1.
Linked data
–
In computing, linked data is a method of publishing structured data so that it can be interlinked and become more useful through semantic queries. This enables data from different sources to be connected and queried, tim Berners-Lee, director of the World Wide Web Consortium, coined the term in a 2006 design note about the Semantic Web project. Tim Berners-Lee outlined four principles of linked data in his Linked Data note of 2006, paraphrased along the following lines, Use HTTP URIs so that these things can be looked up. Provide useful information about what a name identifies when its looked up, using standards such as RDF, SPARQL. Refer to other things using their HTTP URI-based names when publishing data on the Web, tim Berners-Lee gave a presentation on linked data at the TED2009 conference. In it, he restated the linked data principles as three extremely simple rules, All kinds of things, they have names now that start with HTTP. If I take one of these HTTP names and I look it up. I will get back some data in a format which is kind of useful data that somebody might like to know about that thing. When I get back that information its not just got somebodys height and weight, and when it has relationships, whenever it expresses a relationship then the other thing that its related to is given one of those names that starts with HTTP. Tim Berners-Lee gives the clearest definition of linked data in differentiation with linked data. Linked Open Data is Linked Data which is released under an open licence, large linked open data sets include DBpedia and Freebase. The term linked open data has been in use since at least February 2007, the mailing list was initially hosted by the SIMILE project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In October 2007, datasets consisted of two billion RDF triples, which were interlinked by over two million RDF links. By September 2011 this had grown to 31 billion RDF triples, a detailed statistical breakdown was published in 2014. There are a number of European Union projects involving linked data and these include the linked open data around the clock project, the PlanetData project, the DaPaaS project, and the Linked Open Data 2 project. Data linking is one of the goals of the EU Open Data Portal. DBpedia – a dataset containing extracted data from Wikipedia, it contains about 3
2.
Semantic Web
–
The Semantic Web is an extension of the Web through standards by the World Wide Web Consortium. The standards promote common data formats and exchange protocols on the Web, according to the W3C, The Semantic Web provides a common framework that allows data to be shared and reused across application, enterprise, and community boundaries. The term was coined by Tim Berners-Lee for a web of data that can be processed by machines, while its critics have questioned its feasibility, proponents argue that applications in industry, biology and human sciences research have already proven the validity of the original concept. The 2001 Scientific American article by Berners-Lee, Hendler, and Lassila described an expected evolution of the existing Web to a Semantic Web, in 2006, Berners-Lee and colleagues stated that, This simple idea…remains largely unrealized. In 2013, more than four million Web domains contained Semantic Web markup, in the following example, the text Paul Schuster was born in Dresden on a Website will be annotated, connecting a person with their place of birth. The following HTML-fragment shows how a small graph is being described, in RDFa-syntax using a schema. org vocabulary, the triples result in the graph shown in the given figure. One of the advantages of using Uniform Resource Identifier is that they can be dereferenced using the HTTP protocol, according to the so-called Linked Open Data principles, such a dereferenced URI should result in a document that offers further data about the given URI. This enables automated agents to access the Web more intelligently and perform tasks on behalf of users. He defines the Semantic Web as a web of data that can be processed directly and indirectly by machines, many of the technologies proposed by the W3C already existed before they were positioned under the W3C umbrella. In addition, other technologies with similar goals have emerged, such as microformats. A Semantic Web, which makes possible, has yet to emerge, but when it does. The intelligent agents people have touted for ages will finally materialize, the Semantic Web is regarded as an integrator across different content, information applications and systems. It has applications in publishing, blogging, and many other areas, many files on a typical computer can also be loosely divided into human readable documents and machine readable data. Documents like mail messages, reports, and brochures are read by humans, Data, such as calendars, addressbooks, playlists, and spreadsheets are presented using an application program that lets them be viewed, searched and combined. Metadata tags provide a method by which computers can categorise the content of web pages, for example, With HTML, rather, HTML can only say that the span of text X586172 is something that should be positioned near Acme Gizmo and €199, etc. There is no way to say this is a catalog or even to establish that Acme Gizmo is a kind of title or that €199 is a price. There is also no way to express that these pieces of information are together in describing a discrete item. Semantic HTML refers to the traditional HTML practice of markup following intention, for example, the use of <em> denoting emphasis rather than <i>, which specifies italics
3.
Dublin, Ohio
–
Dublin is a city in Franklin, Delaware, and Union counties in the U. S. state of Ohio. The population was 41,751 at the 2010 census, Dublin is a suburb of Columbus, Ohio. Each year in late May or early June, the city hosts the Memorial Tournament, consequently, numerous golf aficionados choose to make Dublin their home. There are also several golf courses in Dublin. The Riviera Golf Club was home to the American-Italian Golf Association, tartan Fields Golf Club hosted the LPGAs Wendys Championship for Children from 2002 through 2006. Dublin also has a golf course financed by the Muirfield association. Other annual events include the July 4 music event, a St. Patricks Day parade, and the Dublin Irish Festival, which is one of the largest Irish-American festivals. Although its earliest settlements date back to 1802, the village that became Dublin did not begin to take shape until the arrival of the Sells family from Huntingdon, Pennsylvania. Brothers Peter and Benjamin Sells purchased 400 acres of land on the west bank of the Scioto River as a gift for their brother John. In 1808, John Sells brought his family to the region, and by 1810 he had begun to survey lots for the new village with his partner, by 1833, Dublin contained several mills and only one store. In 1970, Dublin was still a town with only 681 residents. However, the construction of Interstate 270 facilitated a population boom, spearheaded by the acquisition of corporate headquarters such as Ashland Inc. In addition, the growth of the Muirfield Village Golf Club, Dublin was officially declared a city in 1987, after reaching a population of 5,000 residents. As part of this boom Dublin significantly expanded its area, annexing parts of Washington, Perry, Concord, Dublin is located at 40°6′33″N 83°8′25″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 24.80 square miles. The Scioto River passes through Dublin, in this area the river and its tributaries cut deep gorges through the limestone bedrock, and the riverbed is stony. Some of these tributaries feature waterfalls, located on the Glaciated Allegheny Plateau, Dublin has relatively flat topography. Nevertheless, there are numerous ravines surrounding the tributaries of the Scioto River, elevations range from 780 feet above sea level where the Scioto River leaves the city at Hayden Run Road, while the high point is 1000 feet at Glacier Ridge Metro Park
4.
