1.
Mathematics
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
2.
Eisenstein integer
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The Eisenstein integers form a triangular lattice in the complex plane, in contrast with the Gaussian integers, which form a square lattice in the complex plane. The Eisenstein integers form a ring of algebraic integers in the algebraic number field Q — the third cyclotomic field. To see that the Eisenstein integers are algebraic integers note that each z = a + bω is a root of the polynomial z 2 − z +. In particular, ω satisfies the equation ω2 + ω +1 =0, the product of two Eisenstein integers a + b ω and c + d ω is given explicitly by ⋅ = + ω. The norm of an Eisenstein integer is just the square of its modulus and is given by | a + b ω |2 = a 2 − a b + b 2, thus the norm of an Eisenstein integer is always an ordinary integer. Since 4 a 2 −4 a b +4 b 2 =2 +3 b 2, the group of units in the ring of Eisenstein integers is the cyclic group formed by the sixth roots of unity in the complex plane. Specifically, they are These are just the Eisenstein integers of norm one, if x and y are Eisenstein integers, we say that x divides y if there is some Eisenstein integer z such that y = zx. This extends the notion of divisibility for ordinary integers, ordinary primes congruent to 2 mod 3 cannot be factored in this way and they are primes in the Eisenstein integers as well. Every Eisenstein integer a + bω whose norm a2 − ab + b2 is a prime is an Eisenstein prime. In fact, every Eisenstein prime is of form, or is a product of a unit. The ring of Eisenstein integers forms a Euclidean domain whose norm N is given by N = a 2 − a b + b 2. This can be derived as follows, N = | a + b ω |2 = = a 2 + a b + b 2 = a 2 − a b + b 2. The quotient of the complex plane C by the lattice containing all Eisenstein integers is a torus of real dimension 2. This is one of two tori with maximal symmetry among all such complex tori and this torus can be obtained by identifying each of the three pairs of opposite edges of a regular hexagon. Gaussian integer Kummer ring Systolic geometry Hermite constant Cubic reciprocity Loewners torus inequality Hurwitz quaternion Quadratic integer Eisenstein Integer--from MathWorld
3.
Divisor
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In mathematics, a divisor of an integer n, also called a factor of n, is an integer m that may be multiplied by some other integer to produce n. In this case one says also that n is a multiple of m, an integer n is divisible by another integer m if m is a divisor of n, this implies dividing n by m leaves no remainder. Under this definition, the statement m ∣0 holds for every m, as before, but with the additional constraint k ≠0. Under this definition, the statement m ∣0 does not hold for m ≠0, in the remainder of this article, which definition is applied is indicated where this is significant. Divisors can be negative as well as positive, although sometimes the term is restricted to positive divisors. For example, there are six divisors of 4, they are 1,2,4, −1, −2, and −4,1 and −1 divide every integer. Every integer is a divisor of itself, every integer is a divisor of 0. Integers divisible by 2 are called even, and numbers not divisible by 2 are called odd,1, −1, n and −n are known as the trivial divisors of n. A divisor of n that is not a divisor is known as a non-trivial divisor. A non-zero integer with at least one divisor is known as a composite number, while the units −1 and 1. There are divisibility rules which allow one to recognize certain divisors of a number from the numbers digits, the generalization can be said to be the concept of divisibility in any integral domain. 7 is a divisor of 42 because 7 ×6 =42 and it can also be said that 42 is divisible by 7,42 is a multiple of 7,7 divides 42, or 7 is a factor of 42. The non-trivial divisors of 6 are 2, −2,3, the positive divisors of 42 are 1,2,3,6,7,14,21,42. 5 ∣0, because 5 ×0 =0, if a ∣ b and b ∣ a, then a = b or a = − b. If a ∣ b and a ∣ c, then a ∣ holds, however, if a ∣ b and c ∣ b, then ∣ b does not always hold. If a ∣ b c, and gcd =1, then a ∣ c, if p is a prime number and p ∣ a b then p ∣ a or p ∣ b. A positive divisor of n which is different from n is called a proper divisor or a part of n. A number that does not evenly divide n but leaves a remainder is called an aliquant part of n, an integer n >1 whose only proper divisor is 1 is called a prime number
4.
