1.
Coffea canephora
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Coffea canephora, commonly known as robusta coffee, is a species of coffee that has its origins in central and western sub-Saharan Africa. It is a species of flowering plant in the Rubiaceae family, though widely known as Coffea robusta, the plant is scientifically identified as Coffea canephora, which has two main varieties, robusta and nganda. The plant has a root system and grows as a robust tree or shrub to about 10 metres. It flowers irregularly, taking about 10–11 months for cherries to ripen, the robusta plant has a greater crop yield than that of C. arabica, and contains more caffeine –2. 7% compared to arabicas 1. 5%. As it is susceptible to pests and disease, robusta needs much less herbicide and pesticide than arabica. Originating in upland forests in Ethiopia, C. canephora grows indigenously in Western and Central Africa from Liberia to Tanzania and it was not recognized as a species of Coffea until 1897, over a hundred years after Coffea arabica. It is also naturalized in Borneo, French Polynesia, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Jamaica. Approximately 30% of the coffee produced in the world is robusta and it is mostly grown in Vietnam, where French colonists introduced it in the late 19th century, though it is also grown in Africa and Brazil, where it is often called conilon. In recent years, Vietnam, which produces mostly robusta, has surpassed Brazil, India, Brazil is still the biggest producer of coffee in the world, producing one-third of the worlds coffee, though 80% of that is C. arabica. Robusta is easier to care for and has a crop yield than C. arabica. Roasted robusta beans produce a strong, full-bodied coffee with a distinctive earthy flavour, however, the powerful flavour can be desirable in a blend to give it perceived strength and finish, noticeably in Italian coffee culture. Good-quality robusta beans are used in traditional Italian espresso blends, at about 10-15%, to provide a full-bodied taste and it is besides used as a stimulant, diuretic, antioxidant, antipyretic and relieves spasmodic asthma
2.
Coffea arabica
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Coffea arabica /əˈræbɪkə/ is a species of Coffea originally indigenous to the forests of the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia. It is also known as the coffee shrub of Arabia, mountain coffee, C. arabica is believed to be the first species of coffee to be cultivated, and is by far the dominant cultivar, representing some 70% of global production. Coffee produced from the acidic, more bitter, and more highly caffeinated robusta bean makes up the preponderance of the balance. Wild plants grow between 9 and 12 m tall, and have a branching system, the leaves are opposite, simple elliptic-ovate to oblong, 6–12 cm long and 4–8 cm broad. The flowers are white, 10–15 mm in diameter and grow in axillary clusters, the seeds are contained in a drupe 10–15 mm in diameter, maturing bright red to purple and typically contains two seeds. Endemic to the regions of Yemen and the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia, C. arabica is now rare in Ethiopia, while many populations appear to be of mixed native. In Ethiopia, where it is called būna, it is used as an understorey shrub. It has also recovered from the Boma Plateau in South Sudan. C. arabica is also found on Mount Marsabit in northern Kenya, the species is widely naturalised in areas outside its native land, in many parts of Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia, China, and assorted islands in the Caribbean and in the Pacific. The conservation of the variation of C. arabica relies on conserving healthy populations of wild coffee in the Afromontane rainforests of Ethiopia. Genetic research has shown coffee cultivation is threatening the integrity of wild coffee because it exposes wild genotypes to cultivars. Arabica coffees first domestication in Ethiopia is obscure, but cultivation in Yemen is well documented by the 12th century, Coffea arabica accounts for 70% of the worlds coffee production. C. arabica takes about seven years to mature fully, and does best with 1. 0–1.5 meters of rain, evenly distributed throughout the year. It is usually cultivated between 1,300 and 1,500 m altitude, but plantations grow it as low as sea level, the plant can tolerate low temperatures, but not frost, and does best with an average temperature between 15 and 24 °C. Commercial cultivars mostly only grow to about 5 m, and are frequently trimmed as low as 2 m to facilitate harvesting, unlike Coffea canephora, C. arabica prefers to be grown in light shade. Two to four years after planting, C. arabica produces small, white, the sweet fragrance resembles the sweet smell of jasmine flowers. Flowers opening on sunny days result in the greatest numbers of berries, on well-kept plantations, overflowering is prevented by pruning the tree. The flowers only last a few days, leaving only the thick
3.
Coffee
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Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted coffee beans, which are the seeds of berries from the Coffea plant. The genus Coffea is native to tropical Africa, and Madagascar, the two most commonly grown are the highly regarded arabica, and the less sophisticated but stronger and more hardy robusta. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried, dried coffee seeds are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. Roasted beans are ground and brewed with boiling water to produce coffee as a beverage. Coffee is slightly acidic and can have an effect on humans because of its caffeine content. Coffee is one of the most popular drinks in the world and it can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. It is usually served hot, although iced coffee is also served, the earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century in the Sufi shrines of Yemen. It was here in Arabia that coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed in a way to how it is now prepared. Coffee seeds were first exported from East Africa to Yemen, as the coffea arabica plant is thought to have been indigenous to the former, yemeni traders took coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the seed. By the 16th century, it had reached Persia, Turkey, from there, it spread to Europe and the rest of the world. Coffee is an export commodity, it is the top agricultural export for numerous countries and is among the worlds largest legal agricultural exports. It is one of the most valuable commodities exported by developing countries, green coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. Consequently, the markets for fair trade coffee and organic coffee are expanding. The first reference to coffee in the English language is in the form chaona, dated to 1598 and understood to be a misprint of chaoua, equivalent, in the orthography of the time, to chaova. This term and coffee both derive from the Ottoman Turkish kahve, by way of the Italian caffè and it has also been proposed that the source may be the Proto-Central Semitic root q-h-h meaning dark. Alternatively, the word Khat, a plant widely used as stimulant in Yemen and Ethiopia before being supplanted by coffee has been suggested as a possible origin, the expression coffee break was first attested in 1952. The term coffee pot dates from 1705, other accounts attribute the discovery of coffee to Sheikh Omar. According to the ancient chronicle, Omar, who was known for his ability to cure the sick through prayer, was exiled from Mocha in Yemen to a desert cave near Ousab
4.
Commodity
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In economics, a commodity is a marketable item produced to satisfy wants or needs. Economic commodities comprise goods and services, the word commodity came into use in English in the 15th century, from the French commodité, amenity, convenience. Going further back, the French word derives from the Latin commoditas, meaning suitability, convenience, the Latin word commodus meant variously appropriate, proper measure, time, or condition, and advantage, benefit. The term commodity is specifically used for a good or service when the demand for it has no qualitative differentiation across a market. In other words, a commodity good or service has full or partial but substantial fungibility, that is, the market treats its instances as equivalent or nearly so with no regard to who produced them. As the saying goes, From the taste of wheat, it is not possible to tell who produced it, a Russian serf, petroleum and copper are other examples of such commodities, their supply and demand being a part of one universal market. Items such as systems, on the other hand, have many aspects of product differentiation, such as the brand, the user interface. The demand for one type of stereo may be larger than demand for another. In contrast, one of the characteristics of a commodity good is that its price is determined as a function of its market as a whole, well-established physical commodities have actively traded spot and derivative markets. Generally, these are basic resources and agricultural products such as ore, sugar. Soft commodities are goods that are grown, while hard commodities are ones that are extracted through mining, there is another important class of energy commodities which includes electricity, gas, coal and oil. Electricity has the characteristic that it is usually uneconomical to store, hence. Commoditization occurs as a goods or services market loses differentiation across its supply base, as such, goods that formerly carried premium margins for market participants have become commodities, such as generic pharmaceuticals and DRAM chips. Following this trend, nanomaterials are emerging from carrying premium profit margins for market participants to a status of commodification, there is a spectrum of commoditization, rather than a binary distinction of commodity versus differentiable product. Many products degree of commoditization depends on the mentality and means. For example, milk, eggs, and notebook paper are not differentiated by many customers, for them, other customers take into consideration other factors besides price, such as environmental sustainability and animal welfare. This is a list of companies trading globally in commodities, descending by size as of October 28,2011, on a commodity exchange, it is the underlying standard stated in the contract that defines the commodity, not any quality inherent in a specific producers product. Commodities exchanges include, Bourse Africa Bursa Malaysia Derivatives Chicago Board of Trade Chicago Mercantile Exchange Dalian Commodity Exchange Euronext and these markets will quickly respond to changes in supply and demand to find an equilibrium price and quantity
5.