OCLC
–
The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
5.
National Center for Supercomputing Applications
–
NCSA operates as a unit of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, and provides high-performance computing resources to researchers across the country. Support for NCSA comes from the National Science Foundation, the state of Illinois, the University of Illinois, business and industry partners, NCSA provides leading-edge computing, data storage, and visualization resources. Nearly 1,360 scientists, engineers and students used the computing, NCSA is led by astrophysicist Ed Seidel. NCSA is one of the five centers in the National Science Foundations Supercomputer Centers Program. Smarr wrote a proposal to address the needs of scientific research. Seven other University of Illinois professors joined as co-principal investigators, known as the Black Proposal, it was submitted to the NSF in 1983. It met the NSFs mandate and its contents immediately generated excitement, however, the NSF had no organization in place to support it, and the proposal itself did not contain a clearly defined home for its implementation. The result was that four supercomputer centers would be chartered, with a fifth added later, the Black Proposal was approved in 1985 and marked the foundation of NCSA, with $42,751,000 in funding from 1 January 1985 through 31 December 1989. This was also noteworthy in that the NSFs action of approving an unsolicited proposal was unprecedented, NCSA opened its doors in January 1986. Jean Laetitia Soliday was hired as a receptionist in 1989 and has worked in NCSA continuously since then, jean currently holds the title of Office Manager. In this sense, the significant role played by the U. S. Government in funding the center, significantly, it expressed a clear vision of how to get from the present to the future. The proposal was titled A Center for Scientific and Engineering Supercomputing, modern readers of the Black Proposal may gain insight into a world that no longer exists. Todays computers are easy to use, and the web is omnipresent, employees in high-tech endeavors are given supercomputer accounts simply because they are employees. Computers are universally available and can be used by almost anyone of any age, at the time the proposal was written, computers were available to almost no one. For scientists who needed computers in their research, access was difficult if available at all, the effect on research was crippling. The implementation of the Black Proposal had a role in shaping the computer technology of today. The proposals description of the edge of scientific research may be sobering. A comprehensive list of the worlds supercomputers shows the best resources that were then available, the thrust of the proposal may seem obvious now, but was then novel
6.
Library science
–
Rather than classifying information based on nature-oriented elements, as was previously done in his Bavarian library, Schrettinger organized books in alphabetical order. The first American school for science was founded by Melvil Dewey at Columbia University in 1887. It is an aspect of the field of librarianship. Historically, library science has also included archival science, LIS should not be confused with information theory, the mathematical study of the concept of information. Library and information science can also be seen as an integration of the two fields of science and information science, which were separate at one point. Library philosophy has been contrasted with science as the study of the aims. The earliest text on library operations, Advice on Establishing a Library was published in 1627 by French librarian, Naudé wrote prolifically, producing works on many subjects including politics, religion, history, and the supernatural. He put into all the ideas put forth in Advice when given the opportunity to build. Martin Schrettinger wrote the textbook on the subject from 1808 to 1829. The Jefferson collection provided the start of what became the Library of Congress, the term library economy was common in the U. S. until 1942, with the library science predominant through much of the 20th century. Later, the term was used in the title of S. R. Ranganathans The Five Laws of Library Science, published in 1931, and in the title of Lee Pierce Butlers 1933 book, An introduction to library science. S. R. Ranganathan conceived the five laws of science and the development of the first major analytico-synthetic classification system. In India, he is considered to be the father of science, documentation. He was one of the first faculty at the University of Chicago Graduate Library School and this research agenda went against the more procedure-based approach of library economy, which was mostly confined to practical problems in the administration of libraries. While Ranganathans approach was philosophical it was tied more to the day-to-day business of running a library. A reworking of Ranganathans laws was published in 1995 which removes the constant references to books, in more recent years, with the growth of digital technology, the field has been greatly influenced by information science concepts. This university was the first in Asia to begin teaching library science, the Punjab Library Primer was the first textbook on library science published in English anywhere in the world. The first textbook in the United States was the Manual of Library Economy and this report had a significant impact on library science training and education
7.
Computer science
–
Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
8.
Museum
–
Most large museums are located in major cities throughout the world and more local ones exist in smaller cities, towns and even the countryside. Museums have varying aims, ranging from serving researchers and specialists to serving the general public, the goal of serving researchers is increasingly shifting to serving the general public. There are many types of museums, including art museums, natural history museums, science museums, war museums, the city with the largest number of museums is Mexico City with over 128 museums. According to The World Museum Community, there are more than 55,000 museums in 202 countries, the English museum comes from the Latin word, and is pluralized as museums. The first museum/library is considered to be the one of Plato in Athens, however, Pausanias gives another place called Museum, namely a small hill in Classical Athens opposite to the Akropolis. The hill was called Mouseion after Mousaious, a man who used to sing on the hill, the purpose of modern museums is to collect, preserve, interpret, and display items of artistic, cultural, or scientific significance for the education of the public. The purpose can also depend on ones point of view, to a family looking for entertainment on a Sunday afternoon, a trip to a local history museum or large city art museum could be a fun, and enlightening way to spend the day. To city leaders, a healthy museum community can be seen as a gauge of the health of a city. To a museum professional, a museum might be seen as a way to educate the public about the museums mission, Museums are, above all, storehouses of knowledge. In 1829, James Smithsons bequest, that would fund the Smithsonian Institution, stated he wanted to establish an institution for the increase, Museums of natural history in the late 19th century exemplified the Victorian desire for consumption and for order. Gathering all examples of classification of a field of knowledge for research. As American colleges grew in the 19th century, they developed their own natural history collections for the use of their students, while many large museums, such as the Smithsonian Institution, are still respected as research centers, research is no longer a main purpose of most museums. While there is a debate about the purposes of interpretation of a museums collection, there has been a consistent mission to protect. Much care, expertise, and expense is invested in efforts to retard decomposition in aging documents, artifacts, artworks. All museums display objects that are important to a culture, as historian Steven Conn writes, To see the thing itself, with ones own eyes and in a public place, surrounded by other people having some version of the same experience can be enchanting. Museum purposes vary from institution to institution, some favor education over conservation, or vice versa. For example, in the 1970s, the Canada Science and Technology Museum favored education over preservation of their objects and they displayed objects as well as their functions. One exhibit featured a printing press that a staff member used for visitors to create museum memorabilia
9.