Complex conjugate
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In mathematics, the complex conjugate of a complex number is the number with equal real part and imaginary part equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. For example, the conjugate of 3 + 4i is 3 − 4i. In polar form, the conjugate of ρ e i ϕ is ρ e − i ϕ and this can be shown using Eulers formula. Complex conjugates are important for finding roots of polynomials, according to the complex conjugate root theorem, if a complex number is a root to a polynomial in one variable with real coefficients, so is its conjugate. The complex conjugate of a number z is written as z ¯ or z ∗. The first notation avoids confusion with the notation for the transpose of a matrix. The second is preferred in physics, where dagger is used for the conjugate transpose, If a complex number is represented as a 2×2 matrix, the notations are identical. In some texts, the conjugate of a previous known number is abbreviated as c. c. A significant property of the conjugate is that a complex number is equal to its complex conjugate if its imaginary part is zero. The conjugate of the conjugate of a number z is z. The ultimate relation is the method of choice to compute the inverse of a number if it is given in rectangular coordinates. Exp = exp ¯ log = log ¯ if z is non-zero If p is a polynomial with real coefficients, thus, non-real roots of real polynomials occur in complex conjugate pairs. In general, if ϕ is a function whose restriction to the real numbers is real-valued. The map σ = z ¯ from C to C is a homeomorphism and antilinear, even though it appears to be a well-behaved function, it is not holomorphic, it reverses orientation whereas holomorphic functions locally preserve orientation. It is bijective and compatible with the operations, and hence is a field automorphism. As it keeps the real numbers fixed, it is an element of the Galois group of the field extension C / R and this Galois group has only two elements, σ and the identity on C. Thus the only two field automorphisms of C that leave the real numbers fixed are the identity map and complex conjugation. Similarly, for a fixed complex unit u = exp, the equation z − z 0 z ¯ − z 0 ¯ = u determines the line through z 0 in the direction of u
5.
Prime number
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A prime number is a natural number greater than 1 that has no positive divisors other than 1 and itself. A natural number greater than 1 that is not a number is called a composite number. For example,5 is prime because 1 and 5 are its only positive integer factors, the property of being prime is called primality. A simple but slow method of verifying the primality of a number n is known as trial division. It consists of testing whether n is a multiple of any integer between 2 and n, algorithms much more efficient than trial division have been devised to test the primality of large numbers. Particularly fast methods are available for numbers of forms, such as Mersenne numbers. As of January 2016, the largest known prime number has 22,338,618 decimal digits, there are infinitely many primes, as demonstrated by Euclid around 300 BC. There is no simple formula that separates prime numbers from composite numbers. However, the distribution of primes, that is to say, many questions regarding prime numbers remain open, such as Goldbachs conjecture, and the twin prime conjecture. Such questions spurred the development of branches of number theory. Prime numbers give rise to various generalizations in other domains, mainly algebra, such as prime elements. A natural number is called a number if it has exactly two positive divisors,1 and the number itself. Natural numbers greater than 1 that are not prime are called composite, among the numbers 1 to 6, the numbers 2,3, and 5 are the prime numbers, while 1,4, and 6 are not prime. 1 is excluded as a number, for reasons explained below. 2 is a number, since the only natural numbers dividing it are 1 and 2. Next,3 is prime, too,1 and 3 do divide 3 without remainder, however,4 is composite, since 2 is another number dividing 4 without remainder,4 =2 ·2. 5 is again prime, none of the numbers 2,3, next,6 is divisible by 2 or 3, since 6 =2 ·3. The image at the right illustrates that 12 is not prime,12 =3 ·4, no even number greater than 2 is prime because by definition, any such number n has at least three distinct divisors, namely 1,2, and n
6.
Duodecimal
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The duodecimal system is a positional notation numeral system using twelve as its base. In this system, the number ten may be written by a rotated 2 and this notation was introduced by Sir Isaac Pitman. These digit forms are available as Unicode characters on computerized systems since June 2015 as ↊ and ↋, other notations use A, T, or X for ten and B or E for eleven. The number twelve is written as 10 in duodecimal, whereas the digit string 12 means 1 dozen and 2 units. Similarly, in duodecimal 100 means 1 gross,1000 means 1 great gross, the number twelve, a superior highly composite number, is the smallest number with four non-trivial factors, and the smallest to include as factors all four numbers within the subitizing range. As a result, duodecimal has been described as the number system. Of its factors,2 and 3 are prime, which means the reciprocals of all 3-smooth numbers have a representation in duodecimal. In particular, the five most elementary fractions all have a terminating representation in duodecimal. This all makes it a convenient number system for computing fractions than most other number systems in common use, such as the decimal, vigesimal, binary. Although the trigesimal and sexagesimal systems do even better in respect, this is at the cost of unwieldy multiplication tables. In this section, numerals are based on decimal places, for example,10 means ten,12 means twelve. Languages using duodecimal number systems are uncommon, germanic languages have special words for 11 and 12, such as eleven and twelve in English. However, they are considered to come from Proto-Germanic *ainlif and *twalif, historically, units of time in many civilizations are duodecimal. There are twelve signs of the zodiac, twelve months in a year, traditional Chinese calendars, clocks, and compasses are based on the twelve Earthly Branches. There are 12 inches in a foot,12 troy ounces in a troy pound,12 old British pence in a shilling,24 hours in a day. The Romans used a system based on 12, including the uncia which became both the English words ounce and inch. The importance of 12 has been attributed to the number of cycles in a year. It is possible to count to 12 with the acting as a pointer
7.
