by aquarium fishkeepers, have also established feral populations in many warm waters around the world. In general, they are buoyant, which means that they will usually sink rather than float due to a reduced gas bladder. Catfish have a variety of shapes, though most have a cylindrical body with a flattened ventrum to allow for benthic feeding. A flattened head allows for digging through the substrate as well as serving as a hydrofoil
17.
American bullfrog
–
The American bullfrog, often simply known as the bullfrog in Canada and the United States, is an amphibious frog, a member of the family Ranidae, or “true frogs”. This frog has a green back and sides blotched with brownish markings. The upper lip is bright green and males have yellow throats. It inhabits large, permanent water bodies, such as swamps, ponds, and lakes, the male bullfrog defends a territory during the breeding season. His call is reminiscent of the roar of a bull, which gives the frog its common name, the bullfrog is harvested for use as food in North America and in several countries into which it has been introduced. It is also cultured in controlled environments, though this is a difficult, some international trade in frog legs occurs for human consumption. Bullfrogs are used in classes in schools for dissection and are sometimes kept as pets. Some authorities use the name, Lithobates catesbeiana, although others prefer Rana catesbeiana. A systematic review of the Holaractic true frogs in 2016 used Rana catesbeiana, as does AmphibiaWeb, the specific name, catesbeiana or catesbeianus, is in honor of English naturalist Mark Catesby. The dorsal surface of the bullfrog has an olive-green basal color, the ventral surface is off-white blotched with yellow or gray. There is often a marked contrast in color between the upper lip and the pale lower lip. The teeth are tiny and are only in grasping. The eyes are prominent with brown irises and horizontal almond-shaped pupils, the tympani are easily seen just behind the eyes and the dorsolateral folds of skin end close to them. The limbs are blotched or banded with gray, the forelegs are short and sturdy and the hind legs long. The front toes are not webbed, but the toes have webbing between the digits with the exception of the fourth toe which is unwebbed. Bullfrogs are sexually dimorphic, with males being smaller than females, males have tympani larger than their eyes, whereas the tympani in females are about the same size as the eyes. Bullfrogs measure about 3.6 to 6 in from snout to vent and they grow fast in the first eight months of life, typically increasing in weight from 5 to 175 g, and large mature individuals can weigh up to 500 g. In some cases bullfrogs have been recorded as attaining 800 g, the bullfrog is native to eastern North America
18.
Enteroctopus dofleini
–
Enteroctopus dofleini, also known as the Giant Pacific octopus or North Pacific giant octopus, is a large marine cephalopod belonging to the genus Enteroctopus. Its spatial distribution includes the coastal North Pacific, along California, Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, Alaska, Russia, northern Japan and it can be found from the intertidal zone down to 2,000 m, and is best adapted to cold, oxygen-rich water. It is arguably the largest octopus species, based on a record of a 71-kg individual weighed live. The alternative contender is the seven-arm octopus based on a 61-kg carcass estimated to have a mass of 75 kg. However, a number of questionable size records would suggest E. dofleini is the largest of all species by a considerable margin. All cephalopods have bilateral symmetry, a gland, a mantle. The octopus has eight arms, each of which has two rows of suckers, many of the suckers are lined with papillae or hooks for adhesion. The web between the arms can be expanded to form a structure to capture prey In the center of the arms is a mouth, containing beak. Cephalopods have a paralytic and digestive toxin in two salivary glands to aid in opening prey, water is pulled into the mantle and over gills or lamellae for oxygen uptake, and can be ejected forcefully through the siphon for jet propulsion. They are able to reach speeds of up to 40 km/h and they tend to use their arms as legs, and slowly crawl along the bottom. The siphon is used to expel ink for escaping predators. The entire body of the octopus is compressible, so that they are able to fit through any opening slightly bigger than the size of their beak and their arms are muscular hydrostats, which lengthen, contract and contort. Octopuses are poikilothermic or cool-blooded, have three hearts and blue copper-based blood, the mantle of the octopus is spherical in shape and contains most of the animals major organs. By contracting or expanding tiny pigment-containing sacs within cells known as chromatophores, sub categories of chromatophores include iridophores and leucophores. Octopuses are also able to alter their texture, providing even better camouflage. Dermal muscles in the skin can create a heavily textured look through papillation. All of these abilities are under nervous system control, E. dofleini is distinguished from other species by its sheer size. Adults usually weigh around 15 kg, with an arm span of up to 4.3 m
19.
Moray eel
–
Moray eels or Muraenidae are a cosmopolitan family of eels. The approximately 200 species in 15 genera are almost exclusively marine, but several species are seen in brackish water. The smallest moray is likely Snyders moray, which attains a length of 11.5 cm, while the longest species. The largest in terms of mass is the giant moray. The English name, from the early 17th century, derives from the Portuguese moréia, which derives from the Latin mūrēna, in turn from the Greek muraina. The dorsal fin extends from just behind the head along the back, most species lack pectoral and pelvic fins, adding to their serpentine appearance. Their eyes are small, morays rely on their highly developed sense of smell. In some species, the inside of the mouth is also patterned and their jaws are wide, framing a protruding snout. Most possess large teeth used to tear flesh or grasp prey items. Moray eels heads are too narrow to create the low pressure most fishes use to swallow prey, however, they have a second set of jaws in their throat called pharyngeal jaws, which also possess teeth. When feeding, morays launch these jaws into the mouth, where they prey and transport it into the throat. Moray eels are the animals that use pharyngeal jaws to actively capture. Morays secrete a protective mucus over their smooth, scaleless skin and they have much thicker skin and high densities of goblet cells in the epidermis that allows mucus to be produced at a higher rate than in other eel species. This allows sand granules to adhere to the sides of their burrows in sand-dwelling morays and their small, circular gills, located on the flanks far posterior to the mouth, require the moray to maintain a gap to facilitate respiration. Morays are carnivorous and feed primarily on fish, octopuses, squid, cuttlefish. Groupers, barracudas and sea snakes are among their few predators, commercial fisheries exist for several species, but some cause ciguatera fish poisoning. Reef-associated roving coralgroupers have been observed to recruit giant morays to join them in hunting for food, the invitation to hunt is initiated by head-shaking. The rationale for joining of forces is the ability of the morays to enter narrow crevices
20.
Amphiprioninae
–
Clownfish or anemonefish are fishes from the subfamily Amphiprioninae in the family Pomacentridae. Thirty species are recognized, one in the genus Premnas, while the remaining are in the genus Amphiprion, in the wild, they all form symbiotic mutualisms with sea anemones. Depending on species, anemonefish are overall yellow, orange, or a reddish or blackish color, the largest can reach a length of 18 centimetres, while the smallest barely achieve 10 centimetres. Anemonefish are native to waters of the Indian and Pacific oceans, including the Great Barrier Reef. While most species have restricted distributions, others are widespread, anemonefish live at the bottom of shallow seas in sheltered reefs or in shallow lagoons. There are no anemonefish in the Atlantic, anemonefish are omnivorous and can feed on undigested food from their host anemones, and the fecal matter from the anemonefish provides nutrients to the sea anemone. They may also consume the tentacles of their host anemone, anemonefish and sea anemones have a symbiotic, mutualistic relationship, each providing a number of benefits to the other. The individual species are generally highly host specific, and especially the genera Heteractis and Stichodactyla, the sea anemone protects the anemonefish from predators, as well as providing food through the scraps left from the anemones meals and occasional dead anemone tentacles. In return, the anemonefish defends the anemone from its predators, the anemone also picks up nutrients from the anemonefishs excrement, and functions as a safe nest site. The nitrogen excreted from anemonefish increases the amount of algae incorporated into the tissue of their hosts, studies on anemonefish have found that anemonefish alter the flow of water around sea anemone tentacles by certain behaviours and movements such as wedging and switching. Aeration of the host anemone tentacles allows for benefits to the metabolism of both partners, mainly by increasing anemone body size and both anemonefish and anemone respiration. There are several theories about how they can survive the sea anemone poison and this would mean that anemones fail to recognize the fish as a potential food source and do not fire their nematocysts, or sting organelles. The coevolution of species of anemonefish with specific anemone host species and may have acquired an immunity to the nematocysts. In a group of anemonefish, there is a dominance hierarchy. The largest and most aggressive female is found at the top, only two anemonefish, a male and a female, in a group reproduce through external fertilization. Anemonefish are sequential hermaphrodites, meaning that they develop into males first, if the female anemonefish is removed from the group, such as by death, one of the largest and most dominant males will become a female. The remaining males will move up a rank in the hierarchy, anemonefish lay eggs on any flat surface close to their host anemones. In the wild, anemonefish spawn around the time of the full moon, depending on the species, anemonefish can lay hundreds or thousands of eggs
21.