Data model
–
A data model is an abstract model that organizes elements of data and standardizes how they relate to one another and to properties of the real world entities. For instance, a model may specify that the data element representing a car be composed of a number of other elements which, in turn, represent the color and size of the car. The term data model is used in two distinct but closely related senses, at other times it refers to a set of concepts used in defining such formalizations, for example concepts such as entities, attributes, relations, or tables. So the data model of an application may be defined using the entity-relationship data model. This article uses the term in both senses, a data model explicitly determines the structure of data. Data models are specified in a modeling notation, which is often graphical in form. A data model can sometimes be referred to as a data structure, Data models are often complemented by function models, especially in the context of enterprise models. Managing large quantities of structured and unstructured data is a function of information systems. Data models describe the structure, manipulation and integrity aspects of the data stored in data management systems such as relational databases and they typically do not describe unstructured data, such as word processing documents, email messages, pictures, digital audio, and video. The main aim of data models is to support the development of systems by providing the definition. According to West and Fowler if this is done consistently across systems then compatibility of data can be achieved, if the same data structures are used to store and access data then different applications can share data. The results of this are indicated above, however, systems and interfaces often cost more than they should, to build, operate, and maintain. They may also constrain the business rather than support it, a major cause is that the quality of the data models implemented in systems and interfaces is poor. Business rules, specific to how things are done in a place, are often fixed in the structure of a data model. This means that changes in the way business is conducted lead to large changes in computer systems. Entity types are not identified, or incorrectly identified. This can lead to replication of data, data structure, and functionality, together with the attendant costs of that duplication in development, Data models for different systems are arbitrarily different. The result of this is that complex interfaces are required between systems that share data and these interfaces can account for between 25-70% of the cost of current systems
10.
Resource Description Framework
–
The Resource Description Framework is a family of World Wide Web Consortium specifications originally designed as a metadata data model. It is also used in knowledge management applications, RDF was adopted as a W3C recommendation in 1999. The RDF1.0 specification was published in 2004, the RDF1.1 specification in 2014, the RDF data model is similar to classical conceptual modeling approaches. It is based upon the idea of making statements about resources in the form of subject–predicate–object expressions, the subject denotes the resource, and the predicate denotes traits or aspects of the resource, and expresses a relationship between the subject and the object. For example, one way to represent the notion The sky has the blue in RDF is as the triple, a subject denoting the sky, a predicate denoting has the color. Therefore, RDF swaps object for subject in contrast to the approach of an entity–attribute–value model in object-oriented design, entity, attribute. RDF is a model with several serialization formats, so the particular encoding for resources or triples varies from format to format. RDFs simple data model and ability to model disparate, abstract concepts has led to its increasing use in knowledge management applications unrelated to Semantic Web activity. A collection of RDF statements intrinsically represents a labeled, directed multi-graph and this theoretically makes an RDF data model better suited to certain kinds of knowledge representation than other relational or ontological models. However, in practice, RDF data is persisted in relational database or native representations. As RDFS and OWL demonstrate, one can build additional ontology languages upon RDF, guha at Apple and Tim Bray at Netscape. The W3C published a specification of RDFs data model and an XML serialization as a recommendation in February 1999, secondly that RDF was an XML format, rather than RDF being a data model and only the RDF/XML serialisation being XML-based. RDF saw little take-up in this period, but there was significant work carried out in Bristol, around ILRT at Bristol University and HP Labs, RSS1.0 and FOAF became exemplar applications for RDF in this period.0, and The RDF Test Cases. Several common serialization formats are in use, including, Turtle, N-Triples, a very simple, easy-to-parse, line-based format that is not as compact as Turtle. N-Quads, a superset of N-Triples, for serializing multiple RDF graphs, n3 or Notation3, a non-standard serialization that is very similar to Turtle, but has some additional features, such as the ability to define inference rules. RDF/XML, an XML-based syntax that was the first standard format for serializing RDF, RDF/XML is sometimes misleadingly called simply RDF because it was introduced among the other W3C specifications defining RDF and it was historically the first W3C standard RDF serialization format. However, it is important to distinguish the RDF/XML format from the abstract RDF model itself, with a little effort, virtually any arbitrary XML may also be interpreted as RDF using GRDDL, Gleaning Resource Descriptions from Dialects of Languages. RDF triples may be stored in a type of database called a triplestore, the subject of an RDF statement is either a uniform resource identifier or a blank node, both of which denote resources
11.
ISO/IEC 19788
–
The ISO15836 Dublin Core and the IEEE1484.12. 1-2002 Learning Object Metadata are widely used to describe learning resources. However, interoperability among DC data sets is challenging, as best practices are only recommended, instead of using ISO8601, a DC Date element can be written in plain language and not processed by queries. Ambiguous definitions pose another challenge as data elements and vocabulary values can be interpreted in a subjective way, for example, the DC Date can be linked to resource creation time, update or publication. In the LOM, the Cost element can only have a “yes” or “no” values and this is also true for LOM records as they are based on a wide variety of Application profiles. The ISO/IEC19788 standard is intended to provide compatibility with both DC and the LOM and supports multilingual and cultural adaptability requirements from a global perspective. To avoid ambiguity and provide interoperability, metadata learning resources data elements are documented using attributes, the Resource Description Framework is a method for conceptual description of metadata information. Assertions about a resource are made using triples where subject represents the learning resource, predicate is a property identifier. In a MLR triple, the subject is always the literal of an identifier of the learning resource, the predicate is also a literal, the MLR data element specification identifier. For example, ISO_IEC_19788-2,2011, DES0100 tells us that this DES can be found in part 2 of the standard, finally, the object can be a literal or a resource class. Computers can easily connect and query linked data structured information, for example, a teacher wishing to annotate a learning resource may do it a single RDFa triple. A repository service could gather all the information about a learning resource from a wide variety of external sources. A working draft of Bindings draft of Bindings can be found on the GTN-Quebec standard workgroup site, the GTN-Quebec also has a working draft in French of its Normetic application profile, previously based on Learning Objects Metadata standard, that can provide a glimpse of Parts 10 and 4. As of November 2014, parts 1 to 5 are released as international standards, the other parts are still under development. Specifies, through adding constraints to the use of data elements. Part 3 promotes interoperability among repositories, future editions of this part will likely include additional data element from Parts 4 and beyond such as Technical or Educational data elements. The description of pedagogical use of a learning resource includes annotations, contributions, curriculum, educational outcome, audience and it also provides an OWL2 DL ontology for the resource classes and data element specifications. This Part enables the storage of learning resource description in databases. It can be used to track of the record editing process including global metadata author identification, last record update
12.