2 (number)
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2 is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the number following 1 and preceding 3. The number two has many properties in mathematics, an integer is called even if it is divisible by 2. For integers written in a system based on an even number, such as decimal and hexadecimal. If it is even, then the number is even. In particular, when written in the system, all multiples of 2 will end in 0,2,4,6. In numeral systems based on an odd number, divisibility by 2 can be tested by having a root that is even. Two is the smallest and first prime number, and the only prime number. Two and three are the two consecutive prime numbers. 2 is the first Sophie Germain prime, the first factorial prime, the first Lucas prime, the first Ramanujan prime, and it is an Eisenstein prime with no imaginary part and real part of the form 3n −1. It is also a Stern prime, a Pell number, the first Fibonacci prime, and it is the third Fibonacci number, and the second and fourth Perrin numbers. Despite being prime, two is also a highly composite number, because it is a natural number which has more divisors than any other number scaled relative to the number itself. The next superior highly composite number is six, vulgar fractions with only 2 or 5 in the denominator do not yield infinite decimal expansions, as is the case with all other primes, because 2 and 5 are factors of ten, the decimal base. Two is the number x such that the sum of the reciprocals of the powers of x equals itself. In symbols ∑ k =0 ∞12 k =1 +12 +14 +18 +116 + ⋯ =2. This comes from the fact that, ∑ k =0 ∞1 n k =1 +1 n −1 for all n ∈ R >1, powers of two are central to the concept of Mersenne primes, and important to computer science. Two is the first Mersenne prime exponent, the square root of 2 was the first known irrational number. The smallest field has two elements, in the set-theoretical construction of the natural numbers,2 is identified with the set
8.
5 (number)
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5 is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the number following 4 and preceding 6. Five is the prime number. Because it can be written as 221 +1, five is classified as a Fermat prime, therefore a regular polygon with 5 sides is constructible with compass and unmarked straightedge. 5 is the third Sophie Germain prime, the first safe prime, the third Catalan number, Five is the first Wilson prime and the third factorial prime, also an alternating factorial. Five is the first good prime and it is an Eisenstein prime with no imaginary part and real part of the form 3n −1. It is also the number that is part of more than one pair of twin primes. Five is conjectured to be the only odd number and if this is the case then five will be the only odd prime number that is not the base of an aliquot tree. Five is also the only prime that is the sum of two primes, namely 2 and 3. The number 5 is the fifth Fibonacci number, being 2 plus 3,5 is also a Pell number and a Markov number, appearing in solutions to the Markov Diophantine equation. Whereas 5 is unique in the Fibonacci sequence, in the Perrin sequence 5 is both the fifth and sixth Perrin numbers,5 is the length of the hypotenuse of the smallest integer-sided right triangle. In bases 10 and 20,5 is a 1-automorphic number,5 and 6 form a Ruth–Aaron pair under either definition. There are five solutions to Známs problem of length 6 and this is related to the fact that the symmetric group Sn is a solvable group for n ≤4 and not solvable for n ≥5. While all graphs with 4 or fewer vertices are planar, there exists a graph with 5 vertices which is not planar, K5, Five is also the number of Platonic solids. A polygon with five sides is a pentagon, figurate numbers representing pentagons are called pentagonal numbers. Five is also a square pyramidal number, Five is the only prime number to end in the digit 5, because all other numbers written with a 5 in the ones-place under the decimal system are multiples of five. As a consequence of this,5 is in base 10 a 1-automorphic number, vulgar fractions with 5 or 2 in the denominator do not yield infinite decimal expansions, unlike expansions with all other prime denominators, because they are prime factors of ten, the base. When written in the system, all multiples of 5 will end in either 5 or 0
9.
17 (number)
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17 is the natural number following 16 and preceding 18. In spoken English, the numbers 17 and 70 are sometimes confused because they sound similar, when carefully enunciated, they differ in which syllable is stressed,17 /sɛvənˈtiːn/ vs 70 /ˈsɛvənti/. However, in such as 1789 or when contrasting numbers in the teens, such as 16,17,18. The number 17 has wide significance in pure mathematics, as well as in applied sciences, law, music, religion, sports,17 is the sum of the first 4 prime numbers. In a 24-hour clock, the hour is in conventional language called five or five oclock. Seventeen is the 7th prime number, the next prime is nineteen, with which it forms a twin prime. 17 is the sixth Mersenne prime exponent, yielding 131071,17 is an Eisenstein prime with no imaginary part and real part of the form 3n −1. 17 is the third Fermat prime, as it is of the form 22n +1, specifically with n =2, since 17 is a Fermat prime, regular heptadecagons can be constructed with compass and unmarked ruler. This was proven by Carl Friedrich Gauss,17 is the only positive Genocchi number that is prime, the only negative one being −3. It is also the third Stern prime,17 is the average of the first two Perfect numbers. 17 is the term of the Euclid–Mullin sequence. Seventeen is the sum of the semiprime 39, and is the aliquot sum of the semiprime 55. There are exactly 17 two-dimensional space groups and these are sometimes called wallpaper groups, as they represent the seventeen possible symmetry types that can be used for wallpaper. Like 41, the number 17 is a prime that yields primes in the polynomial n2 + n + p, the maximum possible length of such a sequence is 17. Either 16 or 18 unit squares can be formed into rectangles with equal to the area. 17 is the tenth Perrin number, preceded in the sequence by 7,10,12, in base 9, the smallest prime with a composite sum of digits is 17. 17 is the least random number, according to the Hackers Jargon File and it is a repunit prime in hexadecimal. 17 is the possible number of givens for a sudoku puzzle with a unique solution
10.
