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Mathematics
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
2.
59 (number)
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59 is the natural number following 58 and preceding 60. Fifty-nine is the 17th smallest prime number, the next is sixty-one, with which it comprises a twin prime. 59 is an prime, a safe prime and the 14th supersingular prime. It is an Eisenstein prime with no part and real part of the form 3n −1. +1 is divisible by 59 but 59 is not one more than a multiple of 15,59 is a Pillai prime and it is also a highly cototient number. There are 59 stellations of the icosahedron,59 is one of the factors that divides the smallest composite Euclid number. In this case 59 divides the Euclid number 13# +1 =2 ×3 ×5 ×7 ×11 ×13 +1 =59 ×509, the duration of Saros series 59 was 1280.1 years, and it contained 72 solar eclipses. The Saros number of the lunar eclipse series began in March,729 BC
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Divisor
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In mathematics, a divisor of an integer n, also called a factor of n, is an integer m that may be multiplied by some other integer to produce n. In this case one says also that n is a multiple of m, an integer n is divisible by another integer m if m is a divisor of n, this implies dividing n by m leaves no remainder. Under this definition, the statement m ∣0 holds for every m, as before, but with the additional constraint k ≠0. Under this definition, the statement m ∣0 does not hold for m ≠0, in the remainder of this article, which definition is applied is indicated where this is significant. Divisors can be negative as well as positive, although sometimes the term is restricted to positive divisors. For example, there are six divisors of 4, they are 1,2,4, −1, −2, and −4,1 and −1 divide every integer. Every integer is a divisor of itself, every integer is a divisor of 0. Integers divisible by 2 are called even, and numbers not divisible by 2 are called odd,1, −1, n and −n are known as the trivial divisors of n. A divisor of n that is not a divisor is known as a non-trivial divisor. A non-zero integer with at least one divisor is known as a composite number, while the units −1 and 1. There are divisibility rules which allow one to recognize certain divisors of a number from the numbers digits, the generalization can be said to be the concept of divisibility in any integral domain. 7 is a divisor of 42 because 7 ×6 =42 and it can also be said that 42 is divisible by 7,42 is a multiple of 7,7 divides 42, or 7 is a factor of 42. The non-trivial divisors of 6 are 2, −2,3, the positive divisors of 42 are 1,2,3,6,7,14,21,42. 5 ∣0, because 5 ×0 =0, if a ∣ b and b ∣ a, then a = b or a = − b. If a ∣ b and a ∣ c, then a ∣ holds, however, if a ∣ b and c ∣ b, then ∣ b does not always hold. If a ∣ b c, and gcd =1, then a ∣ c, if p is a prime number and p ∣ a b then p ∣ a or p ∣ b. A positive divisor of n which is different from n is called a proper divisor or a part of n. A number that does not evenly divide n but leaves a remainder is called an aliquant part of n, an integer n >1 whose only proper divisor is 1 is called a prime number
4.
17 (number)
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17 is the natural number following 16 and preceding 18. In spoken English, the numbers 17 and 70 are sometimes confused because they sound similar, when carefully enunciated, they differ in which syllable is stressed,17 /sɛvənˈtiːn/ vs 70 /ˈsɛvənti/. However, in such as 1789 or when contrasting numbers in the teens, such as 16,17,18. The number 17 has wide significance in pure mathematics, as well as in applied sciences, law, music, religion, sports,17 is the sum of the first 4 prime numbers. In a 24-hour clock, the hour is in conventional language called five or five oclock. Seventeen is the 7th prime number, the next prime is nineteen, with which it forms a twin prime. 17 is the sixth Mersenne prime exponent, yielding 131071,17 is an Eisenstein prime with no imaginary part and real part of the form 3n −1. 17 is the third Fermat prime, as it is of the form 22n +1, specifically with n =2, since 17 is a Fermat prime, regular heptadecagons can be constructed with compass and unmarked ruler. This was proven by Carl Friedrich Gauss,17 is the only positive Genocchi number that is prime, the only negative one being −3. It is also the third Stern prime,17 is the average of the first two Perfect numbers. 17 is the term of the Euclid–Mullin sequence. Seventeen is the sum of the semiprime 39, and is the aliquot sum of the semiprime 55. There are exactly 17 two-dimensional space groups and these are sometimes called wallpaper groups, as they represent the seventeen possible symmetry types that can be used for wallpaper. Like 41, the number 17 is a prime that yields primes in the polynomial n2 + n + p, the maximum possible length of such a sequence is 17. Either 16 or 18 unit squares can be formed into rectangles with equal to the area. 17 is the tenth Perrin number, preceded in the sequence by 7,10,12, in base 9, the smallest prime with a composite sum of digits is 17. 17 is the least random number, according to the Hackers Jargon File and it is a repunit prime in hexadecimal. 17 is the possible number of givens for a sudoku puzzle with a unique solution
5.