Acanthuridae
–
Acanthuridae is the family of surgeonfishes, tangs, and unicornfishes. The family includes about 86 extant species, the family is composed of marine fish living in tropical seas, usually around coral reefs. Many of the species are colored and popular for aquaria. The distinctive characteristic of the family is the spines, one or more on either side of the tail. The dorsal, anal, and caudal fins are large, extending for most of the length of the body, the small mouths have a single row of teeth used for grazing on algae. Surgeonfishes sometimes feed as solitary individuals, but they often travel. Feeding in schools may be a mechanism for overwhelming the highly aggressive defense responses of small territorial damselfishes that vigorously guard small patches of algae on coral reefs and this refers to the distinguishing characteristic of the family, the scalpel found on each members caudal peduncle. In the early 1900s, the family was called Hepatidae, tangs are very sensitive to disease in the home aquarium. However, if the tang is fed enough algae and the aquarium is properly maintained disease should not be a problem and it is usually necessary to quarantine the animals for a period before introducing them to the aquarium. Adults range from 15 to 40 centimetres in length and most grow quickly even in aquaria, when considering a tang for an aquarium it is important to consider the size to which these fish can grow. Many also suggest adding aggressive tangs to the aquarium last as they are territorial and may fight, tangs primarily graze on macroalgae from genera such as Caulerpa and Gracilaria, although they have been observed in an aquarium setting to eat meat-based fish foods. A popular technique for aquarists, is to grow macroalgae in a sump or refugium and this technique not only is economically beneficial, but serves to promote enhanced water quality through nitrate absorption. The growth of the algae can then be controlled by feeding it to the tang, university of Michigan Museum of Zoology. A compendium of fossil marine animal genera
22.
Grouper
–
Groupers are fish of any of a number of genera in the subfamily Epinephelinae of the family Serranidae, in the order Perciformes. Not all serranids are called groupers, the family includes the sea basses. The common name grouper is usually given to fish in one of two genera, Epinephelus and Mycteroperca. In addition, the species classified in the small genera Anyperidon, Cromileptes, Dermatolepis, Gracila, Saloptia, fish in the genus Plectropomus are referred to as coralgroupers. These genera are all classified in the subfamily Epiphelinae, nonetheless, the word grouper on its own is usually taken as meaning the subfamily Epinephelinae. The word grouper is most widely believedto be from the Portuguese name, the origin of this name in Portuguese is believed to be from an indigenous South American language. In Australia, groper is used instead of grouper for several species, in the Philippines, it is named lapu-lapu in Luzon, while in the Visayas and Mindanao it goes by the name pugapo. In New Zealand, groper refers to a type of wreckfish, Polyprion oxygeneios, in the Middle East, the fish is known as hammour, and is widely eaten, especially in the Persian Gulf region. Groupers are teleosts, typically having a body and a large mouth. They are not built for long-distance, fast swimming and they can be quite large, and lengths over a meter and weights up to 100 kg are not uncommon, though obviously in such a large group, species vary considerably. They swallow prey rather than biting pieces off it and they do not have many teeth on the edges of their jaws, but they have heavy crushing tooth plates inside the pharynx. They habitually eat fish, octopuses, and crustaceans, some species prefer to ambush their prey, while other species are active predators. Reports of fatal attacks on humans by the largest species, the giant grouper are unconfirmed and their mouths and gills form a powerful sucking system that sucks their prey in from a distance. They also use their mouths to dig into sand to form their shelters under big rocks, research indicates roving coralgroupers sometimes cooperate with giant morays in hunting. Groupers are mostly monandric protogynous hermaphrodites, i. e. they mature only as females and have the ability to change sex after sexual maturity, some species of groupers grow about a kilogram per year and are generally adolescent until they reach three kilograms, when they become female. The largest males often control harems containing three to 15 females, groupers often pair spawn, which enables large males to competitively exclude smaller males from reproducing. As such, if a small female grouper were to change sex before it could control a harem as a male, if no male is available, the largest female that can increase fitness by changing sex will do so. Gonochorism, or a strategy with two distinct sexes, has evolved independently in groupers at least five times
23.
Lutjanidae
–
Snappers are a family of perciform fish, Lutjanidae, mainly marine, but with some members inhabiting estuaries, feeding in fresh water. The family includes about 113 species, one of the best known is the red snapper. Snappers inhabit tropical and subtropical regions of all oceans, some snappers grow up to about 1 m in length however one specific Snapper, the Cubera Snapper, grows up to 5 ft in length. Most are active carnivores, feeding on crustaceans or other fish and they can be kept in aquaria, but mostly grow too fast to be popular aquarium fish. Most species live at depths reaching 100 m near coral reefs, as other fish, snappers harbour parasites. A detailed study conducted in New Caledonia has shown that coral reef-associated snappers harbour about 9 species of parasites per fish species
24.
Garibaldi (fish)
–
The Garibaldi or Garibaldi damselfish is a species of bright orange fish in the damselfish family. Garibaldis occur in the northeastern part of the Pacific Ocean. The common name is a reference to the Italian military and political figure Giuseppe Garibaldi, as is the case in all damselfish, male Garibaldis aggressively defend the nest site after the female lays eggs. Adult fish in species are orange in color. They are the largest member of the family and can grow up to 38 cm in length. Juveniles are more reddish, and have many small iridescent blue spots, adult Garibaldis also have a more opaque tail and dorsal fin. Garibaldis are found in water from a depth of up to 30 metres depth, usually in association with rock reefs and this species is native to the north-eastern subtropical parts of the Pacific Ocean, ranging from Monterey Bay, California, to Guadalupe Island, Baja California. Garibaldis feed mainly on invertebrates, which they remove from the rocks, like most damselfish, adult Garibaldis maintain a home territory. The male clears a sheltered nest site within his territory, the female deposits eggs within the nest. The male guards the nest area until the eggs hatch, which takes 19–21 days, the Garibaldi is the official marine state fish of California and is protected in Californian coastal waters. It is frequently seen off Santa Catalina Island, California and in La Jolla Cove, where it is locally very common
25.
Anemones
–
Anemone /əˈnɛməniː/ is a genus of about 200 species of flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae, native to temperate zones. The genus is related to Pulsatilla and Hepatica, some botanists even include both of these genera within Anemone. Anemone are perennials that have leaves with long leaf-stems that can be upright or prostrate. Leaves are simple or compound with lobed, parted, or undivided leaf blades, the leaf margins are toothed or entire. Flowers with 4–27 sepals are produced singly, in cymes of 2–9 flowers, or in umbels, the flowers have nectaries, but petals are missing in the majority of species. The fruits are ovoid to obovoid shaped achenes that are collected together in a cluster, ending variously lengthened stalks. The achenes are beaked and some species have feathery hairs attached to them, Anemone is derived from anemoi who were the Greek wind gods. Anemone is situated in the tribe, Anemoneae, subfamily Ranunculoideae, as considered in the broader sense the genus subsumes a number of previously independent genera including Hepatica, Pulsatilla, Knowltonia, Barneoudia and Oreithales. Several of these were included as separate genera within Anemoneae by Wang et al, a tribe with six genera in total. Early molecular analyses divided into the genus into two subgenera, with seven sections, and 12 informal subsections, ziman and colleagues treated the genus Anemone as 5 subgenera,23 sections,4 subsections,23 series and about 118 species. A further reclassification by Hoot and colleagues estimated 200 species, Hoot et al. found many of the previously defined subdivisions, based on morphological characteristics were polyphyletic or paraphyletic. In contrast two clearly defined monophyletic clades emerged corresponding to the two subgenera. Anemonidium demonstrated four subclades, corresponding to sections, the larger subgenus Anemone showed a similar pattern. Hoot et al. proposed the two subgenera be retained, Anemonidium Juz. Keiskea Tamura Anemonidium Spach Omalocarpus DC, within these sections a number of subsections and series were defined. Hepatica nobilis Anemone acutiloba According to the Oxford English Dictionary, Greek anemōnē means daughter of the wind, the Metamorphoses of Ovid tells that the plant was created by the goddess Venus when she sprinkled nectar on the blood of her dead lover Adonis. The name windflower is used for the genus as well as the wood anemone A. nemorosa. Anemone species are targeted by cutworms, the larvae of noctuid moths such as Angle Shades
26.