53 (number)
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53 is the natural number following 52 and preceding 54. Fifty-three is the 16th prime number and it is also an Eisenstein prime, and a Sophie Germain prime. The sum of the first 53 primes is 5830, which is divisible by 53,53 written in hexadecimal is 35, that is, the same characters used in the decimal representation, but reversed. Four multiples of 53 share this property,371 =17316,5141 =141516,99481 =1849916, and 8520280 =82025816,53 cannot be expressed as the sum of any integer and its base-10 digits, making 53 a self number. 53 is the smallest prime number that does not divide the order of any sporadic group, the duration of Saros series 53 was 1514.5 years, and it contained 85 solar eclipses. The Saros number of the lunar eclipse series began on June 5,993 BC. The duration of Saros series 53 was 1280.1 years, fictional 53rd Precinct in the Bronx was found in the TV comedy Car 54, Where Are You. UDP and TCP port number for the Domain Name System protocol, 53-TET is a musical temperament that has a fifth that is closer to pure than our current system. 53 More Things To Do In Zero Gravity is a mentioned in The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy. 53 a number used on the hand of the tulip in Infinity Train
11.
59 (number)
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59 is the natural number following 58 and preceding 60. Fifty-nine is the 17th smallest prime number, the next is sixty-one, with which it comprises a twin prime. 59 is an prime, a safe prime and the 14th supersingular prime. It is an Eisenstein prime with no part and real part of the form 3n −1. +1 is divisible by 59 but 59 is not one more than a multiple of 15,59 is a Pillai prime and it is also a highly cototient number. There are 59 stellations of the icosahedron,59 is one of the factors that divides the smallest composite Euclid number. In this case 59 divides the Euclid number 13# +1 =2 ×3 ×5 ×7 ×11 ×13 +1 =59 ×509, the duration of Saros series 59 was 1280.1 years, and it contained 72 solar eclipses. The Saros number of the lunar eclipse series began in March,729 BC
12.
83 (number)
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83 is the natural number following 82 and preceding 84. 83 is, the sum of three consecutive primes, the sum of five consecutive primes. The 23rd prime number, following 79 and preceding 89, an Eisenstein prime with no imaginary part and real part of the form 3n −1. The duration of Saros series 83 was 1262.1 years, the Saros number of the lunar eclipse series which began on -197 August 22 and ended on 1318 February. The duration of Saros series 83 was 1514.5 years, when someone reaches 83 they may celebrate a second bar mitzvah M83 is the debut album of the French electronic music group M8383 is a song written by John Mayer in the Room for Squares album. As an example, the television station CIVIC-TV managed by the James Woods character Max Renn in the 1983 film Videodrome was on Channel 83. Eighty-three is also, The year AD83,83 BC, or 1983 The TI-83 series and this symbology is also known to be used by many non-racist Christians and non-denominational Churches. An emoticon based on,3 with wide-open eyes
13.
89 (number)
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89 is the natural number following 88 and preceding 90. 89 is, the 24th prime number, following 83 and preceding 97, the smallest Sophie Germain prime to start a Cunningham chain of the first kind of six terms. An Eisenstein prime with no part and real part of the form 3n −1. A Fibonacci number and thus a Fibonacci prime as well, the first few digits of its reciprocal coincide with the Fibonacci sequence due to the identity 189 = ∑ n =1 ∞ F ×10 − =0.011235955 …. A Markov number, appearing in solutions to the Markov Diophantine equation with other odd-indexed Fibonacci numbers, M89 is the 10th Mersenne prime. Although 89 is not a Lychrel number in base 10, it is unusual that it takes 24 iterations of the reverse, among the known non-Lychrel numbers in the first 10000 integers, no other number requires that many or more iterations. The palindrome reached is also unusually large, eighty-nine is, The atomic number of actinium. Messier object M89, a magnitude 11.5 elliptical galaxy in the constellation Virgo, the New General Catalogue object NGC89, a magnitude 13.5 peculiar spiral galaxy in the constellation Phoenix and a member of Roberts Quartet. The Oklahoma Redhawks, an American minor league team, were formerly known as the Oklahoma 89ers. The number alludes to the Land Run of 1889, when the Unassigned Lands of Oklahoma were opened to white settlement, the teams home of Oklahoma City was founded during this event. In Rugby, an 89 or eight-nine move is a following a scrum, in which the number 8 catches the ball. The Elite 89 Award is presented by the U. S. NCAA to the participant in each of the NCAAs 89 championship finals with the highest grade point average. The jersey number 89 has been retired by three National Football League teams in honor of past playing greats, The Baltimore Colts, for Hall of Famer Gino Marchetti, the franchise continues to honor the number in its current identity as the Indianapolis Colts. The Boston Patriots, for Bob Dee, the franchise, now the New England Patriots, continues to honor the number. The Chicago Bears, for Mike Ditka, eighty-nine is also, The designation of Interstate 89, a freeway that runs from New Hampshire to Vermont The designation of U. S. The number of units of each colour in the board game Blokus The number of the French department Yonne Information Is Beautiful cites eighty-nine as one of the words censored on the Chinese internet
14.