Coffee production
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Coffee production is the industrial process of converting the raw fruit of the coffee plant into the finished coffee. However, it is not what one would call a processed product, the cherry has the fruit or pulp removed leaving the seed or bean which is then dried. While all green coffee is processed, the method that is used varies, coffee production is a major source of income, especially for developing countries where coffee is grown. By adding value, processing the coffee locally, coffee farmers, the cherries ripen around eight months after the emergence of the flower, by changing color from green to red, and it is at this time that they should be harvested. Whether picked by hand or by machine, all coffee is harvested in one of two ways, Strip picked All coffee fruit is removed from the tree, regardless of maturation state and this can either be done by machine or by hand. In the first method, pickers generally place a canvas on the ground and they then grab the branch next to the trunk with their hands and pull outward, knocking all of the fruit onto the ground. After doing this with all branches and trees for the length of the canvas and this process can be facilitated through the use of mechanical strippers. Selectively picked Only the ripe cherries are harvested and they are picked individually by hand, pickers rotate among the trees every eight to ten days, choosing only the cherries, which are at the peak of ripeness. It usually takes two to four years after planting for a plant to produce coffee beans that are ripe enough to harvest. The plant eventually grows small white blossoms that drop and are replaced by green berries and these green berries will become a deep red color as they ripen. It takes about 9 months for the cherries to reach their deepest red color. Because this kind of harvest is labor-intensive, and thus more costly, the laborers who pick coffee by hand receive payment by the basketful. As of 2003, payment per basket is between US$2.00 to $10 with the majority of the laborers receiving payment at the lower end. An experienced coffee picker can collect up to six or seven baskets a day, depending on the grower, coffee pickers are sometimes specifically instructed to not pick green coffee berries since the seeds in the berries are not fully formed or mature. This discernment typically only occurs with growers who harvest for higher end/specialty coffee where the pickers are paid better for their labor, lots comprising unripe coffee fruit are often used to produce cheaper mass consumer coffee beans, which are characterized by a displeasingly bitter/astringent flavor and a sharp odor. Red berries, with their higher aromatic oil and lower organic acid content, are fragrant, smooth. As such, coffee picking is one of the most important stages in coffee production, in the wet process, the fruit covering the seeds/beans is removed before they are dried. Coffee processed by the wet method is called wet processed or washed coffee, the wet method requires the use of specific equipment and substantial quantities of water
6.
Developing country
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Also, the general term less-developed country should not be confused with the specific least developed country. The term developing describes a currently observed situation and not a dynamic or expected direction of progress, since the late 1990s developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than the developed ones. There is criticism of the use of the developing country. The term implies inferiority of a country or undeveloped country compared with a developed country. It assumes a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of development which a few countries, such as Cuba and Bhutan. An alternative measurement that has suggested is that of gross national happiness. Countries on the boundary between developed and developing are often categorized under the newly industrialized countries. In the 2016 edition of its World Development Indicators, the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between “developed” and “developing” countries in the presentation of its data, nobody has ever agreed on a definition for these terms in the first place. Various terms are used for whatever is not a developed country, terms used include less developed country or less economically developed country, and for the more extreme, least developed country or least economically developed country. But according to the United Nations Statistics Division, There is no established convention for the designation of developed, the World Bank classifies countries into four income groups. These are set each year on July 1, economies were divided according to 2016 GNI per capita using the following ranges of income, Low income countries had GNI per capita of US$1,025 or less. Lower middle income countries had GNI per capita between US$1,026 and US$4,035, upper middle income countries had GNI per capita between US$4,036 and US$12,475. High income countries had GNI per capita above US$12,476 and this may be by absolute numbers or country ranking. The UN has developed the Human Development Index, an indicator of the above statistics. The UN sets Millennium Development Goals from a blueprint developed by all of the countries and leading development institutions. There is an association between low income and high population growth. The terms utilized when discussing developing countries refer to the intent, other terms sometimes used are less developed countries, least economically developed countries, underdeveloped nations or Third World nations, and non-industrialized nations. Conversely, developed countries, most economically developed countries, First World nations and that is, LEDCs are the poorest subset of LDCs
7.
South America
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South America is a continent located in the western hemisphere, mostly in the southern hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the northern hemisphere. It may also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas, which is the used in nations that speak Romance languages. The reference to South America instead of other regions has increased in the last decades due to changing geopolitical dynamics. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean, North America and it includes twelve sovereign states, a part of France, and a non-sovereign area. In addition to this, the ABC islands of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Trinidad and Tobago, South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers. Its population as of 2005 has been estimated at more than 371,090,000, South America ranks fourth in area and fifth in population. Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with more than half of the population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela. In recent decades Brazil has also concentrated half of the regions GDP and has become a first regional power, most of the population lives near the continents western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, the continents cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves. Given a long history of colonialism, the majority of South Americans speak Portuguese or Spanish. South America occupies the portion of the Americas. The continent is delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border. Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate, South Americas major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies and this is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export. South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on earth, South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuña, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a proportion of the Earths species. Brazil is the largest country in South America, encompassing around half of the land area
8.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
9.
Sugarcane
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It has stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in the sugar sucrose, which accumulates in the stalk internodes. The plant is two to six meters tall, all sugar cane species interbreed and the major commercial cultivars are complex hybrids. Sugarcane belongs to the grass family Poaceae, an important seed plant family that includes maize, wheat, rice, and sorghum. Sucrose, extracted and purified in specialized factories, is used as raw material in the food industry or is fermented to produce ethanol. Ethanol is produced on a large scale by the Brazilian sugarcane industry, sugarcane is the worlds largest crop by production quantity. In 2012, The Food and Agriculture Organization estimates it was cultivated on about 26×106 hectares, in more than 90 countries, Brazil was the largest producer of sugar cane in the world. The next five major producers, in decreasing amounts of production, were India, China, Thailand, Pakistan, the world demand for sugar is the primary driver of sugarcane agriculture. Cane accounts for 80% of sugar produced, most of the rest is made from sugar beets, sugarcane predominantly grows in the tropical and subtropical regions. Other than sugar, products derived from sugarcane include falernum, molasses, rum, cachaça, bagasse, in some regions, people use sugarcane reeds to make pens, mats, screens, and thatch. The young, unexpanded inflorescence of tebu telor is eaten raw, steamed, or toasted, the Persians, followed by the Greeks, discovered the famous reeds that produce honey without bees in India between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. They adopted and then spread sugarcane agriculture, merchants began to trade in sugar from India, which was considered a luxury and an expensive spice. Sugarcane is a tropical, perennial grass that forms lateral shoots at the base to produce multiple stems, the stems grow into cane stalk, which when mature constitutes around 75% of the entire plant. A mature stalk is composed of 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugars. A sugarcane crop is sensitive to the climate, soil type, irrigation, fertilizers, insects, disease control, varieties, the average yield of cane stalk is 60–70 tonnes per hectare per year. However, this figure can vary between 30 and 180 tonnes per hectare depending on knowledge and crop management approach used in sugarcane cultivation, sugarcane is a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia, different species likely originated in different locations, with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum in New Guinea. It is theorized that sugarcane was first domesticated as a crop in New Guinea around 6000 BC, New Guinean farmers and other early cultivators of sugarcane chewed the plant for its sweet juice. The exact date of the first cane sugar production is unclear, the earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts
10.
Automation
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Some processes have been completely automated. The biggest benefit of automation is that it saves labor, however, it is used to save energy and materials and to improve quality, accuracy. The term automation, inspired by the word automatic, was not widely used before 1947. It was during this time industry was rapidly adopting feedback controllers. Automation has been achieved by means including mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, electronic devices and computers. Complicated systems, such as factories, airplanes and ships typically use all these combined techniques. Fundamentally, there are two types of control loop, open loop control, and closed loop control, in open loop control, the control action from the controller is independent of the process output. A good example of this is a central heating boiler controlled only by a timer, so heat is applied for a constant time. In closed loop control, the action from the controller is dependent on the process output. A closed loop controller therefore has a loop which ensures the controller exerts a control action to give a process output the same as the Reference input or set point. For this reason, closed loop controllers are also called feedback controllers, the theoretical basis of closed loop automation is control theory. The control action is the form of the output action. One of the simplest types of control is on-off control, an example is the thermostat used on household appliances which either opens or closes an electrical contact. Sequence control, in which a sequence of discrete operations is performed. An elevator control system is an example of sequence control, a proportional–integral–derivative controller is a control loop feedback mechanism widely used in industrial control systems. Sequential control may be either to a sequence or to a logical one that will perform different actions depending on various system states. An example of an adjustable but otherwise fixed sequence is a timer on a lawn sprinkler, States refer to the various conditions that can occur in a use or sequence scenario of the system. An example is an elevator, which uses logic based on the state to perform certain actions in response to its state
11.
Futures contract
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In finance, a futures contract is a standardized forward contract which can be easily traded between parties other than the two initial parties to the contract. The parties initially agree to buy and sell an asset for an agreed upon today, with delivery and payment occurring at a future point. Because it is a function of an asset, a futures contract is a derivative product. Contracts are negotiated at futures exchanges, which act as a marketplace between buyers and sellers, the buyer of a contract is said to be long position holder, and the selling party is said to be short position holder. For example, in gold trading, the margin varies between 2% and 20% depending on the volatility of the spot market. The first futures contracts were negotiated for agricultural commodities, and later contracts were negotiated for natural resources such as oil. The original use of futures contracts was to mitigate the risk of price or exchange rate movements by allowing parties to fix prices or rates in advance for future transactions. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first-ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts in 1864, by 1875 cotton futures were being traded in Bombay in India and within a few years this had expanded to futures on edible oilseeds complex, raw jute and jute goods and bullion. The 1972 creation of the International Monetary Market, the worlds first financial futures exchange, in 1976, the IMM added interest rate futures on US treasury bills, and in 1982 they added stock market index futures. Although futures contract are oriented towards a future point, their main purpose is to mitigate risk of default by either party in the intervening period. In this vein, the futures exchange requires both parties to put up initial cash, or a bond, known as the margin. To mitigate the risk of default, the product is marked to market on a basis where the difference between the initial agreed-upon price and the actual daily futures price is reevaluated daily. If the margin account goes below a certain value set by the Exchange, then a call is made. This process is known as marking to market, thus on the delivery date, the amount exchanged is not the specified price on the contract but the spot value. Upon marketing the strike price is reached and creates lots of income for the caller. To minimize credit risk to the exchange, traders must post a margin or a performance bond, to minimize counterparty risk to traders, trades executed on regulated futures exchanges are guaranteed by a clearing house. The clearing house becomes the buyer to each seller, and the seller to each Buyer and this enables traders to transact without performing due diligence on their counterparty. Margin requirements are waived or reduced in cases for hedgers who have physical ownership of the covered commodity or spread traders who have offsetting contracts balancing the position
12.