Starfish
–
Starfish or sea stars are star-shaped echinoderms belonging to the class Asteroidea. Common usage frequently finds these names being applied to ophiuroids. About 1,500 species of starfish occur on the seabed in all the worlds oceans and they are found from the intertidal zone down to abyssal depths,6,000 m below the surface. They typically have a disc and five arms, though some species have a larger number of arms. The aboral or upper surface may be smooth, granular or spiny, many species are brightly coloured in various shades of red or orange, while others are blue, grey or brown. Starfish have tube feet operated by a system and a mouth at the centre of the oral or lower surface. They are opportunistic feeders and are predators on benthic invertebrates. Several species have specialized feeding behaviours including eversion of their stomachs and they have complex life cycles and can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most can regenerate damaged parts or lost arms and they can shed arms as a means of defence, the Asteroidea occupy several significant ecological roles. Starfish, such as the sea star and the reef sea star, have become widely known as examples of the keystone species concept in ecology. The fossil record for starfish is ancient, dating back to the Ordovician around 450 million years ago, only the ossicles and spines of the animal are likely to be preserved, making remains hard to locate. With their appealing symmetrical shape, starfish have played a part in literature, legend, design and they are sometimes collected as curios, used in design or as logos, and in some cultures, despite possible toxicity, they are eaten. The scientific name Asteroidea was given to starfish by the French zoologist de Blainville in 1830 and it is derived from the Greek aster, ἀστήρ and the Greek eidos, εἶδος. The class Asteroidea belongs to the phylum Echinodermata, as well as the starfish, the echinoderms include sea urchins, sand dollars, brittle and basket stars, sea cucumbers and crinoids. The larvae of echinoderms have bilateral symmetry, but during metamorphosis this is replaced with radial symmetry, adult echinoderms are characterized by having a water vascular system with external tube feet and a calcareous endoskeleton consisting of ossicles connected by a mesh of collagen fibres. Starfish are included in the subphylum Asterozoa, the characteristics of which include a flattened, star-shaped body as adults consisting of a central disc, the subphylum includes the two classes of Asteroidea, the starfish, and Ophiuroidea, the brittle stars and basket stars. The starfish are a large and diverse class with about 1,500 living species, there are seven extant orders, Brisingida, Forcipulatida, Notomyotida, Paxillosida, Spinulosida, Valvatida and Velatida and two extinct ones, Calliasterellidae and Trichasteropsida. Most starfish have five arms that radiate from a central disc, Luidia ciliaris has seven arms, members of the Solasteridae have ten to fifteen while the Antarctic Labidiaster annulatus can have up to fifty
27.
Macaw
–
Macaws are long-tailed, often colourful New World parrots. Of the many different Psittacidae genera, six are classified as macaws, Ara, Anodorhynchus, Cyanopsitta, Primolius, Orthopsittaca, previously, the members of the genus Primolius were placed in Propyrrhura, but the former is correct in accordance with ICZN rules. Macaws are native to Central America and North America, South America, most species are associated with forests, especially rainforests, but others prefer woodland or savannah-like habitats. Proportionately larger beaks, long tails, and relatively bare, light-coloured, sometimes the facial patch is smaller in some species, and limited to a yellow patch around the eyes and a second patch near the base of the beak in the members of the genus Anodorhynchus. A macaws facial feather pattern is as unique as a fingerprint, the largest macaws are the hyacinth, Buffons and green-winged macaws. While still relatively large, macaws of the genera Cyanopsitta, Orthopsittaca and Primolius are significantly smaller than the members of Anodorhynchus, the smallest member of the family, the red-shouldered macaw, is no larger than some parakeets of the genus Aratinga. Macaws, like parrots, toucans and woodpeckers, are zygodactyl, having their first. There are 19 species of macaws, including extinct and critically endangered species, in addition, there are several hypothetical extinct species that have been proposed based on very little evidence. The Spixs macaw is now extinct in the wild. The glaucous macaw is also extinct, with only two reliable records of sightings in the 20th century. The greatest problems threatening the population are the rapid rate of deforestation. International trade of all species is regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora. Some species of macaws—the scarlet macaw as a listed in the CITES Appendix I. Sometimes macaws are hybridized for the pet trade and this would explain why the blue and gold is the most commonly hybridised macaw, and why the hybridising trend took hold among macaws. Common macaw hybrids include the harlequin, miligold macaw and the Catalina, in addition, unusual but apparently healthy intergeneric hybrids between the hyacinth macaw and several of the larger Ara macaws have also occasionally been seen in captivity. Macaws eat a variety of foods including seeds, nuts, fruits, palm fruits, leaves, flowers, Wild species may forage widely, over 100 km for some of the larger species such as Ara araurana and Ara ambigua, in search of seasonally available foods. Some foods eaten by macaws in certain regions in the wild are said to contain toxic or caustic substances which they are able to digest and it has been suggested that parrots and macaws in the Amazon Basin eat clay from exposed river banks to neutralize these toxins. In the western Amazon hundreds of macaws and other parrots descend to exposed river banks to consume clay on an almost daily basis – except on rainy days, rather, the macaws and other bird and animal species prefer clays with higher levels of sodium
28.
Red-bellied piranha
–
They are omnivorous foragers and feed on insects, worms, crustaceans and fish. They are not a species, but do travel to seek out conditions conducive to breeding and spawning during periods of increased rainfall. Red-bellied piranhas often travel in shoals as a defense. Acoustic communication is common, and is exhibited along with aggressive behaviors. At this time, the red-bellied piranha is not considered to be a species by the IUCN. Through media influence, the red-bellied piranha has developed a reputation as a ferocious predator and they are a popular aquarium fish. The red-bellied piranha belongs to the subfamily Serrasalmidae, which is a group of medium to large-sized characids and they are characterized by deep, lateral compressed bodies and long dorsal fins. Within the subfamily, red-bellied piranhas are classified in the genus Pygocentrus, the red-bellied piranha is considered to be highly carnivorous, while most non-piranhas in the family are primarily herbivorous. However, it should be noted that the red-bellied piranha is actually omnivorous and they live in the warm freshwater drainages of several major rivers including the Amazon, Rio Paraguay, Rio Paraná and Rio Essequibo, as well as numerous smaller systems. It is acclimated to waters that are between 15 and 35 °C and have a pH of 6 to 7 and is found in white water rivers and some freshwater streams. In the Brazilian Amazon, the red-bellied piranha may sometimes inhabit flooded forests, the red-bellied piranha has a popular reputation as a ferocious predator, despite being primarily a scavenger. As their name suggests, red-bellied piranhas have a tinge to the belly when fully grown. The largest measured individuals were around 50 centimetres in length and weighed around 3.9 kilograms, the rest of the body is often grey with silver-flecked scales. Sometimes, blackish spots appear behind the gills and the fin is usually black at the base. The pectoral and pelvic fins may vary from red to orange, females can be distinguished from males by the slightly deeper red color of their bellies. The red-bellied piranha is found in white water rivers, such as the Amazon River Basin. Sometimes, they may inhabit flooded forests such as found in the Brazilian Amazon. They live in shoals but do not do group hunting behavior, in the case of a feeding frenzy, schools of piranha will converge on one large prey individual, and eat it within minutes
29.
