1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
3.
Christian denomination
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A Christian denomination is a distinct religious body within Christianity, identified by traits such as a name, organisation, leadership and doctrine. Individual bodies, however, may use alternative terms to describe themselves, groups of denominations—often sharing broadly similar beliefs, practices, and historical ties—are sometimes known as branches of Christianity or denominational families. Individual Christian groups vary widely in the degree to which they recognize one another, several groups claim to be the direct and sole authentic successor of the church founded by Jesus Christ in the 1st century AD. Others, however, believe in denominationalism, where some or all Christian groups are legitimate churches of the same regardless of their distinguishing labels, beliefs. Because of this concept, some Christian bodies reject the term denomination to describe themselves, however, the Catholic Church does not view itself as a denomination, but as the original pre-denominational church. This view is rejected by other Christian denominations, Protestant denominations account for approximately 37 percent of Christians worldwide. Together, Catholicism and Protestantism comprise Western Christianity, Western Christian denominations prevail in Western, Northern, Central and Southern Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas and Oceania. The Eastern Orthodox Church, with an estimated 225–300 million adherents, is the second-largest Christian organization in the world, unlike the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church is itself a communion of fully independent autocephalous churches that mutually recognize each other to the exclusion of others. The Eastern Orthodox Church, together with Oriental Orthodoxy and the Assyrian Church of the East, Eastern Christian denominations are represented mostly in Eastern Europe, North Asia, the Middle East and Northeast Africa. Christians have various doctrines about the Church and about how the church corresponds to Christian denominations. Both Catholics and Eastern Orthodox hold that their own organizations faithfully represent the One Holy catholic and Apostolic Church to the exclusion of the other, sixteenth-century Protestants separated from the Catholic Church because of theologies and practices that they considered to be in violation of their own interpretation. But some non-denominational Christians do not follow any particular branch, though regarded as Protestants. Each group uses different terminology to discuss their beliefs and this section will discuss the definitions of several terms used throughout the article, before discussing the beliefs themselves in detail in following sections. A denomination within Christianity can be defined as an autonomous branch of the Christian Church, major synonyms include religious group, sect, Church. Some traditional and evangelical Protestants draw a distinction between membership in the church and fellowship within the local church. Becoming a believer in Christ makes one a member of the universal church, a related concept is denominationalism, the belief that some or all Christian groups are legitimate churches of the same religion regardless of their distinguishing labels, beliefs, and practices. Protestant leaders differ greatly from the views of the leaders of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, each church makes mutually exclusive claims for itself to be the direct continuation of the Church founded by Jesus Christ, from whom other denominations later broke away. These churches, and a few others, reject denominationalism, Christianity can be taxonomically divided into five main groups, the Church of the East, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, and Protestantism
4.
Church of Sweden
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The Church of Sweden is the largest Christian church in Sweden. A member of the Porvoo Communion, the Church professes the Lutheran branch of Christianity and it is composed of thirteen dioceses, divided into parishes. It is a national church which, working with a democratic organisation and through the ministry of the church. The Primate of the Church of Sweden is the Archbishop of Uppsala — currently Antje Jackelén, today, the Church of Sweden is an Evangelical Lutheran church. 6.2 million people are members of the Church of Sweden and it is liturgically and theologically high church, having retained priests, vestments, and the Mass during the Swedish Reformation. In common with other Evangelical Lutheran churches, the Church of Sweden maintains the historical episcopate, the Church of Sweden is known for its liberal position in theological issues, particularly the question of homosexuality. When Bishop Eva Brunne was consecrated as Bishop of Stockholm in 2009, despite a significant yearly loss of members, its membership of 6,225,091 people accounts for 63. 