Rarian
–
Rarian is a document cataloging system. It manages documentation metadata, as specified by the Open Source Metadata Framework, rarian is used by the GNOME desktop help browser, Yelp. It has replaced ScrollKeeper, as originally designed
13.
GNOME
–
GNOME is a desktop environment composed of free and open-source software that runs on Linux and most BSD derivatives. GNOME was originally an acronym for GNU Network Object Model Environment, GNOME is developed by The GNOME Project, which is composed of both volunteers and paid contributors, the largest corporate contributor being Red Hat. GNOME is part of the GNU Project, since GNOME2, productivity has been a key focus for GNOME. To this end, the GNOME Human Interface Guidelines were created, all GNOME programs share a coherent style of graphical user interface but are not limited to the employment of the same GUI widgets. Rather, the design of the GNOME GUI is guided by concepts described in the GNOME HIG, following the HIG, developers can create high-quality, consistent, and usable GUI programs, as it addresses everything from GUI design to recommended pixel-based layout of widgets. During the GNOME2 rewrite, many settings deemed of value to the majority of users were removed. Or even configurable to be the union of all applications that anyones ever seen on any historical platform and it turns out that preferences have a cost. Of course, some also have important benefits – and can be crucial interface features. But each one has a price, and you have to consider its value. Many users and developers dont understand this, and end up with a lot of cost, GNOME aims to make and keep the desktop environment physically and cognitively ergonomic for people with disabilities. The GNOME HIG tries to take this account as far as possible. Particular utilities are registered with ATK using Assistive Technology Service Provider Interface, several assistive technology providers, including Orca screen reader and Dasher input method, were developed specifically for use with GNOME. GNOME Shell is the user interface of the GNOME desktop environment. It features a top bar holding an Activities button, a menu, a clock. The status menu holds various system status indicators, shortcuts to system settings, and session actions including logging out, switching users, locking the screen, clicking on the Activities button, moving the mouse to the top-left hot corner or pressing the Super key brings up the Overview. The Overview gives users an overview of current activities and provides a way to switch between windows and workspaces and to launch applications, the Dash on the left houses shortcuts to favorite applications and open windows and an application picker button to show a list of all installed applications. A search bar appears at the top and a workspace list for switching between workspaces is on the right, notifications appear from the bottom of the screen. Beginning with GNOME3.8, GNOME provides a Classic Mode for those who prefer a traditional desktop experience, GNOME3.24 will extend Wayland compatibility to NVidia drivers
14.
KDE
–
KDE is an international free software community that develops Free and Libre software. Well-known products include the Plasma Desktop, KDE Frameworks and a range of applications designed to run on modern Unix-like. It further provides tools and documentation for developers that enables them to write software and this supporting role makes KDE a central development hub and home for many popular applications and projects like Calligra Suite, Krita or digiKam. The Plasma Desktop, being one of the most recognized projects of KDE, is the desktop environment on many Linux distributions, such as openSUSE, Mageia, Chakra, Kubuntu. It was also the default desktop environment on PC-BSD, but was replaced with Lumina. The work of the KDE community can be measured in the following figures, more than 1800 contributors participate in developing KDE software. About 20 new developers contribute their first code each month, KDE Software consists of over 6 million lines of code. KDE Software is translated in over 108 languages, KDE Software is available on more than 114 official FTP mirrors in over 34 countries. A read-only mirror of all repositories can be found on Github, K Desktop Environment was founded in 1996 by Matthias Ettrich, who was then a student at the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen. At the time, he was troubled by certain aspects of the Unix desktop, among his concerns was that none of the applications looked, felt, or worked alike. He proposed the creation of not merely a set of applications but a desktop environment in which users could expect things to look, feel, and work consistently. He also wanted to make this easy to use, one of his complaints about desktop applications of the time was that it is too complicated for end user. His initial Usenet post spurred a lot of interest, and the KDE project was born, the name KDE was intended as a wordplay on the existing Common Desktop Environment, available for Unix systems. CDE is an X11-based user environment jointly developed by HP, IBM and it was supposed to be an intuitively easy-to-use desktop computer environment. The K was originally suggested to stand for Kool, but it was decided that the K should stand for nothing in particular. Therefore, the KDE initialism expanded to K Desktop Environment before it was dropped altogether in favor of KDE = Community due to the rebranding effort. The rebranding focused on de-emphasizing the desktop environment as just another product, what would have been previously known as KDE4 was split into three products, Plasma Workspaces, KDE Applications, and KDE Platform – bundled as KDE Software Compilation 4. As of today the name KDE no longer stands for K Desktop Environment, the financial and legal matters of KDE are handled by KDE e. V
15.