Stingray
–
Stingrays are a group of rays, which are cartilaginous fish related to sharks. Most stingrays have one or more barbed stingers on the tail, the stinger may reach a length around 35 cm, and its underside has two grooves with venom glands. The stinger is covered with a layer of skin, the integumentary sheath. A few members of the suborder, such as the manta and porcupine rays, stingrays are common in coastal tropical and subtropical marine waters throughout the world. Some species, such as Dasyatis thetidis, are found in temperate oceans. The river stingrays, and a number of stingrays, are restricted to fresh water. Most myliobatoids are demersal, but some, such as the pelagic stingray, there are about 220 known stingray species organised into 10 families and 29 genera. Stingray species are becoming threatened or vulnerable to extinction, particularly as the consequence of unregulated fishing. As of 2013,45 species have been listed as vulnerable or endangered by the IUCN, the status of some other species is poorly known, leading to their being listed as data deficient. The flattened bodies of stingrays allow them to conceal themselves in their environments. Stingrays do this by agitating the sand and hiding beneath it, because their eyes are on top of their bodies and their mouths on the undersides, stingrays cannot see their prey, instead, they use smell and electroreceptors similar to those of sharks. Stingrays feed primarily on molluscs, crustaceans, and occasionally on small fish, some stingrays mouths contain two powerful, shell-crushing plates, while other species only have sucking mouthparts. Stingrays settle on the bottom feeding, often leaving only their eyes. Coral reefs are favorite feeding grounds and are shared with sharks during high tide. He then places one of his two claspers into her valve, stingrays are ovoviviparous, bearing live young in litters of five to 13. The female holds the embryos in the womb without a placenta, instead, the embryos absorb nutrients from a yolk sac, and after the sac is depleted, the mother provides uterine milk. At the Sea Life London Aquarium, two female stingrays have delivered seven baby stingrays, although the mothers have not been near a male for two years, rays have been known to store sperm and not give birth until they decide the timing is right. A common predatory technique that has been observed among benthic elasmobranchs is ambushing behavior, there have been recorded occasions where this form of ambushing behavior of stingrays and related benthic sharks has been directed towards a common prey type
30.
Emerald tree boa
–
Corallus caninus, commonly called the emerald tree boa, is a non-venomous boa species found in the rainforests of South America. Since 2009 the species Corallus batesii has been distinguished from C. caninus, adults grow to about 6 feet in length. They have highly developed front teeth that are proportionately larger than those of any other non-venomous snake. The color pattern consists of an emerald green ground color with a white irregular interrupted zigzag stripe or so-called lightning bolts down the back. The bright coloration and markings are very distinctive among South American snakes, juveniles vary in color between various shades of light and dark orange or brick-red before ontogenetic coloration sets in and the animals turn emerald green. This also occurs in Morelia viridis, a species in which hatchlings. As opposed to belief, yellow juveniles do not occur in the emerald tree boa. Based on locality some herpetologists have considered whether they should be classified as a new species, the name recently suggested for this morphological variant, is Corallus batesii. Specimens from the Amazon River basin tend to grow the largest, are more docile than their Northern relatives and attain lengths of 7–9 feet. Those from the end of their range in Peru tend to be darker in color. Amazon Basin specimens generally have a white dorsal line, whereas the white markings in the Northern Shield specimens are quite variable. The snout scales in Amazon Basin specimens are much smaller than in their Northern, Southern and Western counterparts found, for example, in Surinam, Venezuela, Bolivia. Hybrid forms between the Northern Shield Corallus caninus and the Amazon Basin form are known to exist. C. caninus appears very similar to the green tree python, Morelia viridis, only very distantly related, this is an example of convergent evolution. Physical differences include the head scalation and the location of the pits around the mouth. The specific or subspecific name, batesii, is in honor of Henry Walter Bates, found in South America in the northern region of Colombia, Brazil, and from Venezuela to Suriname and the Guianas within the so-called Guiana Shield. The type locality given is Americae, the diet consists primarily of small mammals, but they have been known to eat some smaller bird species as well as lizards and frogs. Due to the extremely slow metabolism of this species, it feeds much less often than ground dwelling species, previously, it had been thought that the primary diet consisted of birds
31.
Poison dart frog
–
Poison dart frog is the common name of a group of frogs in the family Dendrobatidae which are native to tropical Central and South America. These species are diurnal and often have brightly colored bodies and this bright coloration is correlated with the toxicity of the species, making them aposematic. Some species of the Dendrobatidae family exhibit extremely bright coloration along with high toxicity, the species that have great toxicity, derive this from their diet of ants, mites and termites. Other species however, that exhibit cryptic coloration and low to no amounts of toxicity, many species of this family are threatened due to human infrastructure encroaching the places they inhabit. These amphibians are often called dart frogs due to the Amerindians indigenous use of their toxic secretions to poison the tips of blowdarts. Most species of poison frogs are small, sometimes less than 1.5 cm in adult length. They weigh 1 oz. on average, most poison dart frogs are brightly colored, displaying aposematic patterns to warn potential predators. Their bright coloration is associated with their toxicity and levels of alkaloids, for example, frogs of the genus Dendrobates have high levels of alkaloids, whereas Colostethus species are cryptically colored and are not toxic. Poison dart frogs are an example of an aposematic organism and their bright coloration advertises unpalatability to potential predators. This is surprising given the frequency-dependent nature of type of defense mechanism. Adult frogs lay their eggs in moist places, including on leaves, in plants, among exposed roots, and elsewhere. Once the eggs hatch, the adult piggybacks the tadpoles, one at a time, to water, either a pool. The tadpoles remain there until they metamorphose, fed by unfertilized eggs laid at intervals by the mother. Poison dart frogs are endemic to humid, tropical environments of Central and South America. These frogs are found in tropical rainforests, including in Bolivia, Costa Rica, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Suriname, French Guiana, Peru, Panama, Guyana, Nicaragua. Other species can be found in wet or flooded lowland grassland, arable land, pastureland, rural gardens, plantations, moist savanna. Premontane forests and rocky areas have also known to hold frogs. Dendrobatids tend to live on or close to the ground, many species of poison dart frogs are dedicated parents
32.
Archerfish
–
The family is small, consisting of seven species in a single genus Toxotes. The seven species typically inhabit brackish waters of estuaries and mangroves and they can be found from India to the Philippines, Indonesia, Australia, and Polynesia. Archerfish or spinnerfish bodies are deep and laterally compressed, with the fin. The mouth is protractile, and the lower jaw juts out, sizes are generally small, about 5–10 cm, but T. chatareus can reach 40 cm. Archerfish are popular for aquaria, but difficult to feed since they prefer live prey, archerfish are remarkably accurate in their shooting, adult fish almost always hit the target on the first shot. They can bring down insects and other prey up to 3 m above the waters surface and this is partially due to their good eyesight, but also their ability to compensate for the refraction of light as it passes through the air-water interface when aiming for their prey. They typically spit at prey at a angle of about 74° from the horizontal. The archerfish does this by forming a groove in the roof of its mouth. It then fires by contracting its gill covers and forcing water through the channel, shooting a stream that, shaped by its mouthparts, travels faster at the rear than at the front. It also makes one of the few animals who make and use tools, as they both utilise the water and shape it to make it more useful to them. Archerfish have been known to send a stream up to 5 metres and they are also persistent and will make multiple shots if their first one fails. Young archerfish start shooting when they are about 2.5 centimetres long, during this learning period, they hunt in small schools. This way, the probability is enhanced that at least one jet will hit its target, archerfish will often leap out of the water and grab an insect in their mouths if it happens to be within reach. Individuals typically prefer to remain close to the surface of the water, new research has found that archerfish use jets to also hunt underwater prey, such as those embedded in silt. It is not known whether they learned aerial or underwater shooting first, projectile use by living systems Froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds. Froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds
33.