2% of the Swedish population. Until 2000 it held the position of state church, the high membership numbers are because until 1996 all newborn children were made members, unless their parents had actively cancelled their membership. Approximately 2% of the members regularly attend Sunday services. According to a Gallup poll conducted in 2009, 17% of the Swedish population considered religion as an important part of their daily life, King Gustav I Vasa instigated the Church of Sweden in 1536 during his reign as King of Sweden. This act separated the church from the Roman Catholic Church and its canon law, in 1571, the Swedish Church Ordinance became the first Swedish church order following the Reformation. The Church of Sweden became Lutheran at the Uppsala Synod in 1593 when it adopted the Augsburg Confession to which most Lutherans adhere, at this synod, it was decided that the church would retain the three original Christian creeds, the Apostles, the Athanasian, and the Nicene. In 1686, the Riksdag of the Estates adopted the Book of Concord, although certain parts, labelled Confessio fidei, were considered binding. Confessio dei included the three aforementioned Creeds, the Augsburg Confession and two Uppsala Synod decisions from 1572 and 1593, during the 20th century the Church of Sweden oriented itself strongly towards liberal Christianity and human rights. In 1957, the assembly rejected a proposal for ordination of women. Since 1960, women have been ordained as priests, and since 1994, a proposal to perform same-sex weddings was approved on October 22,2009 by 176 of 249 voting members of the Church of Sweden Synod. The Christian church in Scandinavia was originally governed by the archdiocese of Bremen, in 1104 an archbishop for all Scandinavia was installed in Lund. Uppsala was made Swedens archdiocese in 1164, and remains so today, the papal diplomat William of Modena attended a church meeting in Skänninge in March 1248, where the ties to the Catholic Church were strengthened
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Diocese
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The word diocese is derived from the Greek term διοίκησις meaning administration. When now used in a sense, it refers to a territorial unit of administration. This structure of governance is known as episcopal polity. The word diocesan means relating or pertaining to a diocese and it can also be used as a noun meaning the bishop who has the principal supervision of a diocese. An archdiocese is more significant than a diocese, an archdiocese is presided over by an archbishop whose see may have or have had importance due to size or historical significance. The archbishop may have authority over any other suffragan bishops. In the Latter Day Saint movement, the bishopric is used to describe the bishop himself. Especially in the Middle Ages, some bishops held political as well as religious authority within their dioceses, in the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided provinces were administratively associated in a larger unit, the diocese. With the adoption of Christianity as the Empires official religion in the 4th century, a formal church hierarchy was set up, parallel to the civil administration, whose areas of responsibility often coincided. With the collapse of the Western Empire in the 5th century, a similar, though less pronounced, development occurred in the East, where the Roman administrative apparatus was largely retained by the Byzantine Empire. In modern times, many dioceses, though later subdivided, have preserved the boundaries of a long-vanished Roman administrative division, modern usage of diocese tends to refer to the sphere of a bishops jurisdiction. As of January 2015, in the Catholic Church there are 2,851 regular dioceses,1 papal see,641 archdioceses and 2,209 dioceses in the world, in the Eastern rites in communion with the Pope, the equivalent unit is called an eparchy. Eastern Orthodoxy calls dioceses metropoleis in the Greek tradition or eparchies in the Slavic tradition, after the Reformation, the Church of England retained the existing diocesan structure which remains throughout the Anglican Communion. The one change is that the areas administered under the Archbishop of Canterbury and Archbishop of York are properly referred to as provinces and this usage is relatively common in the Anglican Communion. Certain Lutheran denominations such as the Church of Sweden do have individual dioceses similar to Roman Catholics and these dioceses and archdioceses are under the government of a bishop. Other Lutheran bodies and synods that have dioceses and bishops include the Church of Denmark, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, the Evangelical Church in Germany, rather, it is divided into a middle judicatory. The Lutheran Church-International, based in Springfield, Illinois, presently uses a traditional diocesan structure and its current president is Archbishop Robert W. Hotes. The Church of God in Christ has dioceses throughout the United States, in the COGIC, each state is divided up into at least three dioceses that are all led by a bishop, but some states as many as seven dioceses
6.