53 (number)
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53 is the natural number following 52 and preceding 54. Fifty-three is the 16th prime number and it is also an Eisenstein prime, and a Sophie Germain prime. The sum of the first 53 primes is 5830, which is divisible by 53,53 written in hexadecimal is 35, that is, the same characters used in the decimal representation, but reversed. Four multiples of 53 share this property,371 =17316,5141 =141516,99481 =1849916, and 8520280 =82025816,53 cannot be expressed as the sum of any integer and its base-10 digits, making 53 a self number. 53 is the smallest prime number that does not divide the order of any sporadic group, the duration of Saros series 53 was 1514.5 years, and it contained 85 solar eclipses. The Saros number of the lunar eclipse series began on June 5,993 BC. The duration of Saros series 53 was 1280.1 years, fictional 53rd Precinct in the Bronx was found in the TV comedy Car 54, Where Are You. UDP and TCP port number for the Domain Name System protocol, 53-TET is a musical temperament that has a fifth that is closer to pure than our current system. 53 More Things To Do In Zero Gravity is a mentioned in The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy. 53 a number used on the hand of the tulip in Infinity Train
6.
89 (number)
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89 is the natural number following 88 and preceding 90. 89 is, the 24th prime number, following 83 and preceding 97, the smallest Sophie Germain prime to start a Cunningham chain of the first kind of six terms. An Eisenstein prime with no part and real part of the form 3n −1. A Fibonacci number and thus a Fibonacci prime as well, the first few digits of its reciprocal coincide with the Fibonacci sequence due to the identity 189 = ∑ n =1 ∞ F ×10 − =0.011235955 …. A Markov number, appearing in solutions to the Markov Diophantine equation with other odd-indexed Fibonacci numbers, M89 is the 10th Mersenne prime. Although 89 is not a Lychrel number in base 10, it is unusual that it takes 24 iterations of the reverse, among the known non-Lychrel numbers in the first 10000 integers, no other number requires that many or more iterations. The palindrome reached is also unusually large, eighty-nine is, The atomic number of actinium. Messier object M89, a magnitude 11.5 elliptical galaxy in the constellation Virgo, the New General Catalogue object NGC89, a magnitude 13.5 peculiar spiral galaxy in the constellation Phoenix and a member of Roberts Quartet. The Oklahoma Redhawks, an American minor league team, were formerly known as the Oklahoma 89ers. The number alludes to the Land Run of 1889, when the Unassigned Lands of Oklahoma were opened to white settlement, the teams home of Oklahoma City was founded during this event. In Rugby, an 89 or eight-nine move is a following a scrum, in which the number 8 catches the ball. The Elite 89 Award is presented by the U. S. NCAA to the participant in each of the NCAAs 89 championship finals with the highest grade point average. The jersey number 89 has been retired by three National Football League teams in honor of past playing greats, The Baltimore Colts, for Hall of Famer Gino Marchetti, the franchise continues to honor the number in its current identity as the Indianapolis Colts. The Boston Patriots, for Bob Dee, the franchise, now the New England Patriots, continues to honor the number. The Chicago Bears, for Mike Ditka, eighty-nine is also, The designation of Interstate 89, a freeway that runs from New Hampshire to Vermont The designation of U. S. The number of units of each colour in the board game Blokus The number of the French department Yonne Information Is Beautiful cites eighty-nine as one of the words censored on the Chinese internet
7.