Arowana
–
Arowanas are freshwater bony fish of the family Osteoglossidae, also known as bonytongues. In this family of fish, the head is bony and the body is covered by large, heavy scales. The dorsal and anal fins have soft rays and are long based, the name bonytongues is derived from a toothed bone on the floor of the mouth, the tongue, equipped with teeth that bite against teeth on the roof of the mouth. The arowana is a facultative air breather and can obtain oxygen from air by sucking it into its swim bladder, osteoglossids are basal fish that originated some time during the Cretaceous, and are placed in the actinopterygiid order Osteoglossiformes. As traditionally defined, the family includes several extant species from South America, one from Africa, several from Asia, today Arapaimidae is often regarded as a separate family, which includes the arapaimas and the African arowana. Consequently, the South American genus Osteoglossum, and the Asian and Australian genus Scleropages are the extant genera that remain in the osteoglossid family. Arapaimidae and Osteoglossidae split about 220 million years ago, during the Late Triassic, within Osteoglossidae, the South America Osteoglossum arowanas diverged from the Asian and Australian Scleropages arowanas about 170 Mya, during the Middle Jurassic. The Osteoglossidae are the only freshwater fish family found on both sides of the Wallace Line. At least five genera, known only from fossils, are classified as osteoglossids. Other fossils from as far back as the Late Jurassic or Early Cretaceous are widely considered to belong to the arowana superorder Osteoglossomorpha, osteoglossomorph fossils have been found on all continents except Antarctica. These fossil genera include Brychaetus, Joffrichthys, and Phareodus, arowana species typically grow to around 2 to 3 ft in captivity. Several species of osteoglossids exhibit parental care and they build nests and protect their young after they hatch. All species are mouthbrooders, the parents holding sometimes hundreds of eggs in their mouths, the young may make several tentative trips outside the parents mouth to investigate the surroundings before leaving permanently. Depending on the system used, there are 10 types of arowana commonly kept as pets,4 from Asia,3 from South America,2 from Australia and 1 from Africa. Arowanas are solitary fish and only allow company while young, adults may show dominance and these fish are best kept with live or frozen feed and they easily outgrow the tank within 8 to 10 months. An aquarium of at least 150 gallons is a minimum, while tanks upwards of 400-600 gallons is preferable, Australian species are best kept alone in aquaria. The name comes from the Indonesian language arwana or nirwana, meaning fish of paradise, archived from the original on 26 May 2006
34.
Skink
–
Skinks are lizards belonging to the family Scincidae and the infraorder Scincomorpha. With more than 1,500 described species, the Scincidae are one of the most diverse families of lizards, Skinks look roughly like true lizards, but most species have no pronounced neck and their legs are relatively small, several genera have no limbs at all. Other genera, such as Neoseps, have reduced limbs and with fewer than five toes on each foot, in such species, their locomotion resembles that of snakes more than that of lizards with well-developed limbs. As a general rule, the longer the digits, the more arboreal the species is likely to be, a biological ratio can determine the ecological niche of a given skink species. The Scincidae ecological niche index is a based on anterior foot length at the junction of the ulna/radius-carpal bones to the longest digit divided by the snout-to-vent length. Most species of skinks have long, tapering tails they can shed if predators grab onto them, such species generally can regenerate the lost part of a tail, though imperfectly. Species with stumpy tails have no special regenerative abilities, some species of skinks are quite small, Scincella lateralis typically ranges from 7.5 to 14.5 cm, more than half of which is the tail. Skink-like lizards first appear in the record about 140 million years ago, during the early Cretaceous. Definitively skink fossils appear later, during the Miocene period, the word skink comes from classical Greek skinkos, a name that referred to various specific lizards of the region. Skinks are generally carnivorous and in particular insectivorous, typical prey include flies, crickets, grasshoppers, beetles, and caterpillars. Various species also eat earthworms, millipedes, snails, slugs, isopods, moths, other lizards, some species, particularly those favored as home pets, have more varied diets and can be maintained on a regimen of roughly 60% vegetables/leaves/fruit and 40% meat. A trait apparent in all species of skink is a love of digging and burrowing. Most spend their time under ground where they are safe from predators. They also use their tongues to sniff the air and track their prey, when they encounter their prey, they chase it down until they corner it or manage to land a bite and then swallow it whole. As a family, skinks are cosmopolitan, species occur in a variety of worldwide, apart from boreal. Various species occur in ecosystems ranging from deserts and mountains to grasslands, more species are terrestrial or fossorial than arboreal or aquatic species. Some are sand swimmers, especially the species, such as the mole skink or sand skink in Florida. Some use a similar action in moving through grass tussocks
35.
Pterois
–
Pterois is a genus of venomous marine fish, commonly known as lionfish, native to the Indo-Pacific. Pterois radiata, Pterois volitans, and Pterois miles are the most commonly studied species in the genus, Pterois species are popular aquarium fish. P. volitans and P. miles are a recent and significant invasive species in the west Atlantic, Caribbean Sea and they are well known for their ornate beauty, venomous spines, and unique tentacles. Juvenile lionfish have a unique tentacle located above their eye sockets that varies in phenotype between species, the evolution of this tentacle is suggested to serve to continually attract new prey, studies also suggest it plays a role in sexual selection. Pterois species can live from five to 15 years and have complex courtship, females release two mucus-filled egg clusters frequently, which can contain as many as 15,000 eggs. Studies on Pterois reproductive habits have increased significantly in the past decade, all the species are aposematic, they have conspicuous coloration with boldly contrasting stripes and wide fans of projecting spines, advertising their ability to defend themselves. The amount of prey in lionfish stomachs over the course of the day suggests lionfish feed most actively from 7, 00–11,00 am, the lionfish then spreads its large pectoral fins and swallows its prey in a single motion. They blow jets of water while approaching prey, apparently to disorient them, in addition to confusing prey, these jets of water also alter the orientation of the prey so that the smaller fish is facing the lionfish. This results in a degree to predatory efficiency as head-first capture is easier for the lionfish. Moray eels, bluespotted cornetfish, and large groupers, like the tiger grouper and it remains unknown, however, how commonly these predators prey on lionfish. Sharks are also believed to be capable of preying on lionfish with no ill effects from their spines, Park officials of the Roatan Marine Park in Honduras have attempted to train sharks to feed on lionfish as of 2011 in an attempt to control the invasive populations in the Caribbean. Predators of larvae and juvenile lionfish remain unknown, but may prove to be the limiting factor of lionfish populations in their native range. Parasites of lionfish have rarely been observed and are assumed to be infrequent, Lionfish are known for their venomous fin rays, an uncommon feature among marine fish in the East Coast coral reefs. The potency of their venom makes them excellent predators and venomous to fishermen, Pterois venom produced negative inotropic and chronotropic effects when tested in both frog and clam hearts and has a depressing effect on rabbit blood pressure. These results are thought to be due to nitric oxide release, rarely, such stings can cause temporary paralysis of the limbs, heart failure, and even death. Fatalities are common in young children, the elderly, those with a weak immune system. Their venom is rarely fatal to healthy adults, but some species have enough venom to produce extreme discomfort for a period of several days. However, Pterois venom is a danger to allergic victims as they may experience anaphylaxis, severe allergic reactions to Pterois venom include chest pain, severe breathing difficulties, a drop in blood pressure, swelling of the tongue, sweating, runny nose, or slurred speech
36.