Swedish language
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Swedish is a North Germanic language, spoken natively by more than 9 million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, where it has equal legal standing with Finnish. It is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Danish, along with the other North Germanic languages, Swedish is a descendant of Old Norse, the common language of the Germanic peoples living in Scandinavia during the Viking Era. It is currently the largest of the North Germanic languages by number of speakers, Standard Swedish, spoken by most Swedes, is the national language that evolved from the Central Swedish dialects in the 19th century and was well established by the beginning of the 20th century. While distinct regional varieties descended from the rural dialects still exist. The standard word order is, as in most Germanic languages, V2, Swedish morphology is similar to English, that is, words have comparatively few inflections. There are two genders, no cases, and a distinction between plural and singular. Older analyses posit the cases nominative and genitive and there are remains of distinct accusative and dative forms as well. Adjectives are compared as in English, and are inflected according to gender, number. The definiteness of nouns is marked primarily through suffixes, complemented with separate definite and indefinite articles, the prosody features both stress and in most dialects tonal qualities. The language has a large vowel inventory. Swedish is also notable for the voiceless velar fricative, a highly variable consonant phoneme. Swedish is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic branch of the Germanic languages, by many general criteria of mutual intelligibility, the Continental Scandinavian languages could very well be considered dialects of a common Scandinavian language. In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had some changes. This language began to undergo new changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, the dialects of Old East Norse that were spoken in Sweden are called Runic Swedish while the dialects of Denmark are referred to as Runic Danish. The dialects are described as runic because the body of text appears in the runic alphabet. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark alphabet, Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark alphabet, from 1200 onwards, the dialects in Denmark began to diverge from those of Sweden. An early change that separated Runic Danish from the dialects of Old East Norse was the change of the diphthong æi to the monophthong é. This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read stain, there was also a change of au as in dauðr into a long open ø as in døðr dead
7.
Lutheranism
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Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian. Luthers efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation in the German-speaking territories of the Holy Roman Empire. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone and this is in contrast to the belief of the Catholic Church, defined at the Council of Trent, concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church, unlike Calvinism, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lords Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of Gods Law, the grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints. Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest denominations of Protestantism, with approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant denomination after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism. The Lutheran World Federation, the largest communion of Lutheran churches, Other Lutheran organizations include the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches. The name Lutheran originated as a term used against Luther by German Scholastic theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other Catholics followed the practice of naming a heresy after its leader. Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term Evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, the followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. As time passed by, the word Evangelical was dropped, Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg defined the title Lutheran as referring to the true church, Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation. Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark–Norway, through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into Estonia and Latvia. Since 1520, regular Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen, under the reign of Frederick I, Denmark-Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers. During Fredericks reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark, at an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by the king in 1536, the people shouted, We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore. Fredericks son Christian was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his fathers death, however, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark-Norway
8.
Gotland
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Gotland, Gutland in the local dialect Gutnish, is a province, county, municipality, and diocese of Sweden. The province includes the islands of Fårö and Gotska Sandön to the north. The population is 57,221, of which about 23,600 live in Visby, the island of Gotland and the other areas of the province of Gotland make up less than one percent of Swedens total land area. From a military viewpoint, it occupies a location in the Baltic sea. The island is the home of the Gutes, and sites such as the Ajvide Settlement show that it has occupied since prehistory. This is consistent with the spread of peoples from the Middle East at about that time. Early on, Gotland became a center, with the town of Visby the most important Hanseatic city in the Baltic Sea. In late medieval times, the island had twenty district courts, each represented by its elected judge at the island-ting, new laws were decided at the landsting, which also took other decisions regarding the island as a whole. Gutasaga contains legends of how the island was settled by Þieluar, according to some historians, it is therefore an effort not only to write down the history of Gotland, but also to assert Gotlands independence from Sweden. In 1361, Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark invaded the island, the Victual Brothers occupied the island in 1394 to set up a stronghold as a headquarters of their own in Visby. At last, Gotland became a fief of the Teutonic Knights, an invading army of Teutonic Knights conquered the island in 1398, destroying Visby and driving the Victual Brothers from Gotland. The number of Arab dirhams discovered on the island of Gotland alone is astoundingly high, in the various hoards located around the island, there are more of these silver coins than at any other site in Western Eurasia. The total sum is almost as great as the number that has been unearthed in the entire Muslim world, the Berezan Runestone, discovered in 1905 in Ukraine, was made by a Varangian trader named Grani in memory of his business partner Karl. It is assumed that they were from Gotland, the Mästermyr chest, an important artefact from the Viking Age, was found in Gotland. The authority of the landsting was successively eroded after the island was occupied by the Teutonic Order, then sold to Eric of Pomerania, in late medieval times, the ting consisted of twelve representatives for the farmers, free-holders or tenants. Since the Treaty of Brömsebro in 1645, the island has remained under Swedish rule, the Order never regained its territory, and eventually it reestablished itself in Rome as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. On 22 April 1808, during the Finnish War between Sweden and Russia, a Russian army landed on the shores of Gotland near Grötlingbo. Under command of Nikolaus Andrejevich Bodisco 1,800 Russians took the city of Visby without any combat or engagement, and occupied the island
9.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
10.