New York Board of Trade
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The New York Board of Trade, is a physical commodity futures exchange located in New York City. It is an owned subsidiary of Intercontinental Exchange. It originated in 1870 as the New York Cotton Exchange, in 1998, the New York Board of Trade became the parent company of the New York Cotton Exchange and the Coffee, Sugar and Cocoa Exchange. Both now function as divisions of NYBOT, NYBOT agreed to become a unit of ICE in September 2006. The New York Board of Trade was a company founded by Tom Green. The floor of the NYBOT is regulated by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, NYBOT currently pays about $5 million per year in rent for the leased facility. The New York Board of Trade was able to out of its emergency Queens backup facility built after the 1993 World Trade Center bombing to keep the exchange running. The New York Board of Trade was featured in the 1983 movie Trading Places, the trading floor scene at the end of the movie was set at the previous trading floor of the New York Board of Trade at 4 World Trade Center. The official address of the New York Board of Trade headquarters and trading facility, located in the New York Mercantile Exchange Building, is One North End Avenue, New York, NY 10282-1101. One of the most innovative concepts pioneered at the exchange is the ability given to seat holders to seats that they do not actually own. Seatholders may sell short seats they do not have title to as well as purchase seats they have intention of holding as an investment. Cocoa Coffee Cotton Orange juice Wood pulp Sugar Sugar List of stock exchanges List of stock exchanges in the Americas National Futures Association Theice. com, NYBOT
13.
New York Mercantile Exchange
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The New York Mercantile Exchange is a commodity futures exchange owned and operated by CME Group of Chicago. NYMEX is located at One North End Avenue in Brookfield Place in the Battery Park City section of Manhattan, additional offices are located in Boston, Washington, Atlanta, San Francisco, Dubai, London, and Tokyo. The companys two principal divisions are the New York Mercantile Exchange and Commodity Exchange, Inc, once separately owned exchanges. NYMEX Holdings, Inc. the former parent company of the New York Mercantile Exchange and COMEX, became listed on the New York Stock Exchange on November 17,2006, under the ticker symbol NMX. On March 17,2008, Chicago based CME Group signed an agreement to acquire NYMEX Holdings, Inc. for $11.2 billion in cash and stock. Both NYMEX and COMEX now operate as designated contract markets of the CME Group, the other two designated contract markets in the CME Group are the Chicago Mercantile Exchange and the Chicago Board of Trade. The prices quoted for transactions on the exchange are the basis for prices that people pay for various commodities throughout the world, the floor of the NYMEX is regulated by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, an independent agency of the United States government. Each individual company that trades on the exchange must send its own independent brokers, therefore, a few employees on the floor of the exchange represent a big corporation and the exchange employees only record the transactions and have nothing to do with the actual trade. A project to preserve the hand signals used at NYMEX has been published, NYMEX closed the pit permanently at the end of trading Friday, December 30,2016, because of shrinking volume. Commodity exchanges began in the middle of the 19th century, when began organizing market forums to make buying and selling of commodities easier. These marketplaces provided a place for buyers and sellers to set the quality, standards, by the late 19th century about 1,600 marketplaces had sprung up at ports and railroad stations. In 1872, a group of Manhattan dairy merchants got together and created the Butter, soon, egg trade became part of the business conducted on the exchange and the name was modified to the Butter, Cheese, and Egg Exchange. In 1882, the name changed to the New York Mercantile Exchange when opening trade to dried fruits, canned goods. Through the 1970s, 80s and 90s COMEX, NYMEX, for years, the NYMEX traders had done a large business trading futures of Maines potato crop. According to Leah McGrath Goodmans 2011 book The Asylum, manipulation in this market was commonplace, performed by various parties including potato inspectors, a public outcry followed, and the newly created Commodity Futures Trading Commission held hearings. NYMEX was barred from trading not only potatoes futures, but from entering new areas it hadnt traded in before, NYMEXs reputation was severely damaged, because, as future chairman Michel Marks told Goodman in his book, The essence of an exchange is the sanctity of its contract. When the potato ban came into effect, NYMEXs platinum, palladium, however, NYMEXs reputation suffered in Washington, D. C. When Leone left NYMEX in 1981 as a result of a disagreement with the NYMEX Board
14.
Intercontinental Exchange
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Intercontinental Exchange is an American business and finance company founded on May 11,2000 by Jeffrey Sprecher, headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. It owns exchanges and clearing houses for financial and commodity markets, ICE futures exchanges in the United States, Canada and Europe, Liffe futures exchanges in the US and Europe, New York Stock Exchange, Equity options exchanges, OTC energy, credit and equity markets. ICE also owns and operates 5 central clearing houses, ICE Clear Europe, ICE Clear Canada, ICE Clear Credit, and The Clearing Corporation. ICE has offices in New York, London, Chicago, Houston, Winnipeg, Amsterdam, Calgary, Washington, D. C. Sprecher, founder, chairman, and Chief Executive Officer, was a power plant developer who spotted a need for a market in natural gas used to power generators. In May 2000, ICE was founded by Sprecher and backed by Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, BP, Total, Shell, Deutsche Bank, the new exchange offered the trading community better price transparency, more efficiency, greater liquidity and lower costs than manual trading. While the companys focus was energy products, acquisitions have expanded its activity into soft commodities, foreign exchange. Sprecher worked closely with the Federal Reserve to serve as its over-the-counter derivatives clearing house, US regulators were keen on the kind of clearing house for opaque over-the-counter derivatives as a risk management device. In the absence of a central counterparty - which would guarantee pay-outs should a party be unable to do so - there was a high risk of massive market disruption. The principal backers for ICE US Trust were the financial institutions most affected by the crisis. Sprechers clearing house cleared their global credit default swaps in exchange for sharing profits with these banks, by 2010, Intercontinental Exchange had cleared more than $10 trillion in credit default swaps through its subsidiaries, ICE Trust CDS. Since 2003, ICE has partnered with the Chicago Climate Exchange to host its electronic marketplaces, in April 2005, the entire ICE portfolio of energy futures became fully electronic and ICE closed International Petroleum Exchanges high profile and historic trading floor. ICE became a traded company on November 16,2005. The company expanded rapidly in 2007, acquiring the New York Board of Trade, in March 2007 ICE made an unsuccessful $9.9 billion bid for the Chicago Board of Trade, which was instead acquired by the Chicago Mercantile Exchange. IntercontinentalExchange Inc. the upstart Atlanta-based energy bourse purchased the privately held 120-year-old Winnipeg Commodity Exchange, known for its canola futures contract, the Winnipeg Commodity Exchange was renamed ICE Futures Canada as of January 1,2008. IntercontinentalExchange converted Winnipeg Commodity Exchange contracts to the IntercontinentalExchange platform, IntercontinentalExchange maintained an office and small core staff in Winnipeg, Manitoba. The Manitoba Securities Commission oversee its operations, in January 2008, ICE partnered with Canadas TSX Groups Natural Gas Exchange, expanding their offering to clearing and settlement services for physical OTC natural gas contracts. In April 2010, ICE acquired Climate Exchange PLC for 395 million pounds, exchange-traded emissions products were first offered by the European Climate Exchange, which was established in 2005, by listing products on the ICE Futures Europes trading platform
15.
Hamburg
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Hamburg, officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, is the second largest city in Germany and the eighth largest city in the European Union. It is the second smallest German state by area and its population is over 1.7 million people, and the wider Hamburg Metropolitan Region covers more than 5.1 million inhabitants. The city is situated on the river Elbe, the official long name reflects Hamburgs history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, a city-state, and one of the 16 states of Germany. Before the 1871 Unification of Germany, it was a sovereign state. Prior to the changes in 1919, the civic republic was ruled by a class of hereditary grand burghers or Hanseaten. Though repeatedly destroyed by the Great Fire of Hamburg, the floods and military conflicts including WW2 bombing raids, the city managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe. On the river Elbe, Hamburg is a port and a global service, media, logistics and industrial hub, with headquarters and facilities of Airbus, Blohm + Voss, Aurubis, Beiersdorf. The radio and television broadcaster NDR, Europes largest printing and publishing firm Gruner + Jahr, Hamburg has been an important financial centre for centuries, and is the seat of Germanys oldest stock exchange and the worlds second oldest bank, Berenberg Bank. The city is a fast expanding tourist destination for domestic and international visitors. It ranked 16th in the world for livability in 2015, the ensemble Speicherstadt and Kontorhausviertel was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2015. Hamburg is a major European science, research and education hub with several universities and institutes and its creative industries and major cultural venues include the renowned Elbphilharmonie and Laeisz concert halls, various art venues, music producers and artists. It is regarded as a haven for artists, gave birth to movements like Hamburger Schule. Hamburg is also known for theatres and a variety of musical shows. St. Paulis Reeperbahn is among the best known European entertainment districts, Hamburg is on the southern point of the Jutland Peninsula, between Continental Europe to the south and Scandinavia to the north, with the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the north-east. It is on the River Elbe at its confluence with the Alster, the city centre is around the Binnenalster and Außenalster, both formed by damming the River Alster to create lakes. The island of Neuwerk and two neighbouring islands Scharhörn and Nigehörn, in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, are also part of Hamburg. The neighbourhoods of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder are part of the Altes Land region, neugraben-Fischbek has Hamburgs highest elevation, the Hasselbrack at 116.2 metres AMSL. Hamburg has a climate, influenced by its proximity to the coast
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Vietnam
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Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 92.7 million inhabitants as of 2016, it is the worlds 14th-most-populous country, and its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976, with Ho Chi Minh City as a historical city as well. The northern part of Vietnam was part of Imperial China for over a millennium, an independent Vietnamese state was formed in 939, following a Vietnamese victory in the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Following a Japanese occupation in the 1940s, the Vietnamese fought French rule in the First Indochina War, thereafter, Vietnam was divided politically into two rival states, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified in what is known as the Vietnam War, the war ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975. Vietnam was then unified under a communist government but remained impoverished, in 1986, the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms which began Vietnams path towards integration into the world economy. By 2000, it had established relations with all nations. Since 2000, Vietnams economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world and its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organization in 2007. It is also a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Vietnam remains one of the worlds four remaining one-party socialist states officially espousing communism. The name Việt Nam is a variation of Nam Việt, a name that can be traced back to the Triệu Dynasty of the 2nd century BC. The word Việt originated as a form of Bách Việt. The form Vietnam is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình, the name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Haiphong that dates to 1558. Then, as recorded, rewarded Yuenan/Vietnam as their nations name, to also show that they are below the region of Baiyue/Bach Viet. Between 1804 and 1813, the name was used officially by Emperor Gia Long and it was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Bội Châus History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both the government in Huế and the Viet Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam. Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age, Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can, and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu, Lang Gao and Lang Cuom. The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered the first Vietnamese state, in 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương
17.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
18.
Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
19.
Ethiopia
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Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north and northeast, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, Sudan and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south. With nearly 100 million inhabitants, Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world and it occupies a total area of 1,100,000 square kilometres, and its capital and largest city is Addis Ababa. Some of the oldest evidence for modern humans has been found in Ethiopia. It is widely considered as the region from modern humans first set out for the Middle East. According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations settled in the Horn region during the ensuing Neolithic era, tracing its roots to the 2nd millennium BC, Ethiopia was a monarchy for most of its history. During the first centuries AD, the Kingdom of Aksum maintained a unified civilization in the region, subsequently, many African nations adopted the colors of Ethiopias flag following their independence. It was the first independent African member of the 20th-century League of Nations, Ethiopias ancient Geez script, also known as Ethiopic, is one of the oldest alphabets still in use in the world. The Ethiopian calendar, which is seven years and three months behind the Gregorian calendar, co-exists alongside the Borana calendar. A slight majority of the population adheres to Christianity, while around a third follows Islam, the country is the site of the Migration to Abyssinia and the oldest Muslim settlement in Africa at Negash. A substantial population of Ethiopian Jews, known as Bete Israel, resided in Ethiopia until the 1980s, Ethiopia is a multilingual nation with around 80 ethnolinguistic groups, the four largest of which are the Oromiffa, Amhara, Somali, and Tigrayans. Most people in the country speak Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic or Semitic branches, additionally, Omotic languages are spoken by ethnic minority groups inhabiting the southern regions. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by the nations Nilotic ethnic minorities. Ethiopia is the place of origin for the coffee bean which originated from the place called Kefa and it is a land of natural contrasts, with its vast fertile West, jungles, and numerous rivers, and the worlds hottest settlement of Dallol in its north. The Ethiopian Highlands are Africas largest continuous mountain ranges, and Sof Omar Caves contain Africas largest cave, Ethiopia has the most UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa. Ethiopia is one of the members of the UN, the Group of 24, the Non-Aligned Movement, G-77. In the 1970s and 1980s, Ethiopia suffered from civil wars, the country has begun to recover recently however, and now has the largest economy in East Africa and Central Africa. According to Global Fire Power, Ethiopia has the 42nd most powerful military in the world, the origin of the word Ethiopia is uncertain
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Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
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India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
22.
Honduras
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Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras, is a republic in Central America. It has at times referred to as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras. Honduras was home to several important Mesoamerican cultures, most notably the Maya, the Spanish introduced Roman Catholicism and the now predominant Spanish language, along with numerous customs that have blended with the indigenous culture. Honduras has the worlds highest murder rate, Honduras spans about 112,492 km2 and has a population exceeding 8 million. Its northern portions are part of the Western Caribbean Zone, as reflected in the areas demographics and culture. Honduras is known for its natural resources, including minerals, coffee, tropical fruit, and sugar cane, as well as for its growing textiles industry. Honduras literally means depths in Spanish, the name could either refer to the bay of Trujillo as an anchorage, fondura in the Leonese dialect of Spanish, or to Columbuss alleged quote that Gracias a Dios que hemos salido de esas Honduras. It was not until the end of the 16th century that Honduras was used for the whole province, prior to 1580, Honduras only referred to the eastern part of the province, and Higueras referred to the western part. Another early name is Guaymuras, revived as the name for the dialogue in 2009 that took place in Honduras as opposed to Costa Rica. In pre-Columbian times, modern Honduras was part of the Mesoamerican cultural area, in the west, the Maya civilization flourished for hundreds of years. The dominant state within Hondurass borders was in Copán, Copán fell with the other Lowland centres during the conflagrations of the Terminal Classic in the 9th century. The Maya of this civilization survive in western Honduras as the Chorti, remains of other Pre-Columbian cultures are found throughout the country. On 30 July 1502 Columbus sent his brother Bartholomew to explore the islands and Bartholomew encountered a Mayan trading vessel from Yucatán, carrying well-dressed Maya and a rich cargo. Bartholomews men stole whatever cargo they wanted and kidnapped the elderly captain to serve as an interpreter in what was the first recorded encounter between the Spanish and the Maya. In March 1524, Gil González Dávila became the first Spaniard to enter Honduras as a conquistador, followed by Hernán Cortés, bringing forces down from Mexico. Much of the conquest was done in the two decades, first by groups loyal to Cristóbal de Olid, and then by those loyal of Francisco Montejo. In addition to Spanish resources, the conquerors relied heavily on armed forces from Mexico—Tlaxcalans, resistance to conquest was led in particular by Lempira, and many regions in the north never fell to the Spanish, notably the Miskito Kingdom. After the Spanish conquest, Honduras became part of Spains vast empire in the New World within the Kingdom of Guatemala, Trujillo and Gracias were the first city-capitals
23.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
24.
Guatemala
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With an estimated population of around 15.8 million, it is the most populated state in Central America. Guatemala is a democracy, its capital and largest city is Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción. The territory of modern Guatemala once formed the core of the Maya civilization, most of the country was conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century, becoming part of the viceroyalty of New Spain. Guatemala attained independence in 1821 as part of the Federal Republic of Central America, from the mid to late 19th century, Guatemala experienced chronic instability and civil strife. Beginning in the early 20th century, it was ruled by a series of dictators backed by the United Fruit Company, in 1944, authoritarian leader Jorge Ubico was overthrown by a pro-democratic military coup, initiating a decade-long revolution that led to sweeping social and economic reforms. A U. S. -backed military coup in 1954 ended the revolution, from 1960 to 1996, Guatemala endured a bloody civil war fought between the US-backed government and leftist rebels, including genocidal massacres of the Maya population perpetrated by the military. As of 2014, Guatemala ranks 31st of 33 Latin American and Caribbean countries in terms of the Human Development Index, Guatemalas abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems includes a large number of endemic species and contributes to Mesoamericas designation as a biodiversity hotspot. The country is known for its rich and distinct culture. The name Guatemala comes from the Nahuatl word Cuauhtēmallān, or place of many trees and this was the name the Tlaxcaltecan soldiers who accompanied Pedro de Alvarado during the Spanish Conquest gave to this territory. The first evidence of habitation in Guatemala dates back to 12,000 BC. Evidence, such as obsidian arrowheads found in parts of the country. There is archaeological proof that early Guatemalan settlers were hunters and gatherers, pollen samples from Petén and the Pacific coast indicate that maize cultivation had been developed by 3500 BC. Sites dating back to 6500 BC have been found in the Quiché region in the Highlands, archaeologists divide the pre-Columbian history of Mesoamerica into the Preclassic period, the Classic period, and the Postclassic period. Until recently, the Preclassic was regarded as a period, with small villages of farmers who lived in huts. This period is characterized by urbanisation, the emergence of independent city-states and this lasted until approximately 900 AD, when the Classic Maya civilization collapsed. The Maya abandoned many of the cities of the lowlands or were killed off by a drought-induced famine. The cause of the collapse is debated, but the Drought Theory is gaining currency, supported by such as lakebeds, ancient pollen. A series of prolonged droughts, among other such as overpopulation, in what is otherwise a seasonal desert is thought to have decimated the Maya
25.