On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences
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The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, also cited simply as Sloanes, is an online database of integer sequences. It was created and maintained by Neil Sloane while a researcher at AT&T Labs, Sloane continues to be involved in the OEIS in his role as President of the OEIS Foundation. OEIS records information on integer sequences of interest to professional mathematicians and amateurs, and is widely cited. As of 30 December 2016 it contains nearly 280,000 sequences, the database is searchable by keyword and by subsequence. Neil Sloane started collecting integer sequences as a student in 1965 to support his work in combinatorics. The database was at first stored on punched cards and he published selections from the database in book form twice, A Handbook of Integer Sequences, containing 2,372 sequences in lexicographic order and assigned numbers from 1 to 2372. The Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences with Simon Plouffe, containing 5,488 sequences and these books were well received and, especially after the second publication, mathematicians supplied Sloane with a steady flow of new sequences. The collection became unmanageable in book form, and when the database had reached 16,000 entries Sloane decided to go online—first as an e-mail service, as a spin-off from the database work, Sloane founded the Journal of Integer Sequences in 1998. The database continues to grow at a rate of some 10,000 entries a year, Sloane has personally managed his sequences for almost 40 years, but starting in 2002, a board of associate editors and volunteers has helped maintain the database. In 2004, Sloane celebrated the addition of the 100, 000th sequence to the database, A100000, in 2006, the user interface was overhauled and more advanced search capabilities were added. In 2010 an OEIS wiki at OEIS. org was created to simplify the collaboration of the OEIS editors and contributors, besides integer sequences, the OEIS also catalogs sequences of fractions, the digits of transcendental numbers, complex numbers and so on by transforming them into integer sequences. Sequences of rationals are represented by two sequences, the sequence of numerators and the sequence of denominators, important irrational numbers such as π =3.1415926535897. are catalogued under representative integer sequences such as decimal expansions, binary expansions, or continued fraction expansions. The OEIS was limited to plain ASCII text until 2011, yet it still uses a form of conventional mathematical notation. Greek letters are represented by their full names, e. g. mu for μ. Every sequence is identified by the letter A followed by six digits, sometimes referred to without the leading zeros, individual terms of sequences are separated by commas. Digit groups are not separated by commas, periods, or spaces, a represents the nth term of the sequence. Zero is often used to represent non-existent sequence elements, for example, A104157 enumerates the smallest prime of n² consecutive primes to form an n×n magic square of least magic constant, or 0 if no such magic square exists. The value of a is 2, a is 1480028129, but there is no such 2×2 magic square, so a is 0
15.
Absolute value
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In mathematics, the absolute value or modulus |x| of a real number x is the non-negative value of x without regard to its sign. Namely, |x| = x for a x, |x| = −x for a negative x. For example, the value of 3 is 3. The absolute value of a number may be thought of as its distance from zero, generalisations of the absolute value for real numbers occur in a wide variety of mathematical settings. For example, a value is also defined for the complex numbers. The absolute value is related to the notions of magnitude, distance. The term absolute value has been used in this sense from at least 1806 in French and 1857 in English, the notation |x|, with a vertical bar on each side, was introduced by Karl Weierstrass in 1841. Other names for absolute value include numerical value and magnitude, in programming languages and computational software packages, the absolute value of x is generally represented by abs, or a similar expression. Thus, care must be taken to interpret vertical bars as an absolute value sign only when the argument is an object for which the notion of an absolute value is defined. For any real number x the value or modulus of x is denoted by |x| and is defined as | x | = { x, if x ≥0 − x. As can be seen from the definition, the absolute value of x is always either positive or zero. Indeed, the notion of a distance function in mathematics can be seen to be a generalisation of the absolute value of the difference. Since the square root notation without sign represents the square root. This identity is used as a definition of absolute value of real numbers. The absolute value has the four fundamental properties, The properties given by equations - are readily apparent from the definition. To see that equation holds, choose ε from so that ε ≥0, some additional useful properties are given below. These properties are either implied by or equivalent to the properties given by equations -, for example, Absolute value is used to define the absolute difference, the standard metric on the real numbers. Since the complex numbers are not ordered, the definition given above for the absolute value cannot be directly generalised for a complex number
16.