Prime number
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A prime number is a natural number greater than 1 that has no positive divisors other than 1 and itself. A natural number greater than 1 that is not a number is called a composite number. For example,5 is prime because 1 and 5 are its only positive integer factors, the property of being prime is called primality. A simple but slow method of verifying the primality of a number n is known as trial division. It consists of testing whether n is a multiple of any integer between 2 and n, algorithms much more efficient than trial division have been devised to test the primality of large numbers. Particularly fast methods are available for numbers of forms, such as Mersenne numbers. As of January 2016, the largest known prime number has 22,338,618 decimal digits, there are infinitely many primes, as demonstrated by Euclid around 300 BC. There is no simple formula that separates prime numbers from composite numbers. However, the distribution of primes, that is to say, many questions regarding prime numbers remain open, such as Goldbachs conjecture, and the twin prime conjecture. Such questions spurred the development of branches of number theory. Prime numbers give rise to various generalizations in other domains, mainly algebra, such as prime elements. A natural number is called a number if it has exactly two positive divisors,1 and the number itself. Natural numbers greater than 1 that are not prime are called composite, among the numbers 1 to 6, the numbers 2,3, and 5 are the prime numbers, while 1,4, and 6 are not prime. 1 is excluded as a number, for reasons explained below. 2 is a number, since the only natural numbers dividing it are 1 and 2. Next,3 is prime, too,1 and 3 do divide 3 without remainder, however,4 is composite, since 2 is another number dividing 4 without remainder,4 =2 ·2. 5 is again prime, none of the numbers 2,3, next,6 is divisible by 2 or 3, since 6 =2 ·3. The image at the right illustrates that 12 is not prime,12 =3 ·4, no even number greater than 2 is prime because by definition, any such number n has at least three distinct divisors, namely 1,2, and n
8.
Gaussian integer
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In number theory, a Gaussian integer is a complex number whose real and imaginary parts are both integers. The Gaussian integers, with addition and multiplication of complex numbers, form an integral domain. This integral domain is a case of a commutative ring of quadratic integers. It does not have an ordering that respects arithmetic. Formally, the Gaussian integers are the set Z =, where i 2 = −1, note that when they are considered within the complex plane the Gaussian integers may be seen to constitute the 2-dimensional integer lattice. The norm of a Gaussian integer is the square of its value as a complex number. It is the natural number defined as N = a 2 + b 2 = ¯ =, the norm is multiplicative, since the absolute value of complex numbers is multiplicative, i. e. one has N = N N. The latter can also be verified by a straightforward check, the units of Z are precisely those elements with norm 1, i. e. the set. The Gaussian integers form a principal ideal domain with units, for x ∈ Z, the four numbers ±x, ±ix are called the associates of x. As for every principal ideal domain, Z is also a unique factorization domain and it follows that a Gaussian integer is prime if and only if it is irreducible. The prime elements of Z are also known as Gaussian primes, an associate of a Gaussian prime is also a Gaussian prime. The Gaussian primes are symmetric about the real and imaginary axes, the positive integer Gaussian primes are the prime numbers that are congruent to 3 modulo 4. One should not refer to only these numbers as the Gaussian primes, which refers to all the Gaussian primes, many of which do not lie in Z. In other words, a Gaussian integer is a Gaussian prime if and only if either its norm is a prime number, for example,5 = · and 13 = ·. If p =2, we have 2 = = i2, the ring of Gaussian integers is the integral closure of Z in the field of Gaussian rationals Q consisting of the complex numbers whose real and imaginary part are both rational. It is easy to see graphically that every number is no farther than a distance of 22 from some Gaussian integer. Put another way, every number has a maximal distance of 22 N units to some multiple of z, where z is any Gaussian integer, this turns Z into a Euclidean domain. The ring of Gaussian integers was introduced by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his monograph on quartic reciprocity
9.