UN Food & Agriculture Organisation
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The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations is an agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger. Serving both developed and developing countries, FAO acts as a forum where all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements. Its Latin motto, fiat panis, translates as let there be bread, as of 6 January 2017, FAO has 194 member states, along with the European Union, and the Faroe Islands and Tokelau, which are associate members. The idea of an organization for food and agriculture emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century. In May–June 1905, a conference was held in Rome, Italy. Later in 1943, the United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt called a United Nations Conference on Food, representatives from forty four governments gathered at The Homestead Resort in Hot Springs, Virginia from 18 May to 3 June. The First Session of the FAO Conference was held in the Chateau frontenac at Quebec, Canada, the Second World War effectively ended the International Agricultural Institute, though it was only officially dissolved by resolution of its Permanent Committee on 27 February 1948. Its functions were transferred to the recently established FAO. In 1951, FAOs headquarters were moved from Washington, D. C, the agency is directed by the Conference of Member Nations, which meets every two years to review the work carried out by the organization and to Work and Budget for the next two-year period. The Conference elects a council of 49 member states that acts as a governing body, and the Director-General. Beginning in 1994, FAO underwent the most significant restructuring since its founding, to operations, streamline procedures. As a result, savings of about US$50 million, €35 million a year were realized, FAOs Regular Programme budget is funded by its members, through contributions set at the FAO Conference. The total FAO Budget planned for 2016-17 is USD2.6 billion, the voluntary contributions are expected to reach approximately US$1.6 billion in 2016-17. The world headquarters are located in Rome, in the seat of the Department of Italian East Africa. One of the most notable features of the building was the Axum Obelisk which stood in front of the agency seat and it was taken from Ethiopia by Benito Mussolinis troops in 1937 as a war chest, and returned on 18 April 2005. C. Reduce rural poverty – help the rural poor gain access to the resources and services they need – including rural employment, enable inclusive and efficient agricultural and food systems – help to build safe and efficient food systems that support smallholder agriculture and reduce poverty and hunger in rural areas. Two fundamental areas of work – gender and governance - are fully integrated in the strategic objective action plans. In 1996, FAO organised the World Food Summit, attended by 112 Heads or Deputy Heads of State, the Summit concluded with the signing of the Rome Declaration, which established the goal of halving the number of people who suffer from hunger by the year 2015
26.
Mouthfeel
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Mouthfeel is a products physical and chemical interaction in the mouth, an aspect of food rheology. It is used in areas related to the testing and evaluating of foodstuffs, such as wine-tasting. It is evaluated from initial perception on the palate, to first bite, through mastication to swallowing, in wine-tasting, for example, mouthfeel is usually used with a modifier to the general sensation of the wine in the mouth. Some people, however, use the traditional term texture, mouthfeel is often related to a products water activity, hard or crisp products having lower water activities and soft products having intermediate to high water activities. Cohesiveness, Degree to which the sample deforms before rupturing when biting with molars, density, Compactness of cross section of the sample after biting completely through with the molars. Dryness, Degree to which the sample feels dry in the mouth, fracturability, Force with which the sample crumbles, cracks or shatters. Fracturability encompasses crumbliness, crispiness, crunchiness and brittleness, graininess, Degree to which a sample contains small grainy particles. Gumminess, Energy required to disintegrate a semi-solid food to a ready for swallowing. Hardness, Force required to deform the product to given distance, heaviness, Weight of product perceived when first placed on tongue. Moisture absorption, Amount of saliva absorbed by product, moisture release, Amount of wetness/juiciness released from sample. Mouthcoating, Type and degree of coating in the mouth after mastication, roughness, Degree of abrasiveness of products surface perceived by the tongue. Slipperiness, Degree to which the product slides over the tongue, smoothness, Absence of any particles, lumps, bumps, etc. in the product. Uniformity, Degree to which the sample is even throughout, homogeneity, uniformity of Bite, Evenness of force through bite. Uniformity of Chew, Degree to which the characteristics of the product are even throughout mastication. Viscosity, Force required to draw a liquid from a spoon over the tongue, wetness, Amount of moisture perceived on products surface. Food Texture Umami Wine tasting Dollase, Jürgen, Geschmacksschule,2005 Tre Tori, Wiesbaden, german-language textbook by a renowned food critic covering some, but not all of the above mentionend properties/mouthfeelings. Effect of water activity on the sensory crispness and mechanical deformation of snack food products,46, 403–409 Snack Foods and Water Activity
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Coffee production in Colombia
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Coffee production in Colombia has a reputation as producing mild, well balanced coffee beans. Colombias average annual production of 11.5 million bags is the third total highest in the world, after Brazil and Vietnam. The beans are exported to United States, Germany, France, Japan, most coffee is grown in the Colombian coffee growing axis region. In 2007, the European Union granted Colombian coffee a protected designation of origin status, in 2011 UNESCO declared the “Coffee Cultural Landscape” of Colombia, a World Heritage site. The coffee plant had spread to Colombia by 1790, the oldest written testimony of the presence of coffee in Colombia is attributed to a Jesuit priest, José Gumilla. In his book The Orinoco Illustrated, he registered the presence of coffee in the mission of Saint Teresa of Tabajé, the first coffee crops were planted in the eastern part of the country. In 1808 the first commercial production was registered with 100 green coffee bags that were exported from the port of Cucuta, a priest named Francisco Romero is attributed to have been very influential in the propagation of the crop in the northeast region of the country. After hearing the confession of the parishioners of the town of Salazar de la Palmas, Coffee became established in the departments of Santander and North Santander, Cundinamarca, Antioquia, and the historic region of Caldas. Despite these early developments, the consolidation of coffee as a Colombian export did not come about until the half of the 19th century. The great expansion that the economy underwent at that time allowed Colombian landowners to find attractive opportunities in international markets. Little by little, the United States became the most important consumer of coffee in the world, while Germany, the then large Colombian landowners had already tried to exploit the new opportunities that the expansion of the international markets offered. Between 1850 and 1857 the country experienced a significant increase in tobacco and quinine exports, the production of these sectors went into period of decline when the respective bonanza of their international prices terminated, hence a true industrial consolidation was prevented. With the fall of prices, that registered the transition from the 19th to the 20th century. The coffee estates of Santander and North Santander entered into crisis, the crisis that affected the large estates brought with it one of the most significant changes of the Colombian coffee industry. Since 1875 the number of coffee producers had begun to grow in Santander as well as in some regions of Antioquia. This transformation was very favorable for the owners of the coffee estates that were entering the coffee market. The cultivation of coffee was an attractive option for local farmers, as it offered the possibility of making permanent. Under this productive model of the agriculture, based on the slash and burn method
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Coffee production in Indonesia
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Indonesia was the fourth largest producer of coffee in the world in 2014. Coffee in Indonesia began with its history, and has played an important part in the growth of the country. Indonesia produced an estimated 540,000 metric tons of coffee in 2014, of this total, it is estimated that 154,800 tons was required for domestic consumption in the 2013/2014 financial year. Of the exports, 25% are arabica beans, the balance is robusta, in general, Indonesia’s arabica coffees have low acidity and strong body, which makes them ideal for blending with higher acidity coffees from Central America and East Africa. The Dutch governor in Malabar sent a Yemeni or arabica coffee seedling to the Dutch governor of Batavia in 1696, the first seedlings failed due to flooding in Batavia. The second shipment of seedlings was sent in 1699 with Hendrik Zwaardecroon, the plants grew, and in 1711 the first exports were sent from Java to Europe by the Dutch East India Company, known by its Dutch initials VOC, such that 2000 pounds were shipped in 1717. Indonesia was the first place, outside of Arabia and Ethiopia, the coffee was shipped to Europe from the port of Batavia. There has been a port at the mouth of Ciliwung River since 397 AD, today, in the Kota area of Jakarta, one can find echoes of the seagoing legacy that built the city. Sail driven ships still load cargo in the old port, the Bahari museum occupies a former warehouse of the VOC, which was used to store spices and coffee. Menara Syahbandar was built in 1839 to replace the flag pole that stood at the head of wharves, in the 18th century, coffee shipped from Batavia sold for 3 Guilders per kilogram in Amsterdam. Since annual incomes in Holland in the 18th century were between 200 and 400 Guilders, this was equivalent of hundred dollars per kilogram today. By the end of the 18th century, the price had dropped to 0.6 Guilders per kilogram, production of export crops were delivered to government warehouses instead of taxes. Coffee, along with sugar and indigo, was one of the crops produced under this highly exploitative colonial system. Cultuurstelsel was applied to coffee in the Preanger region of West Java, as well as in West Sumatra, South Sulawesi and this book helped to change Dutch public opinion about the Cultivation System and colonialism in general. More recently, the name Max Havelaar was adopted by one of the first fair trade organizations, by the mid 1870s the Dutch East Indies expanded arabica coffee growing areas in Sumatra, Bali, Sulawesi and Timor. In Sulawesi the coffee was thought to have planted around 1850. In North Sumatra highlands coffee was first grown near Lake Toba in 1888, Coffee at the time was also grown in East Indonesia- East Timor and Flores. Both of these islands were originally under Portuguese control and the coffee was also C. arabica, but from different root stocks
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Kona coffee