Romanesque architecture
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Romanesque Architecture is an architectural style of medieval Europe characterized by semi-circular arches. There is no consensus for the date of the Romanesque style, with proposals ranging from the 6th to the late 10th century. It developed in the 12th century into the Gothic style, marked by pointed arches, examples of Romanesque architecture can be found across the continent, making it the first pan-European architectural style since Imperial Roman Architecture. The Romanesque style in England is traditionally referred to as Norman architecture, each building has clearly defined forms, frequently of very regular, symmetrical plan, the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be identified right across Europe, despite regional characteristics, Many castles were built during this period, but they are greatly outnumbered by churches. The most significant are the great churches, many of which are still standing, more or less complete. The largest groups of Romanesque survivors are in areas that were less prosperous in subsequent periods, including parts of southern France, northern Spain and rural Italy. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word Romanesque means descended from Roman and was first used in English to designate what are now called Romance languages, Romance language is not degenerated Latin language. Latin language is degenerated Romance language, Romanesque architecture is not debased Roman architecture. Roman architecture is debased Romanesque architecture, the first use in a published work is in William Gunns An Inquiry into the Origin and Influence of Gothic Architecture. The term is now used for the more restricted period from the late 10th to 12th centuries, Many castles exist, the foundations of which date from the Romanesque period. Most have been altered, and many are in ruins. By far the greatest number of surviving Romanesque buildings are churches, the scope of Romanesque architecture Romanesque architecture was the first distinctive style to spread across Europe since the Roman Empire. In the more northern countries Roman building styles and techniques had never been adopted except for official buildings, although the round arch continued in use, the engineering skills required to vault large spaces and build large domes were lost. There was a loss of continuity, particularly apparent in the decline of the formal vocabulary of the Classical Orders. In Rome several great Constantinian basilicas continued in use as an inspiration to later builders, the largest building is the church, the plan of which is distinctly Germanic, having an apse at both ends, an arrangement not generally seen elsewhere. Another feature of the church is its regular proportion, the plan of the crossing tower providing a module for the rest of the plan. These features can both be seen at the Proto-Romanesque St. Michaels Church, Hildesheim, 1001–1030, the style, sometimes called First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque, is characterised by thick walls, lack of sculpture and the presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as a Lombard band
11.
Gothic architecture
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Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture and its characteristics include the pointed arch, the ribbed vault and the flying buttress. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the cathedrals, abbeys. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, guild halls, universities and to a less prominent extent, private dwellings, for this reason a study of Gothic architecture is largely a study of cathedrals and churches. A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th-century England, spread through 19th-century Europe and continued, largely for ecclesiastical and university structures, the term Gothic architecture originated as a pejorative description. Hence, François Rabelais, also of the 16th century, imagines an inscription over the door of his utopian Abbey of Thélème, Here enter no hypocrites, slipping in a slighting reference to Gotz and Ostrogotz. Authorities such as Christopher Wren lent their aid in deprecating the old medieval style, the Company disapproved of several of these new manners, which are defective and which belong for the most part to the Gothic. Gothic architecture is the architecture of the medieval period, characterised by use of the pointed arch. As an architectural style, Gothic developed primarily in ecclesiastical architecture, the greatest number of surviving Gothic buildings are churches. The Gothic style is most particularly associated with the cathedrals of Northern France. At the end of the 12th century, Europe was divided into a multitude of city states, norway came under the influence of England, while the other Scandinavian countries and Poland were influenced by trading contacts with the Hanseatic League. Angevin kings brought the Gothic tradition from France to Southern Italy, throughout Europe at this time there was a rapid growth in trade and an associated growth in towns. Germany and the Lowlands had large flourishing towns that grew in comparative peace, in trade and competition with other, or united for mutual weal. Civic building was of importance to these towns as a sign of wealth. England and France remained largely feudal and produced grand domestic architecture for their kings, dukes and bishops, the Catholic Church prevailed across Europe at this time, influencing not only faith but also wealth and power. Bishops were appointed by the lords and they often ruled as virtual princes over large estates. The early Medieval periods had seen a growth in monasticism, with several different orders being prevalent. Foremost were the Benedictines whose great abbey churches vastly outnumbered any others in France, a part of their influence was that towns developed around them and they became centers of culture, learning and commerce
12.