Zope
–
Zope is a community project concerned with a free and open-source, object-oriented web application server written in the Python programming language. Zope stands for Z Object Publishing Environment, and was the first system using the now common object publishing methodology for the Web, Zope has been recognized as a Python killer app, an application that helped put Python in the spotlight. Over the last few years, the Zope community has spawned several additional web frameworks with disparate aims and principles, but sharing philosophy, people, and source code. Zope 2 is still the most widespread of these frameworks, largely thanks to the Plone content management system, BlueBream is less widespread but underlies several large sites, including Launchpad. Grok was started as a more programmer-friendly framework, Zope 3 for cavemen, the Zope Corporation was formed in 1995 in Fredericksburg, Virginia under the name Digital Creations, as a joint venture with InfiNet. The company developed a classified advertisement engine for the Internet, in 1997, the company became independently owned and private. The companys software engineers are led by CTO Jim Fulton, pythonLabs, creators of Python, became part of the company in the year 2000. Python founder Guido van Rossum left Zope Corp in 2003, what is now known as Zope 2 began with the merging of three separate software products – Bobo, Document Template, and BoboPOS – into the Principia application server. At the behest of its largest investor, Opticality Ventures, Principia was re-released as free software under the name Zope in 1998, Bobo, and therefore Zope, was the first Web object publishing solution. In November 2004, Zope 3 was released, Zope 3 is a complete rewrite that preserves only the original ZODB object database. It is directly intended for enterprise Web application development using the newest development paradigms, Zope 3 is, however, not compatible with Zope 2, so you cannot run Zope 2 applications on Zope 3. It was originally intended to introduce a backwards-compatibility layer so that Zope 2 software would run on Zope 3, instead a module known as Five introduced the new Zope 3 paradigms into Zope 2, although full compatibility isnt possible that way either. The existence of two incompatible Web frameworks called Zope has caused a lot of confusion, in response, in January 2010, Zope 3 was renamed BlueBream. Zope and blue bream are names of a kind of fish, the Zope Foundation is an organization that promotes the development of the Zope platform by supporting the community that develops and maintains the relevant software components. The community includes both open source software, documentation and web infrastructure contributors, as well as business and organization consumers of the software platform and it manages the zope. org websites, an infrastructure for open source collaboration. A Zope website is usually composed of objects in a Zope Object Database, not files on a file system and this allows users to harness the advantages of object technologies, such as encapsulation. Zope maps URLs to objects using the containment hierarchy of such objects, data can be stored in other databases as well, or on the file system, but ZODB is the most common solution. Zope provides two mechanisms for HTML templating, Document Template Markup Language and Zope Page Templates, DTML is a tag-based language that allows implementation of simple scripting in the templates
16.
Plone (software)
–
Plone is a free and open source content management system built on top of the Zope application server. Plone is positioned as an Enterprise CMS and is most commonly used for intranets, high-profile public sector users include the U. S. Federal Bureau of Investigation, Brazilian Government, United Nations, City of Bern, New South Wales Government, and European Environment Agency. Plones proponents cite its security track record and its accessibility as reasons to choose Plone, the largest sprint of the year is the sprint immediately following the annual conference. Certain other sprints are considered strategic so are funded directly by the Plone Foundation, the Plone Foundation also holds and enforces all copyrights and trademarks in Plone, and is assisted by legal counsel from the Software Freedom Law Center. The Plone project began in 1999 by Alexander Limi, Alan Runyan and it was made as a usability layer on top of the Zope Content Management Framework. The first version was released in 2001, the project quickly grew into a community, receiving plenty of new add-on products from its users. The increase in community led to the creation of the annual Plone conference in 2003, in addition, sprints are held, where groups of developers meet to work on Plone, ranging from a couple of days to a week. In March 2004, Plone 2.0 was released and this release brought more customizable features to Plone, and enhanced the add-on functions. In May 2004, the Plone Foundation was created for the development, marketing, the Foundation has ownership rights over the Plone codebase, trademarks, and domain names. Even though the foundation was set up to protect ownership rights, on March 12,2007, Plone 3 was released. This new release brought inline editing, a visual editor. Plone 4 was released in September 2010, up to September 2007, there have been over 200 developers contributing to Plones code. Plone won two Packt Open Source CMS Awards, Plone runs on the Zope application server, which is written in Python. Plone by default stores all information in Zopes built-in transactional object database and it comes with installers for Windows, macOS, and Linux, along with other operating systems. New updates are released regularly on Plones website, Plone is available in over 35 languages. Since version 3.0, it claims conformance to WCAG1.0 AA and U. S. section 508, an update to make Plone conform to WCAG2.0 has been planned. A major part of Plone is its use of skins and themes, when working with Plone, templates can be used to customize a websites look. These templates are written with Cascading Style Sheets, in addition, Plone comes with a user management system called Pluggable Authentication Service
17.
Fedora Commons
–
Fedora is a digital asset management architecture upon which institutional repositories, digital archives, and digital library systems might be built. Fedora is the architecture for a digital repository, and is not a complete management, indexing, discovery. It is an architecture built on the principle that interoperability and extensibility are best achieved by the integration of data, interfaces. The Fedora Repository open source software is a project supported by the DuraSpace not-for-profit organization, the software has its origins in the Flexible Extensible Digital Object Repository Architecture which was originally designed and developed by researchers at Cornell University. Fedora is an architecture for storing, managing, and accessing digital content in the form of digital objects inspired by the Kahn and Wilensky Framework. The University of Virginia began experimenting with the Cornell software and later joined with Cornell to establish the Fedora Repository project that re-implemented Fedora as open source software. Since then, several modifications have made to the architecture. Fedora defines a set of abstractions for expressing digital objects, asserting relationships among digital objects, in 2003 Red Hat, Inc. applied for trademark status for the name Fedora to be associated with their Linux operating system project. Fedora provides a management layer for digital objects. Object management is based on content models that represent data objects or collections of data objects, the objects contain linkages between datastreams, metadata, system metadata, and behaviors that are themselves code objects that provide bindings or links to disseminators. Content models can be thought of as containers that give a shape to information poured into them, if the information fits the container. A Fedora Repository provides a management layer for digital objects. Fedora supports ingest and export of digital objects in a variety of XML formats and this enables interchange of objects between Fedora and other applications, as well as facilitating digital preservation and archiving. Digital Object Model The FEDORA digital object model allows aggregation of both metadata and digital content as datastreams, regardless of format and physical location, FEDORA objects can include content from external or distributed repositories. Digital Objects can be modeled to represent many types of entities from digital texts, publications, photos, videos, Digital objects can have associated behaviors that can provide different views of the object, or that can produce dynamic transformations of digital object content. Relationships The FEDORA digital object model supports the ability to assert semantic relationships using the Resource Description Framework, relationships between objects and within objects can be indexed using a semantic triplestore that enables queries over the entire repository of digital objects. Repository Service is based upon four main Application Programming Interfaces, manage, access, search, the system is scalable and flexible and Fedora users have adopted the repository as a core component of many applications and platforms. The Fedora Project is currently supported by the DuraSpace organization, Content management system Digital preservation Islandora Acs, B. et al
18.
