1.
Libya
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The three traditional parts of the country are Tripolitania, Fezzan and Cyrenaica. With an area of almost 1.8 million square kilometres, Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa, Libya has the 10th-largest proven oil reserves of any country in the world. The largest city and capital, Tripoli, is located in western Libya, the other large city is Benghazi, which is located in eastern Libya. Libya has been inhabited by Berbers since the late Bronze Age, the Phoenicians established trading posts in western Libya, and ancient Greek colonists established city-states in eastern Libya. Libya was variously ruled by Carthaginians, Persians, Egyptians and Greeks before becoming a part of the Roman Empire, Libya was an early center of Christianity. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the area of Libya was mostly occupied by the Vandals until the 7th century, in the 16th century, the Spanish Empire and the Knights of St John occupied Tripoli, until Ottoman rule began in 1551. Libya was involved in the Barbary Wars of the 18th and 19th centuries, Ottoman rule continued until the Italian occupation of Libya resulted in the temporary Italian Libya colony from 1911 to 1943. During the Second World War Libya was an important area of warfare in the North African Campaign, the Italian population then went into decline. Libya became an independent kingdom in 1951, a military coup in 1969 overthrew King Idris I, beginning a period of sweeping social reform. Since then, Libya has experienced a period of instability, the European Union is involved in an operation to disrupt human trafficking networks exploiting refugees fleeing from wars in Africa for Europe. At least two political bodies claim to be the government of Libya, the Council of Deputies is internationally recognized as the legitimate government, but it does not hold territory in the capital, Tripoli, instead meeting in the Cyrenaica city of Tobruk. Parts of Libya are outside of either governments control, with various Islamist, rebel, the United Nations is sponsoring peace talks between the Tobruk and Tripoli-based factions. An agreement to form an interim government was signed on 17 December 2015. Under the terms of the agreement, a nine-member Presidency Council, the leaders of the new government, called the Government of National Accord, arrived in Tripoli on 5 April 2016. Since then the GNC, one of the two governments, has disbanded to support the new GNA. The name Libya was introduced in 1934 for Italian Libya, reviving the name for Northwest Africa. The name was based on use in 1903 by Italian geographer Federico Minutilli. It was intended to supplant terms applied to Ottoman Tripolitania, the region of what is today Libya having been ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1551 to 1911
2.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
3.
Jaghbub, Libya
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Jaghbub is a remote desert village in the Al Jaghbub Oasis in the eastern Libyan Desert. It is actually closer to the Egyptian town of Siwa than to any Libyan town of note, and like Siwa, its population is Berber. The oasis is located in Butnan District and is the seat of the Jaghbub Basic Peoples Congress. Supported by reservoirs of water and date production, the town is best known for its hard-won self-sufficiency. Idris of Libya was born in Jaghbub on 12 March 1890, the Jaghbub oasis is located in a deep depression that extends below sea level. This depression, a lower than the surrounding region, reaches to about -10 m. To the east the Siwa Oasis lies in a similar depression and it was once the headquarters of the Senussi Movement and home of a long disappeared Islamic university and the former Senussi palace. Jaghbub was a part of Egypt until December 1925, when it was ceded to Italy as part of a deal to fix the Egypt-Libya border. In February 1931 the Italian colonial administration led by Marshal Rodolfo Graziani decided to build a fence stretching from the Mediterranean port of Bardia to Jaghbub 270 km away. Supervised by armoured patrols and the air force, the sought to cut off the rebels from their supply sources. The construction of the began in April,1931 and was completed in September. This, along with the deportation of almost the population of the Jebel Akhdar, was decisive. The fence still runs along the Libyan-Egyptian border from near Tobruk, the construction of the fence was dramatized in the film Lion of the Desert. The Siege of Giarabub was fought between Commonwealth and Italian forces during World War II, Italian and Libyan colonial troops led by Colonel Salvatore Castagna resisted a siege by mostly Australian troops for three months before being forced to surrender on 23 March 1941. The resistance of the Italian troops was celebrated by the fascist regime, list of World War II North Africa Airfields
4.