Neoclassical architecture
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Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century. In its purest form, it is a style derived from the architecture of classical antiquity, the Vitruvian principles. In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than chiaroscuro, Neoclassical architecture is still designed today, but may be labelled New Classical Architecture for contemporary buildings. In Central and Eastern Europe, the style is referred to as Classicism. Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects of Étienne-Louis Boullée, the many graphite drawings of Boullée and his students depict spare geometrical architecture that emulates the eternality of the universe. There are links between Boullées ideas and Edmund Burkes conception of the sublime, the baroque style had never truly been to the English taste. The most popular was the four-volume Vitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell, the book contained architectural prints of famous British buildings that had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio. At first the book featured the work of Inigo Jones. Palladian architecture became well established in 18th-century Britain, at the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic architect earl, Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, in 1729, he and William Kent, designed Chiswick House. This House was a reinterpretation of Palladios Villa Capra, but purified of 16th century elements and this severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of the Palladianism. In 1734 William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of Englands finest examples of Palladian architecture with Holkham Hall in Norfolk, the main block of this house followed Palladios dictates quite closely, but Palladios low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance. This classicising vein was also detectable, to a degree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris. This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned façade for S, by the mid 18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of Classical influences, including those from Ancient Greece. The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to the 1750s, in France, the movement was propelled by a generation of French art students trained in Rome, and was influenced by the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann. The style was adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden. A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the Napoleonic Empire, in France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the Louis XVI style, and the second in the styles called Directoire or Empire. The Scottish architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great in St. Petersburg, indoors, neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved an audience in the 1760s
13.
Fresco
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Fresco is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly-laid, or wet lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for the pigment to merge with the plaster, and with the setting of the plaster, the fresco technique has been employed since antiquity and is closely associated with Italian Renaissance painting. Buon fresco pigment mixed with water of temperature on a thin layer of wet, fresh plaster, for which the Italian word for plaster. Because of the makeup of the plaster, a binder is not required, as the pigment mixed solely with the water will sink into the intonaco. The pigment is absorbed by the wet plaster, after a number of hours, many artists sketched their compositions on this underlayer, which would never be seen, in a red pigment called sinopia, a name also used to refer to these under-paintings. Later, new techniques for transferring paper drawings to the wall were developed. The main lines of a drawing made on paper were pricked over with a point, the paper held against the wall, if the painting was to be done over an existing fresco, the surface would be roughened to provide better adhesion. This area is called the giornata, and the different day stages can usually be seen in a large fresco, buon frescoes are difficult to create because of the deadline associated with the drying plaster. Once a giornata is dried, no more buon fresco can be done, if mistakes have been made, it may also be necessary to remove the whole intonaco for that area—or to change them later, a secco. An indispensable component of this process is the carbonatation of the lime, the eyes of the people of the School of Athens are sunken-in using this technique which causes the eyes to seem deeper and more pensive. Michelangelo used this technique as part of his trademark outlining of his central figures within his frescoes, in a wall-sized fresco, there may be ten to twenty or even more giornate, or separate areas of plaster. After five centuries, the giornate, which were nearly invisible, have sometimes become visible, and in many large-scale frescoes. Additionally, the border between giornate was often covered by an a secco painting, which has fallen off. One of the first painters in the period to use this technique was the Isaac Master in the Upper Basilica of Saint Francis in Assisi. A person who creates fresco is called a frescoist, a secco or fresco-secco painting is done on dry plaster. The pigments thus require a medium, such as egg. Blue was a problem, and skies and blue robes were often added a secco, because neither azurite blue nor lapis lazuli. By the end of the century this had largely displaced buon fresco
14.