EPUB
–
EPUB is an e-book file format with the extension. epub that can be downloaded and read on devices like smartphones, tablets, computers, or e-readers. It is a standard published by the International Digital Publishing Forum. The term is short for electronic publication and is sometimes styled ePub, EPUB became an official standard of the IDPF in September 2007, superseding the older Open eBook standard. The Book Industry Study Group endorses EPUB3 as the format of choice for packaging content and has stated that the book publishing industry should rally around a single standard. EPUB is the most widely supported vendor-independent XML-based e-book format, that is, EPUB2.0 was approved in October 2007, with a maintenance update approved in September 2010. The EPUB3.0 specification became effective in October 2011, new major features include support for precise layout or specialized formatting, such as for comic books, and MathML support. The current version of EPUB is 3.1, effective January 5,2017, the format specification underwent reorganization and clean-up, format supports remotely-hosted resources and new font formats and uses more pure HTML and CSS. In May 2016 IDPF Members approved World Wide Web Consortium merger, to align the publishing industry. Like an HTML web site, the format supports inline raster and vector images, metadata and this could affect the level of support for various DRM systems on devices and the portability of purchased e-books. Consequently, such DRM incompatibility may segment the EPUB format along the lines of DRM systems, undermining the advantages of a standard format. It is also used on many software readers such as iBooks on iOS and Google Books on Android. IBooks also supports the proprietary format, which is based on the EPUB format. As final product As in the eBook market PDF format is not generally sold at sites that sell eBooks, the main EPUB producers are suppliers of public domain and open licensed content, as Project Gutenberg, PubMed Central, SciELO and many others. In that context is growing and replacing the PDF format, data interchange EPUB is a popular way to feed ebook creation process, because is an open format and is based in HTML, while Amazons format is proprietary. EPUB is the first step content format in many production process, an EPUB file is a ZIP archive that contains, in effect, a website—including HTML files, images, CSS style sheets, and other assets. EPUB3 is the latest version, by using HTML5, publications can contain video, audio, and interactivity, just like websites in web browsers. An ePub publication is delivered as a single file and this file is an unencrypted zipped archive containing a set of interrelated resources. An OCF Abstract Container defines a system model for the contents of the container
19.
E-book
–
An electronic book is a book publication made available in digital form, consisting of text, images, or both, readable on the flat-panel display of computers or other electronic devices. Although sometimes defined as a version of a printed book. Commercially produced and sold e-books are usually intended to be read on dedicated e-reader devices, however, almost any sophisticated computer device that features a controllable viewing screen can also be used to read e-books, including desktop computers, laptops, tablets and smartphones. In the 2000s, there was a trend of print and e-book sales moving to the Internet, where readers buy traditional paper books and e-books on websites using e-commerce systems. With e-books, users can browse through online, and then when they select and order titles. At the start of 2012 in the U. S. more e-books were published online than were distributed in hardcover, the main reasons that people are buying e-books online are due to possibly lower prices, increased comfort and a larger selection of titles. With e-books, lectronic bookmarks make referencing easier, and e-book readers may allow the user to annotate pages, although fiction and non-fiction books come in e-book formats, technical material is especially suited for e-book delivery because it can be searched for keywords. In addition, for programming books, code examples can be copied, E-book reading is increasing in the U. S. by 2014, 28% of adults had read an e-book, compared to 23% in 2013. This is increasing, because by 2014 50% of American adults had an e-reader or a tablet, E-books are also referred to as ebooks, eBooks, e-Books, e-journals, e-editions or as digital books. The devices that are designed specifically for reading e-books are called e-readers, the idea of an e-reader that would enable a reader to view books on a screen came to Bob Brown after watching his first talkie. In 1930, he wrote a book on this idea and titled it The Readies, although Brown came up with the idea intellectually in the 1930s, early commercial e-readers did not follow his model. Schuessler relates it to a DJ spinning bits of old songs to create a beat or a new song as opposed to just a remix of a familiar song. The inventor of the first e-book is not widely agreed upon and her idea behind the device was to decrease the number of books that her pupils carried to school. The first e-book may be the Index Thomisticus, a heavily annotated electronic index to the works of Thomas Aquinas, prepared by Roberto Busa beginning in 1949, although originally stored on a single computer, a distributable CD-ROM version appeared in 1989. In 2005, the Index was published online, augment ran on specialized hardware, while FRESS ran on IBM mainframes. All these systems also provided extensive hyperlinking, graphics, and other capabilities, van Dam is generally thought to have coined the term electronic book, and it was established enough to use in an article title by 1985. FRESS was used for reading extensive primary texts online, as well as for annotation and online discussions in several courses, browns faculty made extensive use of FRESS, for example the philosopher Roderick Chisholm used it to produce several of his books. Thus in the Preface to Person and Object he writes The book would not have been completed without the epoch-making File Retrieval, despite the extensive earlier history, several publications report Michael S. Hart as the inventor of the e-book
20.
Metadata Object Description Schema
–
The Metadata Object Description Schema is an XML-based bibliographic description schema developed by the United States Library of Congress Network Development and Standards Office. MODS was designed as a compromise between the complexity of the MARC format used by libraries and the simplicity of Dublin Core metadata. As an XML schema it is intended to be able to carry selected data from existing MARC21 records as well as to enable the creation of original resource description records. It includes a subset of MARC fields and uses language-based tags rather than numeric ones, MODS was first announced for trial use in June 2002. As of May 5,2015 it is at version 3.6, the number of users of MODS is unknown. Implementers are encouraged to register their uses of MODS in the registry on the official MODS website. To date there are about 35 projects listed in the registry, users are primarily operating in the area of digital libraries, and some of the registered uses are in digital library projects at the Library of Congress. The MODS record has been designed to carry key data elements from the MARC record but does not define all of the MARC fields and does not use the field and subfield tagging from the MARC standard. There are data elements in MODS that are not compatible with the MARC record so there is some loss translating from MARC to MODS and from MODS to MARC. There is no commitment on the part of the Library of Congress to maintain compatibility between the two metadata formats beyond what is convenient to the community of MODS users. The Library of Congress carries out the application of approved changes to the schema, there is no formal standards body involved in the MODS schema at this time
21.