Murzuq District
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Murzuq is one of the districts of Libya. It is in the south of the country, the city was occupied by the Ottoman Empire in 1578 and served as the capital of Fezzan off and on until the Ottomans ceded Libya to Italy in 1912. It was not occupied by the Italians until 1914, to the southeast, Murzuq borders the Bourkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region of Chad, and to the southwest it borders the Agadez Department of Niger. The border crossing to Niger is at Tumu, domestically, it borders Ghat in the west, Wadi al Hayaa in northwest, west of Sabha, Sabha in northwest, east of Wadi Al Hayaa, Jufra in north and Kufra in the east. Per the census of 2012, the population in the region was 157,747 with 150,353 Libyans. The average size of the household in the country was 6.9, there were totally 22,713 households in the district, with 20,907 Libyan ones. The population density of the district was 1.86 persons per sq. km, per 2006 census, there were totally 28,642 economically active people in the district. Libya has mostly an undulating plain and occasional plateau, with an average elevation of around 423 m. Around 91 per cent of the land is covered by desert, the major resources are petroleum, gypsum and natural gas. Along the coastal regions, the climate is Mediterranean in coastal areas, dust storms lasting four to eight days is pretty common during Spring. Triplotania is the northwest region, while it is Cyrenacia in the east, Fezzen is mostly full of deserts. The region receives a rainfall of 2.5 in. There are no rivers in the region, but the region is abundant with groundwater aquifers. Per the census of 2012, the population in the region was 157,747 with 150,353 Libyans. The average size of the household in the country was 6.9, there were totally 22,713 households in the district, with 20,907 Libyan ones. The population density of the district was 1.86 persons per sq. km, per 2006 census, there were totally 28,642 economically active people in the district. There were 15,907 government employees,2,678 employers,9,613 first level workers and 001 second level workers, the total enrollment in schools was 27,761 and the number of people above secondary stage and less than graduation was 1,710. Islam is the state and major religion of the country, the border between Murzuq and Jufra districts was modified after 2007 administrative reorganization of Libyan Districts
5.
Zenata
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The Zenata were a Berber tribal confederation, who inhabited an area stretching from western Egypt to Morocco in antiquity along with the Sanhaja and Masmuda. Their lifestyle was partly nomadic and partly sedentary and they adopted Islam early, still in the 7th century and were quickly Arabized, and formed a substantial contingent in the subsequent Muslim invasion of Iberia. The 14th-century historiographer Ibn Khaldun reports that the Zenata were divided into three tribes, Dejrawa, Maghraouas and Banu Ifren. Formerly occupying a portion of the Maghreb, they were displaced to the south and west in conflicts with the more powerful Kutama. In the 10th century, the Zenata were allied with the Caliphate of Cordoba against the Fatimids, the Zenata regained some political power during the 13th century with the rise of the Zayyanid dynasty. Two Zenata dynasties, the Marinids and the Wattasids, ruled Morocco from the mid-13th to mid-16th century, numidia Zanata Stone Jinete Rachid Bellil, Université dAlger. Les Zénètes du Gourara dhier à aujourdhui, jews, Visigoths, and Muslims in Medieval Spain, Cooperation and Conflict
6.
South Oran and Figuig Berber
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South Oran Berber or Figuig Berber is a cluster of the Zenati Berber dialects. It is spoken in a number of oases of southwestern Algeria, of these towns, the only one whose dialect has been studied in any detail is Figuig. A cursory study of the dialects, including texts and vocabulary, is Basset, while a sketch grammar of its southernmost member. Like many other Berber varieties, the Figuig Berber dialects use bipartite verbal negation, the preverbal negator is ul, the postverbal negator is ša / šay / iš, with both the latter two appearing as allomorphs in Tiout. The numerals 1–2 are Berber, while higher numerals are Arabic borrowings throughout
7.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