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Kona coffee is the market name for coffee cultivated on the slopes of Hualalai and Mauna Loa in the North and South Kona Districts of the Big Island of Hawaii. It is one of the most expensive coffees in the world, only coffee from the Kona Districts can be described as Kona. The weather of sunny mornings, cloud or rain in the afternoon, little wind, the loanword for coffee in the Hawaiian language is kope, pronounced. The coffee plant was brought to the Kona district in 1828 by Samuel Reverend Ruggles from Brazilian cuttings, english merchant Henry Nicholas Greenwell moved to the area and established Kona coffee as a recognized brand later in the 19th century. The former Greenwell Store and Kona Coffee Living History Farm have since become museums, in other parts of the Hawaiian islands, it was grown on large plantations, but the 1899 world coffee market crash caused plantation owners to lease land to their workers. Most were from Japan, brought to work on sugarcane plantations and they worked their leased parcels of between 5 and 12 acres as family concerns, producing large, quality crops. The tradition of family farms continued throughout Kona, the Japanese-origin families have been joined by Filipinos, mainland Americans, and Europeans. There are approximately 800 Kona coffee farms, with a size of less than 5 acres. In 1997 the total Kona coffee area was 2,290 acres, Kona coffee blooms in February and March. Small white flowers known as Kona snow cover the tree, by late August, red fruit, called cherry because of resemblance to a cherry, start to ripen for picking. Each tree, hand-picked several times between August and January, provides around 15 pounds of cherry, which result in two pounds of roasted coffee. Within 24 hours of picking, the cherry is run through a pulper, the beans are separated from the pulp and then placed overnight in a fermentation tank. The fermentation time is about 12 hours at low elevation or 24 at higher elevation, the beans are rinsed and spread to dry on a hoshidana or drying rack. Traditional hoshidanas have a roof to cover the beans in rain. It takes seven to 14 days to dry beans to a moisture level of between 10 and 13%. Too much moisture content in coffee allows the growth of ochratoxin A, from here, the beans are stored as pergamino or parchment. The parchment is milled off the green bean prior to roasting or wholesale, Kona coffee beans are classified by law according to seed. Type I beans consist of two beans per cherry, flat on one side, oval on the other, type II beans consist of one round bean per cherry, otherwise known as peaberries
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International Coffee Organization
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The International Coffee Organization was initiated in collaboration with the United Nations to enhance cooperation between nations that consume, distribute and produce coffee. It was a result of the five-year International Coffee Agreement signed in 1962 at the UN in New York City, as of July 2015 its 48 members consist of 40 exporting nations,7 importing nations and 1 importing community. The ICOs highest body is the International Coffee Council, which twice a year. The ICOs Private Sector Consultative Board comprises sixteen representatives from coffee consumption and production industries and it also meets biannually, the ICOs headquarters is located at 22 Berners Street in London and its current Executive Director is the Brazilian Robério Oliveira Silva. Economics of coffee Coffee portal Official website
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Plantation
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A plantation is an area of land or water where one crop is specifically planted for widespread commercial sale. The crops grown include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, sisal, oil seeds, oil palms, rubber trees, protectionist policies and natural comparative advantage have sometimes contributed to determining where plantations were located. Among the earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of the Roman Empire, Plantation agriculture grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the development of a worldwide economy that followed the expansion of European colonial empires. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time, Industrial plantations are established to produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities and/or the paper and wood industries, christmas trees are often grown on plantations as well. In southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have replaced the natural forest. Industrial plantations are managed for the commercial production of forest products. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species and these species can be exotic or indigenous. Forest genetic resources are the basis for genetic alteration, selected individuals grown in seed orchards are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material. Wood production on a plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, in the first year, the ground is prepared usually by the combination of burning, herbicide spraying, and/or cultivation and then saplings are planted by human crew or by machine. The saplings are usually obtained in bulk from industrial nurseries, which may specialize in breeding in order to produce fast growing disease-. In the first few years until the canopy closes, the saplings are looked after, after the canopy closes, with the tree crowns touching each other, the plantation is becoming dense and crowded, and tree growth is slowing due to competition. This stage is termed pole stage, when competition becomes too intense, it is time to thin out the section. There are several methods for thinning, but where topography permits, the most popular is row-thinning, many trees are removed, leaving regular clear lanes through the section so that the remaining trees have room to expand again. The removed trees are delimbed, forwarded to the forest road, loaded onto trucks, a typical pole stage plantation tree is 7–30 cm in diameter at breast height. Such trees are not suitable for timber, but are used as pulp for paper and particleboard. As the trees grow and become dense and crowded again, the process is repeated
32.
Starbucks
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Starbucks Corporation is an American coffee company and coffeehouse chain. Starbucks was founded in Seattle, Washington in 1971. As of November 2016, it operates 23,768 locations worldwide, many stores sell pre-packaged food items, hot and cold sandwiches, and drinkware including mugs and tumblers, select Starbucks Evenings locations offer beer, wine, and appetizers. Starbucks-brand coffee, ice cream, and bottled cold coffee drinks are sold at grocery stores. Starbucks first became profitable in Seattle in the early 1980s, the first Starbucks location outside North America opened in Tokyo in 1996, overseas properties now constitute almost one-third of its stores. The company opened an average of two new locations daily between 1987 and 2007, on December 1,2016, Howard Schultz announced he would resign as CEO effective in April 2017 and will be replaced by Kevin Johnson. The company took the name of the mate in the book Moby-Dick, Starbuck, after considering Cargo House. Bowker recalls that Terry Heckler, with whom Bowker owned an advertising agency, the founders brainstormed a list of words beginning with st. Someone pulled out an old mining map of the Cascade Range and saw a mining town named Starbo, Bowker said, Moby-Dick didnt have anything to do with Starbucks directly, it was only coincidental that the sound seemed to make sense. The first Starbucks store was located in Seattle at 2000 Western Avenue from 1971–1976 and this cafe was later moved to 1912 Pike Place, never to be relocated again. During this time, the only sold roasted whole coffee beans. The only brewed coffee served in the store were free samples, during their first year of operation, they purchased green coffee beans from Peets, then began buying directly from growers. In 1984, the owners of Starbucks, led by Jerry Baldwin. During the 1980s, total sales of coffee in the US were falling, by 1986, the company operated six stores in Seattle and had only just begun to sell espresso coffee. In 1987, the owners sold the Starbucks chain to former manager Howard Schultz. In the same year, Starbucks opened its first locations outside Seattle at Waterfront Station in Vancouver, British Columbia, by 1989,46 stores existed across the Northwest and Midwest and annually, Starbucks was roasting over 2,000,000 pounds of coffee. At the time of its public offering on the stock market in June 1992, Starbucks had 140 outlets, with a revenue of US$73.5 million. The companys market value was US$271 million by this time, the 12% portion of the company that was sold raised around US$25 million for the company, which facilitated a doubling of the number of stores over the next two years
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Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
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Shade-grown coffee
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Shade-grown coffee is a form of the beverage produced from coffee plants grown under a canopy of trees. A canopy of assorted types of trees is created to cultivate shade-grown coffee. Because it incorporates principles of ecology to promote natural ecological relationships. The resulting coffee is sold as “shade-grown”. Coffee is a tree or shrub that grows in the forest understory in its wild form. Since the mid-1970s, new sun-tolerant trees and shrubs have been developed in response to fungal disease presence, especially coffee leaf rust and this has resulted in a new trend in support of shade-grown coffee. Recent data have shown there is a direct correlation between the structural complexity of a coffee plantation and the number of species that can be found there. The forest-like structure of shade coffee farms provides habitat for a number of migratory and resident birds, reptiles, ants, butterflies, bats, plants. Of all agricultural land uses, shade-grown coffee is most likely the crop that supports the highest diversity of birds, native flora. In all of the studies, a spectrum of species richness emerged ranging from high species diversity in “rustic” shaded polycultures to extremely low species diversity in unshaded monocultures. Biological diversity in traditional “rustic” plantations can be high, ranging from 90 to 120 species of plants on a single site. Tree species richness in shade-grown coffee sites ranges from 13 to 58 species per site, herb diversity was found to be 2 to 4 times that of tree diversity on any given site, and shrub diversity was fairly low in all sites. Epiphytes are also diverse in shaded polycultures,90 total epiphytic species were found in 10 sites of shade-grown coffee plots. Insect communities can be complex in shaded coffee plantations. 609 species of insects from 258 families were found in a sample from ground level to 2 meters in a shaded polyculture coffee plantation near Tapachula, Chiapas. 37% of the individuals were herbivores that could be a crop pest if not kept in check by the predators and parasites. Shade-grown coffee provides important habitat for native and migratory bird species. 184 bird species,46 being migratory, were recorded in traditional coffee plantations near Soconusco, Chiapas, in a study of shade vs. sun coffee comparisons in Guatemala, overall bird abundance and diversity were 30% and 15% greater, respectively, in shaded farms than sun farms
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Canopy (biology)
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In biology, the canopy is the aboveground portion of a plant community or crop, formed by the collection of individual plant crowns. In forest ecology, canopy also refers to the layer or habitat zone, formed by mature tree crowns. Sometimes the term canopy is used to refer to the extent of the layer of leaves of an individual tree or group of trees. Shade trees normally have a canopy that blocks light from lower growing plants. Canopy structure is the organization or spatial arrangement of a plant canopy, leaf Area Index, leaf area per unit ground area, is a key measure used to understand and compare plant canopies. It is also taller than the understory layer, dominant and co-dominant canopy trees form the uneven canopy layer. Canopy trees are able to photosynthesize relatively rapidly due to abundant light, the canopy layer provides protection from strong winds and storms, while also intercepting sunlight and precipitation, leading to a relatively sparsely vegetated understory layer. Forest canopies are home to flora and fauna not found in other layers of forests. The highest terrestrial biodiversity resides in the canopy of tropical rainforests, many rainforest animals have evolved to live solely in the canopy, and never touch the ground. The canopy of a rainforest is typically about 10m thick, the canopy is below the emergent layer, a sparse layer of very tall trees, typically one or two per hectare. With an abundance of water and an ideal temperature in rainforests, light. In the permaculture and forest gardening community, the canopy is the highest of seven layers, Canopy Canopy research Canopy walkway Hemispherical photography Stratification Treefall gap Wildfire Crown shyness Rainforest size-asymmetric competition Lowman, M. D. and H. B. ISBN 0-12-457553-6, ISBN 978-0-12-457553-0 Moffett, M. W, the High Frontier, Exploring the Tropical Rainforest Canopy. Plant Canopies, Their Growth, Form and Function, ISBN 0-521-39563-1, ISBN 978-0-521-39563-2 International Canopy Access Network
36.