Interoperability
–
XML or SQL standards are among the tools of syntactic interoperability. This is also true for lower-level data formats, such as ensuring alphabetical characters are stored in a variation of ASCII or a Unicode format in all the communicating systems. To achieve semantic interoperability, both sides must refer to an information exchange reference model. The content of the information requests are unambiguously defined, what is sent is the same as what is understood. The possibility of promoting this result by user-driven convergence of disparate interpretations of the information has been object of study by research prototypes such as S3DB. Multiple social, organizational, political, legal entities working together for a common interest and/or information exchange, Interoperability imply Open standards ab-initio, i. e. by definition. Interoperability imply exchanges between a range of products, or similar products from different vendors, or even between past and future revisions of the same product. Interoperability may be developed post-facto, as a special measure between two products, while excluding the rest, by using Open standards. When a vendor is forced to adapt its system to a dominant system that is not based on Open standards, it is not interoperability, after the doubts and reservations of all members are addressed, the resulting common document is endorsed as a common standard. This document is released to the public, and henceforth becomes an open standard. It is usually published and is available freely or at a nominal cost to any and all comers and this is not a problem if the products implementation is open and minimally encumbered, but it may as well be both closed and heavily encumbered. The newer implementations often rely on clean-room reverse engineering in the absence of data to achieve interoperability. The original vendors can provide technical data to others, often in the name of encouraging competition, but such data is invariably encumbered. These changes can either not be passed on to other vendors at all, or passed on after a strategic delay and this revenue stream is only a result of the original products market dominance and not a result of any innate superiority. ITU-T provides standards for international telecommunications, the degree of interoperability should be defined when referring to specific cases. In two-way radio, interoperability is composed of three dimensions, compatible communications paths, radio system coverage or adequate signal strength, and, Search interoperability refers to the ability of two or more information collections to be searched by a single query. Federated Search technology, which does not place format requirements on the owner, has emerged as one solution to search interoperability challenges. In addition, standards, such as OAI-PMH, RDF, such standards also address broader topics of interoperability, such as allowing data mining
22.
Asset Description Metadata Schema
–
The Asset Description Metadata Schema is a common metadata vocabulary to describe standards, so-called interoperability assets, on the Web. In spite of their importance, standards are not easily discoverable on the web via search engines because metadata about them is seldom available, navigating on the websites of the different publishers of standards is not efficient either. A semantic asset is a type of standard which involves, highly reusable metadata and/or reference data Organisations use semantic assets to share information. Semantic assets are very valuable and reusable elements for the development of Information Systems, in particular. As enablers to interoperable information exchange, semantic assets are usually created, published and maintained by standardisation bodies, nonetheless, ICT projects and groups of experts also create such assets. There are therefore many publishers of semantic assets with different degrees of formalism, ADMS descriptions can then be published on different websites while the standard itself remains on the website of its publisher. The Commission will offer a point of access to standards described using ADMS via its collaborative platform. The Federation service will increase the visibility of standards described with ADMS on the web and this will also stimulate their reuse by Pan-European initiatives. More than 43 people of 20 EU Member States as well as from the US, most of them were experts from standardisation bodies, research centres and the EU Commission. The working group used a methodology based on W3C’s processes and methods, ADMS version 1 was officially released in April 2012. This means that ADMS will be published by the GLD Working Group as First Public Working Drafts for further consultation within the context of the typical W3C standardization process, the desired outcome of that process will be the publication of ADMS as a W3C Recommendation available under W3Cs Royalty-Free License. The ADMS RDFS Vocabulary already has a w3. org namespace, http, //www. w3. org/ns/adms#
23.
World Wide Web Consortium
–
The World Wide Web Consortium is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web. As of 1 April 2017, the World Wide Web Consortium has 461 members, the W3C also engages in education and outreach, develops software and serves as an open forum for discussion about the Web. The World Wide Web Consortium was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research in October,1994, the organization tries to foster compatibility and agreement among industry members in the adoption of new standards defined by the W3C. Incompatible versions of HTML are offered by different vendors, causing inconsistency in how web pages are displayed, the consortium tries to get all those vendors to implement a set of core principles and components which are chosen by the consortium. It was originally intended that CERN host the European branch of W3C, however, CERN wished to focus on particle physics, not information technology. In April 1995, the French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation became the European host of W3C, starting in 1997, W3C created regional offices around the world. In October 2012, W3C convened a community of major web players and publishers to establish a MediaWiki wiki that seeks to document open web standards called the WebPlatform and WebPlatform Docs. Sometimes, when a specification becomes too large, it is split into independent modules which can mature at their own pace, subsequent editions of a module or specification are known as levels and are denoted by the first integer in the title. Subsequent revisions on each level are denoted by a following an decimal point. The W3C standard formation process is defined within the W3C process document, after enough content has been gathered from editor drafts and discussion, it may be published as a working draft for review by the community. A WD document is the first form of a standard that is publicly available, commentary by virtually anyone is accepted, though no promises are made with regard to action on any particular element commented upon. At this stage, the document may have significant differences from its final form. As such, anyone who implements WD standards should be ready to significantly modify their implementations as the standard matures, a candidate recommendation is a version of a standard that is more mature than the WD. At this point, the responsible for the standard is satisfied that the standard meets its goal. The purpose of the CR is to aid from the development community as to how implementable the standard is. The standard document may change further, but at this point, significant features are mostly decided, the design of those features can still change due to feedback from implementors. A proposed recommendation is the version of a standard that has passed the two levels. The users of the standard provide input, at this stage, the document is submitted to the W3C Advisory Council for final approval
24.
Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard
–
The standard is maintained as part of the MARC standards of the Library of Congress, and is being developed as an initiative of the Digital Library Federation. METS is an XML Schema designed for the purpose of, Creating XML document instances that express the hierarchical structure of digital library objects, recording the names and locations of the files that comprise those objects. METS can, therefore, be used as a tool for modeling real world objects, maintaining a library of digital objects requires maintaining metadata about those objects. METS is intended to promote the preservation of, and interoperability between digital libraries, the same cannot be said for a digital library. However, in a library it is possible to create e-book like PDF file, Tiff file which can be seen a single physical book. The open flexibility of METS means that there is not a prescribed vocabulary which allows different types of institutions, with many different document types. The customization of METS makes it highly functional internally, but creates limitations for interoperability, interoperability becomes difficult when the exporting and importing institutions have used vocabularies. As a workaround for this problem the creation of institutional profiles has become popular and these profiles document the implementation of METS specific to that institution helping to map content in order for exchanged METS documents to be more usable across institutions. In 1998 this work was expanded upon by the Making of America II project, a type of structural and metadata encoding system using an XML Document Type Definition was the result of these efforts. In 2001, a new version of the DTD was developed that used namespaces separate from the rather than the vocabulary of the previous DTD. This revision was the foundation for the current METS schema, officially named in April of that year, descriptive Metadata dmdSec, May contain internally embedded metadata or point to metadata external to the METS document. Multiple instances of internal and external descriptive metadata may be included. As with descriptive metadata, administrative metadata may be encoded or external to the METS document. File Section fileSec, Lists all files containing content which comprise the electronic versions of the digital object, file elements may be grouped within fileGrp elements to subdivide files by object version. Although this section is not required, it is included in most METS documents as it adds a level of functionality to the structure of the document. Structural Map structMap, Outlines a hierarchical structure for the digital library object, the Structural Map is the only section required for all METS documents. Structural Links structLink, Allows METS creators to record the existence of hyperlinks between nodes in the Structural Map and this is of particular value in using METS to archive Websites. Behavioral behaviorSec, Used to associate behaviors with content in the METS object
25.