Stained glass
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The term stained glass can refer to coloured glass as a material or to works created from it. Throughout its thousand-year history, the term has been applied almost exclusively to the windows of churches, mosques, although traditionally made in flat panels and used as windows, the creations of modern stained glass artists also include three-dimensional structures and sculpture. Modern vernacular usage has extended the term stained glass to include domestic leadlight. As a material stained glass is glass that has been coloured by adding metallic salts during its manufacture. The coloured glass is crafted into stained glass windows in which pieces of glass are arranged to form patterns or pictures, held together by strips of lead. Painted details and yellow stain are used to enhance the design. The term stained glass is applied to windows in which the colours have been painted onto the glass. Stained glass, as an art and a craft, requires the artistic skill to conceive an appropriate and workable design, and the engineering skills to assemble the piece. A window must fit snugly into the space for which it is made, must resist wind and rain, Many large windows have withstood the test of time and remained substantially intact since the late Middle Ages. In Western Europe they constitute the form of pictorial art to have survived. In this context, the purpose of a glass window is not to allow those within a building to see the world outside or even primarily to admit light. For this reason stained glass windows have been described as illuminated wall decorations, Stained glass is still popular today, but often referred to as art glass. It is prevalent in luxury homes, commercial buildings, and places of worship, artists and companies are contracted to create beautiful art glass ranging from domes, windows, backsplashes, etc. During the late Medieval period, glass factories were set up there was a ready supply of silica. Silica requires very high heat to become molten, something not all glass factories were able to achieve, such materials as potash, soda, and lead can be added to lower the melting temperature. Other substances, such as lime, are added to rebuild the weakened network, Glass is coloured by adding metallic oxide powders or finely divided metals while it is in a molten state. Copper oxides produce green or bluish green, cobalt makes deep blue, much modern red glass is produced using copper, which is less expensive than gold and gives a brighter, more vermilion shade of red. Glass coloured while in the pot in the furnace is known as pot metal glass
15.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
16.
Churches on Gotland
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Of the churches of the Swedish island of Gotland,93 – the vast majority – are medieval. 92 of these are located on the countryside, with only Visby Cathedral remaining within the city wall of Visby, however, during the Middle Ages, the amount of churches was even larger, with at least 12 churches in Visby and an additional large number in the countryside. Some of these are visible as more or less well-preserved ruins. For further information about these ruined churches, see list of church ruins on Gotland, Gotland began to gradually abandon Norse religion and adopt Christianity during the 11th century. The first churches to be built on Gotland were wooden, built in the manner of stave churches, none of these have survived intact. The most well-preserved remains, today in the Swedish History Museum, are those of Hemse stave church, traces and archaeological evidence of earlier stave churches have been discovered in ten different sites on Gotland. The remains point to an artistic decoration reminiscent of Viking art, stone churches began to replace wooden churches during the 12th century. These churches were Romanesque in style, with influences coming mainly from Denmark and western German architecture, importantly, the construction of Lund Cathedral in Scania established a source of influences in the relative vicinity. Likewise, the 1164 establishment of the Cistercian monastery of Roma Abbey on Gotland led to strong Cistercian influences in the period of church construction. These Romanesque churches were sometimes decorated internally with frescos, here also, the influences came most often from the west and south, but sometimes also from Russia. Similarly, the churches were adorned with sculpture, notably decorated baptismal fonts. Here, too, influences came from both the west and the east, but the sculptors themselves seem to have been native Gotlanders, finally, such churches also occasionally display wooden sculptures, such as triumphal crosses. These display a more markedly uniform western style, with coming from France or western Germany. During the 13th century, reconstruction works were started on several of these earlier churches, Gotland was enjoying a period of prosperity thanks to increasing trade, and, possibly, due to its role as a staging area for crusaders departing for the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. The churches were made larger and more elaborate, the style began to shift in favour of the Gothic, although few churches on Gotland display a pronounced Gothic style. The most elaborate parts of these churches are often the portals, the towers of these churches are also taller and more elaborate than earlier towers. Another typical feature is the choir that lacks an apse. Internally, frescos and wooden sculpture continued to enjoy popularity, as well as stained glass windows
17.
Ala Church
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Ala Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Ala on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The oldest part of the church is the nave, erected during the 12th century. The choir was added during the middle of the 13th century, the presently visible church lacks an apse, typically for churches on Gotland, and instead has a straight eastern wall. The tower is older than the choir. The southern portals of the church exhibit some unusual stone sculptures, inside, the church is decorated with medieval frescos, consisting of two sets made separately at different times. The oldest date from the late 13th century and depict legendary animals, the church was ravaged by fire in 1938, and most of the furnishings, including a 13th-century triumphal cross, were destroyed. The medieval baptismal font, made of local limestone, was among the few items that survived. In 1938–1940, restoration work was carried out, and the church got a new organ in 1955, media related to Ala Church at Wikimedia Commons
18.