Pufferfish
–
The Tetraodontidae are a family of primarily marine and estuarine fish of the order Tetraodontiformes. They are morphologically similar to the related porcupinefish, which have large external spines. The scientific name refers to the four teeth, fused into an upper and lower plate. The majority of species are toxic and some are among the most poisonous vertebrates in the world. Other pufferfish species with nontoxic flesh, such as the northern puffer, Sphoeroides maculatus, the Tetraodontidae contain at least 120 species of puffers in 28 genera, They are typically small to medium in size, although a few species can reach lengths of greater than 100 cm. They are most diverse in the tropics, relatively uncommon in the temperate zone, most pufferfish species live in marine or brackish waters, but some can enter fresh water. About 35 species spend their entire lifecycles in fresh water and these fresh water species are found in disjunct tropical regions of South America, Africa and Southeast Asia. The puffers unique and distinctive natural defenses help compensate for its slow locomotion and it moves by combining pectoral, dorsal, anal, and caudal fins. This makes it highly maneuverable, but very slow, and therefore a comparatively easy predation target. Its tail fin is used as a rudder, but it can be used for a sudden evasive burst of speed that shows none of the care. The puffers excellent eyesight, combined with this speed burst, is the first and most important defense against predators, the pufferfishs secondary defense mechanism, used if successfully pursued, is to fill its extremely elastic stomach with water until it is much larger and almost spherical in shape. This neurotoxin is found primarily in the ovaries and liver, although smaller amounts exist in the intestines and skin and it does not always have a lethal effect on large predators, such as sharks, but it can kill humans. Not all puffers are necessarily poisonous, the flesh of the northern puffer is not toxic, takifugu oblongus, for example, is a fugu puffer that is not poisonous, and toxin level varies wildly even in fish that are. A puffers neurotoxin is not necessarily as toxic to animals as it is to humans. Also, Japanese fish farmers have grown nonpoisonous puffers by controlling their diets, Puffers are able to move their eyes independently, and many species can change the color or intensity of their patterns in response to environmental changes. In these respects, they are similar to the terrestrial chameleon. Although most puffers are drab, many have bright colors and distinctive markings and this is likely an example of honestly signaled aposematism. Many marine puffers have a pelagic, or open-ocean, life stage, spawning occurs after males slowly push females to the water surface or join females already present
37.
Electric eel
–
The electric eel is an electric fish, and the only species in its genus. Despite the name, it is not an eel, but rather a knifefish, the electric eel has an elongated, cylindrical body, typically growing to about 2 m in length, and 20 kg in weight, making them the largest species of the Gymnotiformes. Their coloration is dark gray-brown on the back and yellow or orange on the belly, mature males have a darker color on the belly. The mouth is square, and positioned at the end of the snout, the anal fin extends the length of the body to the tip of the tail. As in other fishes, the swim bladder has two chambers. The anterior chamber is connected to the ear by a series of small bones derived from neck vertebrae called the Weberian apparatus. The posterior chamber extends along the length of the body. E. electricus has a sense of hearing. This fish has a respiratory system with gas exchange occurring through epithelial tissue in its buccal cavity. As obligate air-breathers, electric eels must rise to the surface every ten minutes or so to inhale before returning to the bottom, nearly eighty percent of the oxygen used by the fish is obtained in this way. Despite its name, the eel is not closely related to the true eels, but is a member of the neotropical knifefish order. The electric eel has three pairs of organs that produce electricity, the main organ, the Hunters organ. These organs make up four-fifths of its body, and give the electric eel the ability to generate two types of electric discharges, low voltage and high voltage. These organs are made of electrocytes, lined up so a current of ions can flow through them, when the eel finds its prey, the brain sends a signal through the nervous system to the electrocytes. This opens the ion channels, allowing sodium to flow through, by causing a sudden difference in electric potential, it generates an electric current in a manner similar to a battery, in which stacked plates each produce an electric potential difference. In the electric eel, some 5,000 to 6,000 stacked electroplaques can make a shock up to 860 volts and 1 ampere of current for two milliseconds. Such a shock is extremely unlikely to be deadly for an adult human, atrial fibrillation requires that roughly 700 mA be delivered across the heart muscle for 30 ms or more, far longer than the eel can produce. The Sachs organ is associated with electrolocation, inside the organ are many muscle-like cells, called electrocytes
38.
Reticulated python
–
The reticulated python is a species of python found in Southeast Asia. They are the worlds longest snakes and longest reptiles, and among the three heaviest snakes, like all pythons, they are nonvenomous constrictors and normally not considered dangerous to humans. However, cases of people killed by reticulated pythons have been documented, an excellent swimmer, P. reticulatus has been reported far out at sea and has colonized many small islands within its range. The specific name, reticulatus, is Latin meaning net-like, or reticulated and this species is the largest snake native to Asia. More than a thousand wild reticulated pythons in southern Sumatra were studied and estimated to have a range of 1.5 to 6.5 m. Reticulated pythons with lengths more than 6 m are rare, though according to the Guinness Book of World Records, a reticulated python of the same length as a green anaconda may weigh only half as much as the bulkier anaconda. One of the largest scientifically measured specimens, from Balikpapan, East Kalimantan, Indonesia, was measured under anesthesia at 6.95 m, when Colossus died on April 14,1963, its body was deposited in the Carnegie Museum of Natural History. The hide tends to stretch from the process, and thus be longer than the snake from which it came – e. g. by roughly 20–40% or more. Because of these issues, a 2012 journal article concluded that Colossus was neither the longest snake nor the heaviest snake ever maintained in captivity, too large to be preserved with formaldehyde and then stored in alcohol, the specimen was instead prepared as a disarticulated skeleton. The hide was sent to a laboratory to be tanned, but it was either lost or destroyed, there is considerable confusion in the literature over whether Colossus was male or female. The colour pattern is a geometric pattern that incorporates different colours. The back typically has a series of diamond shapes flanked by smaller markings with light centers. In this species wide range, much variation of size, colour. In zoo exhibits, the pattern may seem garish, but in a shadowy jungle environment amid fallen leaves and debris. Called disruptive colouration, it protects them from predators and helps them to catch their prey, the smooth dorsal scales are arranged in 69–79 rows at midbody. There are deep pits on four anterior upper labials, on two or three anterior lower labials, and on five or six lower labials. The original description does not include a type locality, three subspecies have been proposed, but are not recognized in the Integrated Taxonomic Information System. The color and size can vary a great deal among the subspecies described, geographical location is a good key to establishing the subspecies, as each one has a distinct geographical range
39.
Nurse shark
–
The nurse shark is a shark in the family Ginglymostomatidae. Nurse sharks can reach a length of 3.08 m, the nurse shark family name, Ginglymostomatidae, derives from the Greek, from γίγγλυμος meaning hinge and στόμα meaning mouth. Cirratum also derives from Greek, meaning curl or swim, the nurse shark is a common inshore bottom-dwelling shark, found in tropical and subtropical waters on the continental and insular shelves of the Atlantic and East Pacific. It is frequently found at depths of 1 m or less and its common habitats are reefs, channels between mangrove islands and sand flats. It can be seen in the Western Atlantic from Rhode Island down to southern Brazil, including the Caribbean, in the East Pacific it ranges from Baja California to Peru. The nurse shark has two rounded dorsal fins, rounded fins, an elongated caudal fin, and a broad head. Nurse sharks are brownish in color, maximum adult length established by reliable reports is 3.08 m, earlier reports of lengths up to 4.5 m and corresponding weights of up to 330 kg are likely to have been exaggerated. Nurse sharks are nocturnal animals, spending the day in large groups of up to 40 individuals. Hidden under submerged ledges or in crevices within the reef, the sharks seem to prefer specific resting sites. By night, the sharks are solitary, they spend most of their time rifling through the bottom sediments in search of food. Their diet consists primarily of crustaceans, molluscs, tunicates, sea snakes, in this way nurse sharks are able to suck in their prey with a short, violent influx of water. Nurse sharks are known to consume algae and coral, although this may be the by-catch caused by their method of eating. Nurse sharks have been observed resting on the bottom with their bodies supported on their fins, possibly providing a shelter for crustaceans which they then ambush. Nurse sharks are able to respire while stationary by pumping water through their mouths and it was shown that compared to sharks such as the shortfin mako shark, nurse sharks only use about eighteen percent of the energy a more active predatory shark would use. The mating season runs from late June to the end of July, nurse sharks are ovoviviparous, meaning the eggs develop and hatch within the body of the female where the hatchlings develop further until live birth occurs. The gestation period is six months, with a litter of 21–29 pups. The mating cycle is biennial, as it takes 18 months for the females ovaries to produce another batch of eggs, during which time, the young nurse sharks are born fully developed at about 30 cm long in Ginglymostoma cirratum. They possess a spotted coloration which fades with age, the nurse shark is not widely commercially fished, but because of its sluggish behaviour it is an easy target for local fisheries
40.