Organic food
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Organic food is food produced by methods that comply with the standards of organic farming. Standards vary worldwide, but organic farming in general features practices that strive to cycle resources, promote ecological balance, organizations regulating organic products may restrict the use of certain pesticides and fertilizers in farming. In general, organic foods are usually not processed using irradiation. In the context of regulations, organic food is produced in a way that complies with organic standards set by regional organizations, national governments. There is not sufficient evidence in literature to support claims that organic food is safer or healthier than conventionally grown food. Claims that organic food tastes better are generally not supported by evidence, the organic farming movement arose in the 1940s in response to the industrialization of agriculture. Their respective use affects humus content of soil and this is different from the scientific use of the term organic in chemistry, which refers to a class of molecules that contain carbon, especially those involved in the chemistry of life. Properly used in agricultural science context, organic refers to the methods grown and processed. Early consumers interested in food would look for non-chemically treated, non-use of unapproved pesticides. They mostly had to buy directly from growers, later, Know your farmer, know your food became the motto of a new initiative instituted by the USDA in September 2009. Personal definitions of what constituted organic were developed through experience, by talking to farmers, seeing farm conditions. Small farms grew vegetables using organic farming practices, with or without certification, small specialty health food stores and co-operatives were instrumental to bringing organic food to a wider audience. As demand for organic foods continued to increase, high volume sales through mass outlets such as supermarkets rapidly replaced the direct farmer connection, today, many large corporate farms have an organic division. However, for consumers, food production is not easily observable. Government regulations and third-party inspectors are looked to for assurance, Organic food production is a self-regulated industry with government oversight in some countries, distinct from private gardening. If livestock are involved, the livestock must be reared with regular access to pasture, processed organic food usually contains only organic ingredients. If non-organic ingredients are present, at least a certain percentage of the total plant. Pesticides are allowed as long as they are not synthetic, several groups have called for organic standards to prohibit nanotechnology on the basis of the precautionary principle in light of unknown risks of nanotechnology
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Fairtrade certification
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The Fairtrade certification initiative was created to form a new method for economic trade. This method takes a stand point, and considers the producers first. The Fairtrade organization forms a partnership between the consumer and the producer, and aims to eliminate other parties within the supply chain, the second part of Fairtrade International is the independent certifier, FLOCert. FLOCert ensures that companies and producers all comply with FLOs standards of trade, Fairtrade International was initially made up of other national fair trade initiatives from around the world, who came together to form one international umbrella organisation. Fairtrade International started with the industry, but now covers a range of products such as cocoa, fruit, cotton, flowers, tea. The established buyers of these make up a niche market. As of 2011,827 producer organizations in 58 developing countries were Fairtrade certified, the effectiveness of Fairtrade is questionable, and in some cases workers on Fairtrade farms have a lower standard of living than on similar farms outside the Fairtrade system. The fair trade movement stemmed from an initiative established by the Dutch development agency, Solidaridad, the agency recognised that the producers were not being treated fairly, and strived to create a more ethical system to trade. The Max Havelaar seal, which was based on a character, was established to license existing roasters and retailers who complied with its fair trade criteria. The seal provided specific benefits for cooperatives of small producers in Mexico, with the aim of balancing the production of crops to be exported. The four benefits in this model of the fairtrade initiative were. An additional 10% of the price for their investment in social and environmental projects. The Solidaridad informed large audiences of the mistreatment of coffee producers and they worked with other associations as well as the mass media to spread the message and create an awareness of their fair trade initiative. Because of their efforts, in 1988 the first bag of Max Hevelaar sealed coffee from Mexico was delivered to Hollands Prince Claus, by the 1990s every western European country had established their own national version of the Max Hevelaar initiative. Between the late 1980s and the mid 1990s, multiple national initiatives following a trade system coexisted within Europe, USA, Canada. 1997 however,17 national initiatives joined forces to create one international umbrella organisation called the Fair Trade Organization, FLO is based in Bonn, Germany, and has quickly become the largest organisation of its kind. FLO also has branches and field workers situated in Africa, Central and South America, the international fair trade label was introduced in 2002 to improve visibility for consumers. A key part of the Fair Trade initiative is to consumers through innovative marketing
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The Fairtrade Foundation
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The organisation is an independent non-profit organisation that licenses use of the Fairtrade Mark on products in the UK in accordance with internationally agreed Fairtrade standards. Its four key areas of activity include, Providing independent certification of the chain for products. Growing demand for Fairtrade products and supporting producers to sell to traders and retailers, working with partners to support producer organisations and their networks. Raising awareness of the need for trade in the public. The marketing system for Fairtrade and non-Fairtrade coffee is identical in the consuming countries, some independent brands operate a virtual company, paying importers, packers and distributors and advertising agencies to handle their brand, for cost reasons. In the producing country Fairtrade is marketed only by Fairtrade cooperatives, while coffee is marketed by Fairtrade cooperatives, by other cooperatives. This mode of operation has led to criticism of the foundation, there is evidence that dishonest importers do not pay the full Fairtrade price, so an even smaller proportion reaches the Third World. Cooperative traders and exporters can sell coffee as Fairtrade certified if they meet the standards of FLO. Other administration costs and production costs are incurred to meet these standards, the exporter is paid a minimum price for Fairtrade certified coffee when the world market is oversupplied, and a Fairtrade premium of 15c per lb at other times. The cooperatives can, on average, sell only a third of their output as Fairtrade, because of lack of demand, as the additional costs are incurred on all production, not just that sold as Fairtrade, cooperatives sometimes lose money on their Fairtrade membership. After the additional costs have been subtracted from the Fairtrade price, critics therefore argue that farmers do not get any of the higher price under Fairtrade. Farmers do, however, incur extra costs in producing Fairtrade, there is little or no research on the extra costs incurred, or the effect of Fairtrade membership on the income of farmers. To become certified Fairtrade producers, the cooperative and its member farmers must operate to certain Fairtrade standards. FLO-CERT, the side, handles producer certification, inspecting and certifying producer organisations in more than 50 countries in Africa, Asia. In the Fair trade debate there are complaints of failure to enforce these standards, with Fairtrade cooperatives. The Foundation was established in 1992 by CAFOD, Christian Aid, New Consumer, Oxfam, Traidcraft, the Foundation also coordinates the Fairtrade Town campaign, which designates areas and towns committed to the promotion of Fairtrade certified goods. The Fairtrade Foundation commissions professional photographers to take images of farmers and workers that belong to Fairtrade certified producer groups, some of the photographers the Foundation and FLO has worked with are Simon Rawles, Peter Caton, Eduardo Martino, Richard Human, Didier Gentilhomme and Anette Kay. Since The Co-operative Food became the first supermarket to sell a Fairtrade product in 1992, in 2013, there were over 4000 Fairtrade products available in the UK with estimated sales of over £1. 7bn
39.
Maxwell House
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Maxwell House is a brand of coffee manufactured by a like-named division of Kraft Foods. Introduced in 1892 by wholesale grocer Joel Owsley Cheek, it was named in honor of the Maxwell House Hotel in Nashville, for many years, until the late 1980s, it was the largest-selling coffee in the United States. The companys slogan is Good to the last drop, which is incorporated into their logo and is printed on their labels. In 1884 Joel Cheek moved to Nashville and met Roger Nolley Smith, a British coffee broker who could reportedly tell the origin of a coffee simply by smelling the green beans. Over the next few years, the two worked on finding the perfect blend, and in 1892 Cheek approached the food buyer for the Maxwell House Hotel, later, the Nashville Coffee and Manufacturing Company was renamed the Cheek-Neal Coffee Company. Over the next years, the Maxwell House Coffee brand became a well-respected name that set it apart from the competition. In 1915 Cheek-Neal began using a Good to the last drop slogan to advertise their Maxwell House Coffee, for several years, the ads made no mention of Theodore Roosevelt as the phrases originator. During this time, Coca-Cola also used the slogan Good to the last drop, the phrase remains a registered trademark of the product and appears on its logo. The veracity of the Roosevelt connection to the phrase has never been historically established, in the local press coverage of Roosevelts October 21 visit, a story concerning Roosevelt and the cup of coffee he drank features a quote which does not resemble the slogan. The Maxwell House Company claimed in its own advertising that the Roosevelt story was true, in 2009, Maxwell House ran a commercial with Roosevelt repriser Joe Wiegand, who tells the Last Drop story. In 1942 General Foods Corporation, successor to the Postum Company began supplying instant coffee to the U. S. armed forces. Beginning in the fall of 1945, this product, now branded as Maxwell House Instant Coffee, entered test markets in the eastern U. S. in 1966 the company introduced Maxwell House ElectraPerk, developed specifically for electric percolators. In 1969 General Foods in the UK launched granulated coffee, using a pantomime stage format in the London Hilton for a show called Once Upon a Coffee Time, in this story, the weak Prince of Powdah and his mentor Reschem travel the world in search of blends. Meeting and falling in love with Princess Purity, and fighting the dragon Old Hat and this show was written by Michael Ingrams, produced by the Mitchell Monkhouse Agency, and designed by Malcolm Lewis and Chris Miles of Media. In 1976 the product was joined by Maxwell House A. D. C, Coffee, the name reflecting its intended use in automatic drip coffee makers such as Mr. Coffee, which were in the process of pushing aside traditional coffee-preparation methods. In 1972, the company had introduced Max-Pax ground coffee filter rings, although this method, too, has been eclipsed, the Max-Pax concept was subsequently adapted as Maxwell House Filter Packs, first so called in 1989, for use in automatic coffee makers. By the 1990s, the company had quietly discontinued formulations for specific preparation methods, the brand is now marketed in ground and measured forms, as well as in whole-bean, flavored, and varietal blends. A higher-yield ground coffee, Maxwell House Master Blend, was introduced in 1981 and Rich French Roast, Colombian Supreme, and 1892, in 1992, the company added cappuccino products to its line with Cappio Iced Cappuccino in that year and Maxwell House Cappuccino in 1993
40.