Library of Congress
–
The Library of Congress is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the de facto national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States, the Library is housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill in Washington, D. C. it also maintains the Packard Campus in Culpeper, Virginia, which houses the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center. The Library of Congress claims to be the largest library in the world and its collections are universal, not limited by subject, format, or national boundary, and include research materials from all parts of the world and in more than 450 languages. Two-thirds of the books it acquires each year are in other than English. The Library of Congress moved to Washington in 1800, after sitting for years in the temporary national capitals of New York. John J. Beckley, who became the first Librarian of Congress, was two dollars per day and was required to also serve as the Clerk of the House of Representatives. The small Congressional Library was housed in the United States Capitol for most of the 19th century until the early 1890s, most of the original collection had been destroyed by the British in 1814, during the War of 1812. To restore its collection in 1815, the bought from former president Thomas Jefferson his entire personal collection of 6,487 books. After a period of growth, another fire struck the Library in its Capitol chambers in 1851, again destroying a large amount of the collection. The Library received the right of transference of all copyrighted works to have two copies deposited of books, maps, illustrations and diagrams printed in the United States. It also began to build its collections of British and other European works and it included several stories built underground of steel and cast iron stacks. Although the Library is open to the public, only high-ranking government officials may check out books, the Library promotes literacy and American literature through projects such as the American Folklife Center, American Memory, Center for the Book, and Poet Laureate. James Madison is credited with the idea for creating a congressional library, part of the legislation appropriated $5,000 for the purchase of such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress. And for fitting up an apartment for containing them. Books were ordered from London and the collection, consisting of 740 books and 3 maps, was housed in the new Capitol, as president, Thomas Jefferson played an important role in establishing the structure of the Library of Congress. The new law also extended to the president and vice president the ability to borrow books and these volumes had been left in the Senate wing of the Capitol. One of the only congressional volumes to have survived was a government account book of receipts and it was taken as a souvenir by a British Commander whose family later returned it to the United States government in 1940. Within a month, former president Jefferson offered to sell his library as a replacement
26.
International Digital Publishing Forum
–
The International Digital Publishing Forum is a trade and standards association for the digital publishing industry, set up to establish a standard for ebook publishing. It is responsible for the EPUB standard currently used by most e-readers, starting from the Open eBook Publication Structure or OEB, created loosely around HTML, it then defined the OPS, the OPF and the OCF. These formats are the basis for EPUB, other standards for ecommerce, are tied to the way the ebook is sold or delivered, and are therefore controlled by vendors. On January 30,2017, IDPF was combined into the World Wide Web Consortium
27.
Charles Sturt University
–
Charles Sturt University is an Australian multi-campus public university located in New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, and the Australian Capital Territory. Established in 1989, it was named in honour of Captain Charles Sturt, the University has multiple campuses in Albury-Wodonga, Bathurst, Dubbo, Goulburn, Orange, Port Macquarie, Wagga Wagga and Canberra. The University also facilitates specialist centres in North Parramatta, Manly, Wangaratta as well as Regional University Study Centres in Griffith, courses are also delivered in conjunction with Study Group Australia in Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane. Charles Sturt University offers various Distance Education programs at Bachelor and Post-Graduate level as well as the Single Subject Study program, CSU also has various course delivery partnerships with several TAFE institutions across the country. It is named in honour of explorer Charles Sturt, the Mitchell College of Advanced Education had been formed on 1 January 1970, and the Riverina Murray Institute of Education campus in Wagga Wagga and Albury-Wodonga had operated since 1984. In 1998, CSU established the first Study Centre in Sydney and these study centres are operated by a private education group called Study Group Australia. On 1 January 2005, CSU formalised moves to control of the University of Sydneys Orange campus. In 2013 the University implemented a gas engine cogeneration power plant to help minimise fuel costs, between 2005 and 2015, CSU had expand an offshore campus in Burlington, Ontario in Canada. On July 2015, CSU regretfully ceased to operate its Ontario campus due to the legislative, on 14 February 2011 CSU changed its logo. The sturt desert pea flower is now stylised and made prominent, on 1 May 2012, a milestone was reached as CSU open a new campus in Port Macquarie, CSUs first coastal, regional campus. This made Higher Education accessible to the Port Macquarie and the Hastings region and it provides opportunities for students with the desire to study close to the beach, as well as options for local students to access the resources of a world-class university close to home. On 18 April 2016, staff and students moved into Stage One of their purpose built campus, two more stages are expected to be complete over the coming years with an expected student intake of 5000 by the year 2030. On 28 July 2016, CSU has been declared Australias First Official Carbon Neutral University, CSU has Three Main Faculties, each offering a range of courses and discipline opportunities. The Arts Discipline cover subject segments of visual arts, performing arts, communications, history, human services, literature, philosophy, sociology, the Business Discipline has garner attention by employers for producing graduates excelling in todays business world challenges. Their distance education postgraduate PhD/DBA and Masters programs are eagerly sought-after, CSUs Faculty of Science is one of the most broadly based scientific academic concentrations in Australasia. NSW HSC Online, an abbreviation of New South Wales Higher School Certificate Online, is a partnership between the NSW Department of Education and Training and Charles Sturt University. NSW HSC Online is supported by the Board of Studies NSW, Speech Pathology masters degree claims to provide academic qualifications in Speech Pathology by distance learning through the SP Masters programme. This degree was not accredited by Speech Pathology Australia in 2016, graduates of the SP Masters degree in 2016, are not able to practice as Speech Pathologists until further study or practical experience is provided by Charles Sturt University and SPA
28.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