Largest known prime number
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As of January 2017, the largest known prime number is 274,207,281 −1, a number with 22,338,618 digits. It was found in 2016 by the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search, euclid proved that there is no largest prime number, and many mathematicians and hobbyists continue to search for large prime numbers. Many of the largest known primes are Mersenne primes, as of January 2017, the six largest known primes are Mersenne primes, while the seventh is the largest known non-Mersenne prime. The last 16 record primes were Mersenne primes, the fast Fourier transform implementation of the Lucas–Lehmer primality test for Mersenne numbers is fast compared to other known primality tests for other kinds of numbers. The record is held by 274,207,281 −1 with 22,338,618 digits, found by GIMPS in 2015. 717774014762912462113646879425801445107393100212927181629335931494239018213879217671164956287190498687010073391086436351 The first and last 120 digits are shown above, there are several prizes offered by the Electronic Frontier Foundation for record primes. GIMPS is also coordinating its long-range search efforts for primes of 100 million digits and larger, the record passed one million digits in 1999, earning a $50,000 prize. In 2008 the record passed ten million digits, earning a $100,000 prize, time called it the 29th top invention of 2008. Additional prizes are being offered for the first prime number found with at least one hundred million digits, both the $50,000 and the $100,000 prizes were won by participation in GIMPS. The following table lists the progression of the largest known prime number in ascending order, here Mn= 2n −1 is the Mersenne number with exponent n. The longest record-holder known was M19 =524,287, which was the largest known prime for 144 years, almost no records are known before 1456. GIMPS found the thirteen latest records on ordinary computers operated by participants around the world
17.
PrimeGrid
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PrimeGrid is a distributed computing project for searching for prime numbers of world-record size. It makes use of the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing platform, PrimeGrid started in June 2005 under the name Message@home and tried to decipher text fragments hashed with MD5. Message@home was a test to port the BOINC scheduler to Perl to obtain greater portability, after a while the project attempted the RSA factoring challenge trying to factor RSA-640. After RSA-640 was factored by a team in November 2005. With the chance to succeed too small, it discarded the RSA challenges, was renamed to PrimeGrid, at 210,000,000,000 the primegen subproject was stopped. In June 2006, dialog started with Riesel Sieve to bring their project to the BOINC community, PrimeGrid provided PerlBOINC support and Riesel Sieve was successful in implementing their sieve as well as a prime finding application. With collaboration from Riesel Sieve, PrimeGrid was able to implement the LLR application in partnership with another prime finding project, in November 2006, the TPS LLR application was officially released at PrimeGrid. Less than two months later, January 2007, the twin was found by the original manual project. PrimeGrid and TPS then advanced their search for even larger twin primes, the summer of 2007 was very active as the Cullen and Woodall prime searches were launched. In the Fall, more prime searches were added through partnerships with the Prime Sierpinski Problem, additionally, two sieves were added, the Prime Sierpinski Problem combined sieve which includes supporting the Seventeen or Bust sieve, and the combined Cullen/Woodall sieve. In the Fall of 2007, PrimeGrid migrated its systems from PerlBOINC to standard BOINC software, since September 2008, PrimeGrid is also running a Proth prime sieving subproject. In January 2010 the subproject Seventeen or Bust was added, the calculations for the Riesel problem followed in March 2010. In addition, PrimeGrid is helping test for a record Sophie Germain prime. As of March 2016, PrimeGrid is working on or has worked on the projects,321 Prime Search is a continuation of Paul Underwoods 321 Search which looked for primes of the form 3 · 2n −1. PrimeGrid added the +1 form and continues the search up to n = 25M, the search was successful in April 2010 with the finding of the first known AP26,43142746595714191 +23681770 · 23# · n is prime for n =0. 23# = 2·3·5·7·11·13·17·19·23 =223092870, or 23 primorial, is the product of all primes up to 23, PrimeGrid is also running a search for Cullen prime numbers, yielding the two largest known Cullen primes. The first one being the 14th largest known prime at the time of discovery, as of 9 March 2014 PrimeGrid has eliminated 14 values of k from the Riesel problem and is continuing the search to eliminate the 50 remaining numbers. Primegrid then worked with the Twin Prime Search to search for a twin prime at approximately 58700 digits
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Mersenne prime
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In mathematics, a Mersenne prime is a prime number that is one less than a power of two. That is, it is a number that can be written in the form Mn = 2n −1 for some integer n. They are named after Marin Mersenne, a French Minim friar, the first four Mersenne primes are 3,7,31, and 127. If n is a number then so is 2n −1. The definition is therefore unchanged when written Mp = 2p −1 where p is assumed prime, more generally, numbers of the form Mn = 2n −1 without the primality requirement are called Mersenne numbers. The smallest composite pernicious Mersenne number is 211 −1 =2047 =23 ×89, Mersenne primes Mp are also noteworthy due to their connection to perfect numbers. As of January 2016,49 Mersenne primes are known, the largest known prime number 274,207,281 −1 is a Mersenne prime. Since 1997, all newly found Mersenne primes have been discovered by the “Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search”, many fundamental questions about Mersenne primes remain unresolved. It is not even whether the set of Mersenne primes is finite or infinite. The Lenstra–Pomerance–Wagstaff conjecture asserts that there are infinitely many Mersenne primes,23 | M11,47 | M23,167 | M83,263 | M131,359 | M179,383 | M191,479 | M239, and 503 | M251. Since for these primes p, 2p +1 is congruent to 7 mod 8, so 2 is a quadratic residue mod 2p +1, since p is a prime, it must be p or 1. The first four Mersenne primes are M2 =3, M3 =7, M5 =31, a basic theorem about Mersenne numbers states that if Mp is prime, then the exponent p must