Folgers
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Folgers Coffee is a brand of coffee in the United States, part of the food and beverage division of The J. M. Smucker Company. Since the early 1990s, it has been the ground coffee in the United States. The precursor of the Folger Coffee Company was founded in 1850 in San Francisco, California, U. S. as the Pioneer Steam Coffee, the owner, William H. Bovee, saw an opportunity to produce roasted and ground coffee ready for brewing. Before that, Californians had to purchase coffee beans, and roast. To help build his mill, Bovee hired James A. Folger as a carpenter, James had arrived from Nantucket Island at the age of 15 with his two older brothers during the California Gold Rush. After working at Bovee’s mill for nearly a year, James had saved money to stake a claim in the company. He agreed to carry samples of coffee and spices, taking orders from grocery stores along the way. Upon his return to San Francisco in 1865, James became a partner of The Pioneer Steam Coffee. In 1872, he bought out the partners and renamed the company to J. A. In 1861, James married, and he and his wife had four children, two of the children worked for the family business. In 1889, James died, and his oldest son, James A. Folger II, Folger & Co at the age of 26. In the 1900s, the company began to grow dramatically due primarily to a salesman named Frank P. Atha, Atha sold coffee in the California area, but proposed to James Folger II that he open and manage a Folgers Coffee plant in Texas. The company grew exponentially after Atha opened the Texas plant, under the mid-20th century leadership of Peter Folger, the brand became one of the principal coffee concerns in the worlds largest coffee market, North America. Procter & Gamble acquired Folgers in 1963 and removed the apostrophe from its name, during P&G’s ownership, Folgers became the number-one coffee brand in America. P&G announced in January 2008 that Folgers would be spun off into a separate Cincinnati-based company, in June 2008, P&G reversed itself and announced Folgers would be acquired by the end of 2008 by The J. M. Smucker Company. Utilizing a rare financial technique called a Reverse Morris Trust, Smucker purchased Folgers in November 2008, in the United Kingdom, Folgers Instant Crystals are available. Folgers is promoted with the slogan The best part of waking up is Folgers in your cup and it is well associated with a jingle featured in almost every advertisement since 1984, with lyrics by Susan Spiegel Solovay and Bill Vernick, and music by Leslie Pearl. Over the years it has been rearranged and performed by famous musicians, such as Ritchie Havens, Randy Travis, Aretha Franklin
41.
Millstone Coffee
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Millstone Coffee is a brand of coffee sold in the US, a division of The J. M. Smucker Company. The company sells whole bean and ground coffee in retail settings, the company was founded in Everett, Washington, in 1981. Founder Phil Johnson sold 100-pound sacks of Arabica beans to high-end coffee shops in the greater Seattle area, Johnson sold the company to Procter & Gamble in 1996, which closed down most of the Everett operation and runs the company out of Ohio. Johnson took the assets P&G did not purchase and created the Cascade Coffee company, in January,2008, Procter & Gamble announced plans to create an independent company named The Folgers Coffee Company. The company consisted of three segments, Retail, Commercial, and Millstone, on November 6,2008, The J. M. Smucker Company announced the completion of its merger with The Folgers Coffee Company. On September 9,2016, J. M. Smucker Co. announced its decision to discontinue the Millstone Coffee brand, official website Cascade Coffee has to know beans about business The Everett Herald Cascade Coffee - company founded by Millstone founder Phil Johnson
42.
Fair trade coffee
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Fair trade coffee is coffee that is certified as having been produced to fair trade standards. Fair trade organizations create trading partnerships that are based on dialogue, transparency and respect and these partnerships contribute to sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to coffee bean farmers. Fair trade organizations are engaged actively in supporting producers and sustainable farming practices. Fair trade practices prohibit child or forced labor, prior to fair trade, prices were regulated by the International Coffee Organization according to the regulations set forth by the International Coffee Agreement of 1962. The ICA existed for five years, and then was renewed in 1968, the agreement was renegotiated in 1976 due to increasing coffee prices, largely a result of a severe frost in Brazil. The new agreement allowed for the suspension of price quotas if the supply of coffee could not meet the demand, in 1983, the agreement was again redrawn, this time creating a database on coffee trade, and implementing stricter import and export regulations. Launched in the Netherlands, fair trade certification aimed to raise coffee prices in order to ensure growers sufficient wages to turn a profit. The original name of the organization was Max Havelaar, after a fictional Dutch character who opposed the exploitation of farmers by Dutch colonialists in the East Indies. The organization created a label for products that met certain wage standards, quotas remained a part of the agreement until 1989, when the organization was unable to negotiate a new agreement in time for the next year. It was decided that the 1983 agreement would be extended, a new agreement could not be negotiated until 1992. From 1990 to 1992, without the quotas in place, coffee prices reached a low because coffee price quotas could not be decided. In 1997, these four organizations jointly created Fairtrade International, which continues to set Fairtrade standards, the standards developed by Fairtrade Labelling Organization are the most widely used. The certification scheme is run by Fairtrade International, Coffee packers pay Fairtrade a fee for the right to use the Fairtrade logo, which gives consumers an assurance that the coffee meets Fairtrade criteria. The coffee with this certification mark must be produced by farmers, Coffee retailers are not restricted by Fairtrade to sell Fairtrade coffee as a premium product and charge as much as they like for the coffee. Importers of Fairtrade coffee have to be registered with Fairtrade and pay a fee, under the Fairtrade International standards they are obliged to pay a minimum price to the exporting organization, currently $1. 40c/lb New York Board of Trade “C” contract, F. O. B. Origin for Arabica, and $1.05 for Robusta London “EURONEXT LIFFE” contract, when the world price is above this level, they are obliged to pay 20c/lb above the world price. Certified Fairtrade coffee is exported by secondary or tertiary cooperatives. There is not enough demand to all the certified coffee produced
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World Fair Trade Organization
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The World Fair Trade Organization, formerly the International Federation of Alternative Traders, was created in 1989 and is a global association of 324 organizations in over 70 countries. Members are fair trade cooperatives and associations, export marketing companies, importers, retailers, national and regional fair trade networks. WFTOs mission is to improve the livelihoods and well being of disadvantaged producers by linking and promoting Fair Trade Organizations, the FTO Mark identifies registered Fair Trade Organizations worldwide and guarantees that standards are being implemented regarding working conditions, wages, child labor and the environment. These standards are verified by self-assessment, mutual reviews and external verification, the FTO Mark is available to all WFTO members who meet the requirements of the WFTO Standards and Monitoring System and so far over 150 organizations have registered. The WFTO operates in five key regions, Africa, Asia, Latin America, Europe, members in Africa, Asia, Europe and Latin America have come together to form WFTO regional chapters. Only monitored WFTO members are authorized to use the logo, the WFTO logo is not a product mark - it is used to brand organisations that are committed to 100% Fair Trade. The system was designed for marginalised producers currently not catered for by the Fairtrade Certification system. Due to the variety and complexity of handcrafts, for example, the system, then, provides an alternative that will verify that an organisation practices Fair Trade in all its activities. Once certified, the organisation will be able to use the label on all its products, Fair Trade is a type of partnership based on communication and reverence that ensures fairness in international trade. Since the seventies, there have been several groups and conferences held that discussed the implementation of regulations regarding trade, however, The World Fair Trade Organization was not established until the early nineties. The WFTO has several hundred partnerships across the globe with established practices and procedures meant to protect the groups, the Asian chapter of WFTO operates in 15 countries and comprises 90 fair trade organizations. Some member nations include, Bangladesh, China, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Korea, Laos, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Timor Leste and Vietnam. Their roles in the fair trade operations vary, and included are, producers, cooperatives, retailers, NGOs, WFTO-Europe, formerly known as IFAT Europe, is formed by 84 members, amongst them Fair Trade organizations, Fair Trade networks and support organizations. It represents the European chapter of the World Fair Trade Organization, in 2009, the Network of European Worldshops was integrated into WFTO-Europe. WFTO-LA is currently composed of 55 members from 13 countries of Latin America, the Regional Office is located in Areguá, Paraguay. WFTO-PacificRim is currently composed of 23 members from 5 countries around the Pacific - New Zealand, Australia, Japan, Canada, the Regional Office is located in Irvine, near Los Angeles, California, USA. World Fair Trade Organization World Fair Trade Organization – Asian Chapter WFTO-LA – Associacion Latino Americana de Commercio Justo WFTO-Europe – World Fair Trade Organization-Europe
Brazil
Vietnam
Indonesia
Colombia
Ethiopia
Peru
India
Honduras
Mexico
Guatemala
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