Carangidae
–
Carangidae is a family of fish which includes the jacks, pompanos, jack mackerels, runners, and scads. They are marine fishes found in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, most species are fast-swimming predatory fishes that hunt in the waters above reefs and in the open sea, some dig in the sea floor for invertebrates. The largest fish in the family, the greater amberjack, Seriola dumerili, grows up to 2 m in length, the family contains many important commercial and game fish, notably the Pacific tunfisk, Trachurus symmetricus, and the other jack mackerels in the genus Trachurus. The several extinct genera include Archaeus, Pseudovomer, and Eastmanalepes
41.
Blue runner
–
The blue runner, Caranx crysos, is a common species of moderately large marine fish classified in the jack family, Carangidae. The blue runner is distributed across the Atlantic Ocean, ranging from Brazil to Canada in the western Atlantic, the blue runner is distinguished from similar species by several morphological features, including the extent of the upper jaw, gill raker count and lateral line scale counts. The blue runner is known to reach a length of 70 cm and 5.05 kg in weight. The species inhabits inshore and offshore environments, predominantly over reefs, however it is known to congregate around large man made offshore structures such as oil platforms. Juveniles tend to inhabit shallower reef and lagoon waters, before moving to deeper waters as adults, the blue runner is a schooling, predatory fish, predominantly taking fish in inshore environments, as well as various crustaceans and other invertebrates. Fish living offshore feed nearly exclusively on zooplankton, the species reaches sexual maturity at between 225 and 280 mm across its range, with spawning occurring offshore year round, although this peaks during the warmer months. Larvae and juveniles live pelagically, often under sargassum mats or jellyfish until they move inshore, the blue runner is of high importance to fisheries, with an annual catch of between 6000 and 7000 tonnes taken from the Americas in the last five years. The species is also a light tackle gamefish, taking baits lures and flies, there has been some suggestion that the eastern Pacific species Caranx caballus, the green jack, may be conspecific with C. crysos, although this currently remains unresolved. The blue runner is classified within the genus Caranx, one of a number of known as the jacks or trevallies. Caranx itself is part of the jack and horse mackerel family Carangidae. He named the species Scomber crysos and suggested a name of yellow mackerel, with the specific epithet reflecting this. The taxon has been placed in either Caranx, Carangoides or Paratractus. The species has been independently redescribed three times, first as Caranx fusus, which is incorrectly used by some authors. These names are considered junior synonyms under ICZN rules. The species has common names, with the most common being blue runner. There has been suggestions that the runner may be conspecific with the eastern Pacific species Caranx caballus. The blue runner is moderately large in size, growing to a maximum confirmed length of 70 cm and 5.05 kg in mass, but is more common at lengths less than 35 cm. The posterior section of the eye is covered by a well developed adipose eyelid
42.
Seahorse
–
Seahorse is the name given to 54 species of small marine fishes in the genus Hippocampus. Hippocampus comes from the Ancient Greek word hippos meaning horse and kampos meaning sea monster, the word seahorse can also be written as two separate words, or hyphenated. Having a head and neck suggestive of a horse, seahorses also feature segmented bony armour, an upright posture, four species are found in Pacific waters from North America to South America. In the Atlantic, H. erectus ranges from Nova Scotia to Uruguay, H. zosterae, known as the dwarf seahorse, is found in the Bahamas. Colonies have been found in European waters such as the Thames Estuary, three species live in the Mediterranean Sea, H. guttulatus, H. hippocampus, and H. fuscus. These species form territories, males stay within 1 m2 of habitat, seahorses range in size from 1.5 to 35.5 cm. They are named for their appearance with bent necks and long snouted heads followed by their distinctive trunk. Although they are fish, they do not have scales, but rather thin skin stretched over a series of bony plates. Each species has a number of rings. Seahorses swim upright, another characteristic not shared by their close pipefish relatives, razorfish are the only other fish that swim vertically. They swim upright propelling themselves by using the dorsal fin, the pectoral fins located on either side of the head are used for maneuvering. They lack the caudal fin typical of fishes and their prehensile tail can only be unlocked in the most extreme conditions. They are adept at camouflage with the ability to grow and reabsorb spiny appendages depending on their habitat, unusual among fish, a seahorse has a flexible, well-defined neck. It also sports a crown-like spine or horn on its head, termed a coronet, seahorses swim very poorly, rapidly fluttering a dorsal fin and using pectoral fins to steer. The slowest-moving fish in the world is H. zosterae, with a top speed of about 5 ft per hour, since they are poor swimmers, they are most likely to be found resting with their prehensile tails wound around a stationary object. They have long snouts, which use to suck up food. Anatomical evidence, supported by molecular, physical, and genetic evidence, the fossil record of seahorses, however, is very sparse. The best known and best studied fossils are specimens of H. guttulatus, from the Marecchia River Formation of Rimini Province, Italy, dating back to the Lower Pliocene, molecular dating finds that pipefish and seahorses diverged during the Late Oligocene
43.
Chuckwalla
–
Chuckwallas are large lizards found primarily in arid regions of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. Some are found on coastal islands, the five species of chuckwallas are all placed within the genus Sauromalus, they are part of the iguanid family, Iguanidae. The generic name, Sauromalus, is a combination of two Ancient Greek words, σαῦρος meaning lizard and ομαλυς meaning flat, the common name chuckwalla derives from the Shoshone word tcaxxwal or Cahuilla čaxwal, transcribed by Spaniards as chacahuala. Chuckwallas are stocky, wide-bodied lizards with flattened midsections and prominent bellies and their tails are thick, tapering to a blunt tip. Loose folds of skin characterize the neck and sides of their bodies, the common chuckwalla measures 15 3/4 inches long, whereas insular species such as the San Esteban chuckwalla of San Esteban Island can measure as long as 30 in. The genus Sauromalus has a distribution in biomes of the Sonoran. The peninsular chuckwalla is found on the portion of the southern half of the Baja California Peninsula. The other species are island-dwelling, so have more restricted distributions. The Angel Island chuckwalla is found on Isla Ángel de la Guarda, chuckwallas prefer lava flows and rocky areas typically vegetated by creosote bush and other such drought-tolerant scrub. The lizards may be found at elevations up to 4,500 ft. Primarily herbivorous, chuckwallas feed on leaves, fruit, the lizards are said to prefer yellow flowers, such as those of the brittlebush. Harmless to humans, these lizards are known to run from potential threats, when disturbed, a chuckwalla wedges itself into a tight rock crevice and inflates its lungs to entrench itself. Males are seasonally and conditionally territorial, an abundance of resources tends to create a hierarchy based on size, chuckwallas use a combination of color and physical displays, namely push-ups, head-hobbing, and gaping of the mouth, to communicate and defend their territory. Chuckwallas are diurnal animals and as they are ectothermic, spend much of their mornings and these lizards are well adapted to desert conditions, they are active at temperatures up to 102°F. Juveniles emerge first, then adults, as temperatures reach around 90°F, chuckwallas hibernate during cooler months and emerge in February. Mating occurs from April to July, with five to 16 eggs laid between June and August, the eggs hatch in late September. Chuckwallas may live for 25 years or more, the Comca’ac considered the Angel Island species of chuckwalla an important food item. They are believed to have translocated the lizards to most of the islands in Bahia de los Angeles for use as a source in times of need. ARKive - images and movies of the San Esteban Island chuckwalla www. chuckwalla-reptiles-tirol. at https, //www. facebook. com/groups/555917997826565/
44.