also be prime. This follows from the identity 2 a b −1 = ⋅ = ⋅ and this rules out primality for Mersenne numbers with composite exponent, such as M4 =24 −1 =15 =3 ×5 = ×. Though the above examples might suggest that Mp is prime for all p, this is not the case. The evidence at hand does suggest that a randomly selected Mersenne number is more likely to be prime than an arbitrary randomly selected odd integer of similar size. Nonetheless, prime Mp appear to grow increasingly sparse as p increases, in fact, of the 2,270,720 prime numbers p up to 37,156,667, Mp is prime for only 45 of them. The lack of any simple test to determine whether a given Mersenne number is prime makes the search for Mersenne primes a difficult task, the Lucas–Lehmer primality test is an efficient primality test that greatly aids this task. The search for the largest known prime has somewhat of a cult following, consequently, a lot of computer power has been expended searching for new Mersenne primes, much of which is now done using distributed computing
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Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search
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The Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search is a collaborative project of volunteers who use freely available software to search for Mersenne prime numbers. The GIMPS project was founded by George Woltman, who wrote the software Prime95. Scott Kurowski wrote the PrimeNet Internet server that supports the research to demonstrate Entropia-distributed computing software, GIMPS is registered as Mersenne Research, Inc. Kurowski is Executive Vice President and board director of Mersenne Research Inc, GIMPS is said to be one of the first large scale distributed computing projects over the Internet for research purposes. The project has found a total of fifteen Mersenne primes as of January 2016, the largest known prime as of January 2016 is 274,207,281 −1. This prime was discovered on September 17,2015 by Curtis Cooper at the University of Central Missouri and they also have a trial division phase, used to rapidly eliminate Mersenne numbers with small factors which make up a large proportion of candidates. Pollards p -1 algorithm is used to search for larger factors. The project began in early January 1996, with a program ran on i386 computers. The name for the project was coined by Luther Welsh, one of its earlier searchers, within a few months, several dozen people had joined, and over a thousand by the end of the first year. Joel Armengaud, a participant, discovered the primality of M1,398,269 on November 13,1996, as of March 2013, GIMPS has a sustained aggregate throughput of approximately 137.023 TFLOP/s. In November 2012, GIMPS maintained 95 TFLOP/s, theoretically earning the GIMPS virtual computer a place among the TOP500 most powerful computer systems in the world. Also theoretically, in November 2012, the GIMPS held a rank of 330 in the TOP500, the preceding place was then held by an HP Cluster Platform 3000 BL460c G7 of Hewlett-Packard. As of November 2014 TOP500 results, these old GIMPS numbers would no longer make the list, previously, this was approximately 50 TFLOP/s in early 2010,30 TFLOP/s in mid-2008,20 TFLOP/s in mid-2006, and 14 TFLOP/s in early 2004. Third-party programs for testing Mersenne numbers, such as Mlucas and Glucas, also, GIMPS reserves the right to change this EULA without notice and with reasonable retroactive effect. All Mersenne primes are in the form Mq, where q is the exponent, the prime number itself is 2q −1, so the smallest prime number in this table is 21398269 −1. Mn is the rank of the Mersenne prime based on its exponent, furthermore,71,027,647 is the largest exponent below which all other exponents have been tested at least once, so some Mersenne numbers between the 48th and the 49th have yet to be tested. ^ ‡ The number M74207281 has 22,338,618 decimal digits, to help visualize the size of this number, a standard word processor layout would require 5,957 pages to display it. If one were to print it out using standard printer paper, single-sided, whenever a possible prime is reported to the server, it is verified first before it is announced
20.
Gaussian integer
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In number theory, a Gaussian integer is a complex number whose real and imaginary parts are both integers. The Gaussian integers, with addition and multiplication of complex numbers, form an integral domain. This integral domain is a case of a commutative ring of quadratic integers. It does not have an ordering that respects arithmetic. Formally, the Gaussian integers are the set Z =, where i 2 = −1, note that when they are considered within the complex plane the Gaussian integers may be seen to constitute the 2-dimensional integer lattice. The norm of a Gaussian integer is the square of its value as a complex number. It is the natural number defined as N = a 2 + b 2 = ¯ =, the norm is multiplicative, since the absolute value of complex numbers is multiplicative, i. e. one has N = N N. The latter can also be verified by a straightforward check, the units of Z are precisely those elements with norm 1, i. e. the set. The Gaussian integers form a principal ideal domain with units, for x ∈ Z, the four numbers ±x, ±ix are called the associates of x. As for every principal ideal domain, Z is also a unique factorization domain and it follows that a Gaussian integer is prime if and only if it is irreducible. The prime elements of Z are also known as Gaussian primes, an associate of a Gaussian prime is also a Gaussian prime. The Gaussian primes are symmetric about the real and imaginary axes, the positive integer Gaussian primes are the prime numbers that are congruent to 3 modulo 4. One should not refer to only these numbers as the Gaussian primes, which refers to all the Gaussian primes, many of which do not lie in Z. In other words, a Gaussian integer is a Gaussian prime if and only if either its norm is a prime number, for example,5 = · and 13 = ·. If p =2, we have 2 = = i2, the ring of Gaussian integers is the integral closure of Z in the field of Gaussian rationals Q consisting of the complex numbers whose real and imaginary part are both rational. It is easy to see graphically that every number is no farther than a distance of 22 from some Gaussian integer. Put another way, every number has a maximal distance of 22 N units to some multiple of z, where z is any Gaussian integer, this turns Z into a Euclidean domain. The ring of Gaussian integers was introduced by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his monograph on quartic reciprocity
21.