On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences
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The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, also cited simply as Sloanes, is an online database of integer sequences. It was created and maintained by Neil Sloane while a researcher at AT&T Labs, Sloane continues to be involved in the OEIS in his role as President of the OEIS Foundation. OEIS records information on integer sequences of interest to professional mathematicians and amateurs, and is widely cited. As of 30 December 2016 it contains nearly 280,000 sequences, the database is searchable by keyword and by subsequence. Neil Sloane started collecting integer sequences as a student in 1965 to support his work in combinatorics. The database was at first stored on punched cards and he published selections from the database in book form twice, A Handbook of Integer Sequences, containing 2,372 sequences in lexicographic order and assigned numbers from 1 to 2372. The Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences with Simon Plouffe, containing 5,488 sequences and these books were well received and, especially after the second publication, mathematicians supplied Sloane with a steady flow of new sequences. The collection became unmanageable in book form, and when the database had reached 16,000 entries Sloane decided to go online—first as an e-mail service, as a spin-off from the database work, Sloane founded the Journal of Integer Sequences in 1998. The database continues to grow at a rate of some 10,000 entries a year, Sloane has personally managed his sequences for almost 40 years, but starting in 2002, a board of associate editors and volunteers has helped maintain the database. In 2004, Sloane celebrated the addition of the 100, 000th sequence to the database, A100000, in 2006, the user interface was overhauled and more advanced search capabilities were added. In 2010 an OEIS wiki at OEIS. org was created to simplify the collaboration of the OEIS editors and contributors, besides integer sequences, the OEIS also catalogs sequences of fractions, the digits of transcendental numbers, complex numbers and so on by transforming them into integer sequences. Sequences of rationals are represented by two sequences, the sequence of numerators and the sequence of denominators, important irrational numbers such as π =3.1415926535897. are catalogued under representative integer sequences such as decimal expansions, binary expansions, or continued fraction expansions. The OEIS was limited to plain ASCII text until 2011, yet it still uses a form of conventional mathematical notation. Greek letters are represented by their full names, e. g. mu for μ. Every sequence is identified by the letter A followed by six digits, sometimes referred to without the leading zeros, individual terms of sequences are separated by commas. Digit groups are not separated by commas, periods, or spaces, a represents the nth term of the sequence. Zero is often used to represent non-existent sequence elements, for example, A104157 enumerates the smallest prime of n² consecutive primes to form an n×n magic square of least magic constant, or 0 if no such magic square exists. The value of a is 2, a is 1480028129, but there is no such 2×2 magic square, so a is 0
10.
Partition (number theory)
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In number theory and combinatorics, a partition of a positive integer n, also called an integer partition, is a way of writing n as a sum of positive integers. Two sums that differ only in the order of their summands are considered the same partition, a summand in a partition is also called a part. The number of partitions of n is given by the function p. The notation λ ⊢ n means that λ is a partition of n, Partitions can be graphically visualized with Young diagrams or Ferrers diagrams. They occur in a number of branches of mathematics and physics, including the study of symmetric polynomials, the symmetric group and in group representation theory in general. For example, the partition 2 +2 +1 might instead be written as the tuple or in the more compact form where the superscript indicates the number of repetitions of a term. There are two common methods to represent partitions, as Ferrers diagrams, named after Norman Macleod Ferrers. Both have several possible conventions, here, we use English notation, with diagrams aligned in the upper-left corner. The partition 6 +4 +3 +1 of the positive number 14 can be represented by the diagram, The 14 circles are lined up in 4 rows. The diagrams for the 5 partitions of the number 4 are listed below, rather than representing a partition with dots, as in the Ferrers diagram, the Young diagram uses boxes or squares. As a type of shape made by adjacent squares joined together, by convention p =1, p =0 for n negative. The first few values of the function are,1,1,2,3,5,7,11,15,22,30,42,56,77,101,135,176,231,297,385,490,627,792,1002,1255,1575,1958,2436,3010,3718,4565,5604. As of June 2013, the largest known prime number that counts a number of partitions is p, the generating function for p is given by, ∑ n =0 ∞ p x n = ∏ k =1 ∞. Expanding each factor on the side as a geometric series. The xn term in this product counts the number of ways to write n = a1 + 2a2 + 3a3 +, where each number i appears ai times. This is precisely the definition of a partition of n, so our product is the generating function. More generally, the function for the partitions of n into numbers from a set A can be found by taking only those terms in the product where k is an element of A. This result is due to Euler, the formulation of Eulers generating function is a special case of a q-Pochhammer symbol and is similar to the product formulation of many modular forms, and specifically the Dedekind eta function