Narrow-gauge railway
–
A narrow-gauge railway is a railway with a track gauge narrower than the 1,435 mm of standard gauge railways. Most existing narrow-gauge railways are between 600 mm and 1,067 mm, narrow-gauge railways also have specialized use in mines and other environments where a very small structure gauge makes a very small loading gauge necessary. Narrow-gauge railways also have general applications. Many narrow-gauge street tramways are used, particularly in Europe, where 1,000 mm metre gauge tramways are common, the earliest recorded railway is shown in the De re metallica of 1556, which shows a mine in Bohemia with a railway of about 2 ft gauge. During the 16th century, railways were mainly restricted to hand-pushed narrow-gauge lines in mines throughout Europe, during the 17th century, mine railways were extended to provide transportation above ground. These lines were industrial, connecting mines with nearby transportation points and these railways were usually built to the same narrow gauge as the mine railways from which they developed. The worlds first steam locomotive on rails, built in 1802 by Richard Trevithick for the Coalbrookdale Company, during the 1820s and 1830s, a number of industrial narrow-gauge railways in the United Kingdom used steam locomotives. In 1842, the first narrow-gauge steam locomotive outside the UK was built for the 1,100 mm gauge Antwerp-Ghent Railway in Belgium, historically, many narrow-gauge railways were built as part of specific industrial enterprises and were primarily industrial railways rather than general carriers. Some common uses for these industrial narrow-gauge railways were mining, logging, construction, tunnelling, quarrying, extensive narrow-gauge networks were constructed in many parts of the world for these purposes. For example, mountain logging operations in the 19th century often used narrow-gauge railways to transport logs from mill sites to market, significant sugarcane railways still operate in Cuba, Fiji, Java, the Philippines, and Queensland. Narrow-gauge railway equipment remains in use for the construction of tunnels. Extensive narrow-gauge railway systems served the front-line trenches of both sides in World War I and they were a short-lived military application, and after the end of the war, the surplus equipment from these created a small boom in narrow gauge railway building in Europe. Narrow-gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. It is also used in populated areas where the potential demand is too low for broader gauge railways to be economically viable. This is the case in some of Australia and most of Southern Africa, the use of such railways has almost vanished due to the capabilities of modern trucks. In many countries, narrow gauge railways were built as feeder or branch lines to feed traffic to more important standard gauge lines, the choice was often not between a narrow-gauge railway and a standard gauge one, but between a narrow-gauge railway and none at all. Some bulk commodities, such as coal, ore, and gravel, can be transshipped, but this still incurs time penalties
45.
C. P. Huntington
–
C. P. Huntington is a 4-2-4T steam locomotive on static display at the California State Railroad Museum in Sacramento, California, USA. It is the first locomotive purchased by the Southern Pacific Railroad, the locomotive is named in honor of Collis P. Huntington, the third president of the Southern Pacific Company. C. P. Huntington was originally purchased by Central Pacific Railroad in 1863 as that railroads number 3 and it was CPs third locomotive after Gov. Stanford and Pacific. CP used the beginning on April 15,1864, during construction of the western portion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in North America. Southern Pacific purchased C. P. Huntington from CP on February 5,1871, gave it their number 1 and it was rebuilt twice, first in 1873 with new valves and again in 1888 with a new boiler built by CPs Sacramento shops. In 1888 the locomotive was put on public display for the first time in Sacramento. In SPs 1891 renumbering plan, C. P. Huntington was assigned road number 1001, the locomotive was placed in storage for some time until it was rebuilt for use as a lineside weed burner in 1901. Its use as a weed burner proved unsatisfactory and the locomotive was removed from active service. In 1910, C. P. Huntington was again rebuilt, the locomotive was nearly scrapped in 1914, it was spared this fate by SP management so that it could be displayed at the Panama–Pacific International Exposition in 1915 after a cosmetic restoration. C. P. Huntington is on display at the California State Railroad Museum. Chance Rides began to fabricate their 2 ft narrow gauge C. P, powered by a gasoline, propane or Diesel engine to an automatic transmission then a 90* drop down gearbox to drive shafts to the front and rear power trucks. Its drive wheels are not powered, but roll on the rails and fake side rods reciprocate in, the false drive wheels have been removed by some owners for ease of maintenance. This has been the most popular park train since The Allan Herschell Company merged into Chance Industries, Huntington replicas operating the perimeter track at the Santa Barbara Zoo. The Lincoln Childrens Zoo in Lincoln, Nebraska, operates a 2 ft narrow gauge C. P, Huntington locomotive on its ZO&O Railroad train ride around the park. Established in 1963 as the Iron Horse Railroad, the first C. P, Huntington locomotive was delivered to the Lincoln Childrens Zoo founder, Arnot R. Folsom, by Richard H. Chance, President of Chance Rides in Wichita, Kansas. The first engineer hired by Folsom in 1963 was a high school student, J. D. Ayres. In October 1963, the city of Lincoln staged a Golden Spike Ceremony attended by the Mayor, City Council, the ceremonial Golden Spike was an actual track spike of a type used extensively in building the railroad, but which had been gold plated for the event. The Iron Horse Railroad operated successfully as the primary revenue generator for the Lincoln Childrens Zoo prior to the opening in 1965
46.
Downtown Houston
–
Downtown Houston is Houstons central business district, containing the headquarters of many prominent companies. There is a network of pedestrian tunnels and skywalks connecting the buildings of the district. The tunnel system is home to restaurants, shops and services. What is now Downtown made up almost all of the City of Houston until expansions of the city limits in the early 20th century, Downtown Houston was the original founding point of the city. After the Texas Revolution, two New York real estate promoters, John Kirby Allen and Augustus Chapman Allen, purchased 6,642 acres of land from Thomas F. L, parrot and his wife, Elizabeth, for $9,428. The Allen brothers first landed in the area where the White Oak Bayou and Buffalo Bayou meet, gail Borden, Jr. a city planner, laid out wide streets for the town. The city was granted incorporation by the Texas legislature on June 5,1837, Houston was the temporary capital of Texas. In 1840, the town was divided into four wards, each with different functions in the community, by 1906 what is now Downtown was divided among six wards. The wards are no longer political divisions, but their names are used to refer to certain areas. Houston became a choice, as only the most powerful storms were able to reach the city. The second came a year later with the 1901 discovery of oil at spindletop, shipping and oil industries began flocking to east Texas, many settling in Houston. From that point forward the area grew substantially, as many skyscrapers were constructed, in the 1980s, however, economic recession canceled some projects and caused others to be scaled back, such as the Bank of the Southwest Tower. Ralph Bivins of the Houston Chronicle wrote that Fox said that area was a neighborhood of Victorian-era homes. Bivins said that the construction of Union Station, which occurred around 1910, hotels opened in the area to service travelers. Afterwards, according to Bivins, the area began a downward slide toward the skid row of the 1990s. Passenger trains stopped going to Union Station in 1974, the construction of Interstate 45 in the 1950s separated portions of the historic Third Ward from the rest of the Third Ward and brought those portions into Downtown. Beginning in the 1960s the development of the 610 Loop caused the focus of the Houston area to move away from Downtown Houston, in the mid-1980s, the bank savings and loan crisis forced many tenants in Downtown Houston buildings to retrench, and some tenants went out of business. Barna said that this development further caused Downtown Houston to decline, the Gulf Hotel fire occurred in 1943
47.
Houston Skyline District
–
The Houston Skyline District is a geographic area encompassing severral blocks of downtown Houston, Texas, United States. The collection of skyscrapers in this district creates one of the largest skylines in the United States, most of Houstons major modern buildings can be found in this district, including the two tallest buildings in both Houston and Texas, the JPMorgan Chase Tower and Wells Fargo Bank Plaza. These buildings are home to the headquarters of various multinational businesses, most of the buildings in the Skyline District are connected by the Houston Downtown Tunnel System. Downtown Houston Architecture of Houston Houston Skyline District map
48.
Houston Theater District
–
More than two million people visit the Houston Theater District annually. Houston is recognized as an important city for contemporary visual arts, the Houston Grand Opera is the only opera company in the U. S. to win a Grammy, a Tony, and an Emmy. In 2007, Da Camera of Houston was awarded the CMAcclaim Award from Chamber Music America, the Alley Theatre, founded in 1947, is Houstons oldest professional theatre company. The Alley is the theatre in Texas to win the Tony Award for best Regional Theatre. The Alley is the third oldest continually operating theatre in the United States, Alley Theatre Hubbard Stage Neuhaus Stage Hobby Center for the Performing Arts Sarofim Hall Zilkha Hall Jesse H. Early venues in the district were the Sam Houston Coliseum and the Houston Music Hall, the district is served by METRORail light rail service at Theater District Station. Houston Theater District Alley Theatre Da Camera of Houston Theatre Port