Pythagorean prime
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A Pythagorean prime is a prime number of the form 4n +1. Pythagorean primes are exactly the odd numbers that are the sum of two squares. For instance, the number 5 is a Pythagorean prime, √5 is the hypotenuse of a triangle with legs 1 and 2. The first few Pythagorean primes are 5,13,17,29,37,41,53,61,73,89,97,101,109,113, by Dirichlets theorem on arithmetic progressions, this sequence is infinite. More strongly, for n, the numbers of Pythagorean and non-Pythagorean primes up to n are approximately equal. However, the number of Pythagorean primes up to n is frequently smaller than the number of non-Pythagorean primes. For example, the values of n up to 600000 for which there are more Pythagorean than non-Pythagorean odd primes are 26861 and 26862. Sum of one odd square and one square is congruent to 1 mod 4. Fermats theorem on sums of two states that the prime numbers that can be represented as sums of two squares are exactly 2 and the odd primes congruent to 1 mod 4. The representation of such number is unique, up to the ordering of the two squares. Another way to understand this representation as a sum of two squares involves Gaussian integers, the numbers whose real part and imaginary part are both integers. The norm of a Gaussian integer x + yi is the number x2 + y2, thus, the Pythagorean primes occur as norms of Gaussian integers, while other primes do not. Within the Gaussian integers, the Pythagorean primes are not considered to be prime numbers, similarly, their squares can be factored in a different way than their integer factorization, as p2 =22 =. The real and imaginary parts of the factors in these factorizations are the leg lengths of the right triangles having the given hypotenuses, in the finite field Z/p with p a Pythagorean prime, the polynomial equation x2 = −1 has two solutions. This may be expressed by saying that −1 is a quadratic residue mod p, in contrast, this equation has no solution in the finite fields Z/p where p is an odd prime but is not Pythagorean. Pythagorean Primes, including 5,13 and 137, sloanes A007350, Where prime race 4n-1 vs. 4n+1 changes leader. The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences
22.
Pierpont prime
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A Pierpont prime is a prime number of the form 2 u 3 v +1 for some nonnegative integers u and v. That is, they are the prime numbers p for which p −1 is 3-smooth. They are named after the mathematician James Pierpont, who introduced them in the study of regular polygons that can be constructed using conic sections. It is possible to prove that if v =0 and u >0, then u must be a power of 2, if v is positive then u must also be positive, and the Pierpont prime is of the form 6k +1. Empirically, the Pierpont primes do not seem to be rare or sparsely distributed. There are 36 Pierpont primes less than 106,59 less than 109,151 less than 1020, there are few restrictions from algebraic factorisations on the Pierpont primes, so there are no requirements like the Mersenne prime condition that the exponent must be prime. As there are Θ numbers of the form in this range. Andrew M. Gleason made this explicit, conjecturing there are infinitely many Pierpont primes. According to Gleasons conjecture there are Θ Pierpont primes smaller than N, when 2 u >3 v, the primality of 2 u 3 v +1 can be tested by Proths theorem. As part of the ongoing search for factors of Fermat numbers. The following table gives values of m, k, and n such that k ⋅2 n +1 divides 22 m +1, the left-hand side is a Pierpont prime when k is a power of 3, the right-hand side is a Fermat number. As of 2017, the largest known Pierpont prime is 3 ×210829346 +1, whose primality was discovered by Sai Yik Tang, in the mathematics of paper folding, the Huzita axioms define six of the seven types of fold possible. It has been shown that these folds are sufficient to allow the construction of the points that solve any cubic equation. It follows that they allow any regular polygon of N sides to be formed, as long as N >3 and of the form 2m3nρ and this is the same class of regular polygons as those that can be constructed with a compass, straightedge, and angle-trisector. Regular polygons which can be constructed with compass and straightedge are the special case where n =0 and ρ is a product of distinct Fermat primes, themselves a subset of Pierpont primes. In 1895, James Pierpont studied the same class of regular polygons, Pierpont generalized compass and straightedge constructions in a different way, by adding the ability to draw conic sections whose coefficients come from previously constructed points. As he showed, the regular N-gons that can be constructed with these operations are the ones such that the totient of N is 3-smooth. Since the totient of a prime is formed by subtracting one from it, however, Pierpont did not describe the form of the composite numbers with 3-smooth totients. As Gleason later showed, these numbers are exactly the ones of the form 2m3nρ given above, the smallest prime that is not a Pierpont prime is 11, therefore, the hendecagon is the smallest regular polygon that cannot be constructed with compass, straightedge and angle trisector