Alskog Church
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Alskog Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Alskog on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The oldest part of the church is the nave, dating from the first quarter of the 13th century and it displays an unusual southern portal, decorated with sculptures. Inside, the nave is divided in two parts by two columns and has a vaulted ceiling. The tower is later but also from the early 13th century. Its portal show similarities with the portal of Visby Cathedral. The much larger choir and vestry were added circa 1300, the ambition was probably to rebuild the whole church into a larger, Gothic church, but for some reason only the eastern part of the church was rebuilt. Few alterations have been made since the Middle Ages, during the 19th century, some windows were added and new pews installed. The church underwent a renovation in 1964–1965, a few separate medieval sculptures also survive, originally part of a 14th-century retable. The church windows have several preserved stained glass panes from around 1300 and they depict scenes from the life of Jesus. From the time after the Reformation, the pulpit deserves mention and it was made in 1586 and is the oldest pulpit on Gotland. The church also has a pair of embroidered bags for collection of alms made in Istanbul in 1775 and they were brought to the church by the priest at the Swedish legation in the city, who was the son of a pastor in Alskog Church. Media related to Alskog Church at Wikimedia Commons Official site
19.
Alva Church
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Alva Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Alva on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The oldest parts of the church are the late Romanesque choir, to this the nave was added during the late part of the same century. Construction of the tower started about a hundred years later but was never finished. It seems in fact that construction of the came to a rapid end, apart from the half-finished tower. The choir portal is Romanesque in style and carried some sculpted reliefs, the likewise Romanesque northern portal of the church is also decorated with sculptures. Inside, the church displays a set of frescos carried out at the end of the Middle Ages, probably just before the reformation, the pulpit dates from 1740 and the unusually decorated altarpiece from 1653. The church was renovated in 1953–54, official site Media related to Alva Church at Wikimedia Commons
20.
Anga Church, Gotland
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Anga Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Anga on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. Anga Church takes its name from a now vanished farmstead, mentioned in an inscription at the end of the 11th century. The first church was built as a church for the large farm. During archaeological excavations carried out in 1946–1947, traces of burnt wood were found, the presently visible Romanesque church was built during the 13th century. Thanks to dendrochronological investigations of still intact wooden details, the church can be dated quite precisely, the choir and apse were built circa 1215, and are the oldest parts of the church. The nave dates from 1250 and the tower from 1265, the church is one of the most well-preserved Romanesque churches on Gotland, and gives a good impression of how most of the churches on the island might once have looked. The interior is notable for its decoration in the form of frescos. The frescos date from two periods, the oldest ones from the end of the 13th century and these are mostly ornamental, and unusual in that they are signed by the artist, a painter named Halvard. A later set of frescos depict the Passion of Christ together with legends of saints, the church has been decorated with plenty of medieval wooden sculptures, of which most are today at the Museum of Gotland in Visby. Still in the church is the altarpiece, dating from the 1370s, there is also a gravestone in the choir from the 13th century, with a runic inscription. Media related to Anga Church at Wikimedia Commons
21.
Ardre Church
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Ardre Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Ardre on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The oldest part of the church is the tower, dating from about 1200, the tower originally belonged to an earlier church building from the 12th century, the nave and choir of which was replaced with the current building circa 1250. The sculptured choir portal originally also belonged to the earlier church, the interior of the church was heavily remodelled after plans by artist Axel Haig in 1900–1902, in a Neo-Medieval style. The dominating wall paintings are designed by Hägg. A few stained glass windows remain but were complemented by modern replicas during the renovation, the organ is an elaborate Gothic Revival piece, made for the renovation in 1902 and inspired by medieval French organs. Media related to Ardre Church at Wikimedia Commons
22.
Atlingbo Church
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Atlingbo Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Atlingbo on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The present church was erected on the site of an earlier, the presently visible church was erected during the 13th century. The oldest parts are the choir and apse, dating from the first part of the century, at the end of the century, the nave and tower base were constructed, the tower was never finished. The sacristy was added in 1800-01, the church has three remaining medieval portals, two Gothic and one Romanesque. Among the furnishings of the church, the font, made during the 12th century probably by the Romanesque sculptor Byzantios is noteworthy. The altar and pulpit date from the 17th century while the pews are from the 18th century, media related to Atlingbo Church at Wikimedia Commons
23.
Barlingbo Church
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Barlingbo Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Barlingbo on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The presently visible church was finished c and it was however preceded by another church, whose foundations have been discovered under the floor of the present one. The oldest parts of Barlingbo Church are the choir and apse and these have been dated to 1225. Following this, the nave was built, and lastly the tower, the church in its entirety dates from the 13th century. The church has three portals, two of which are in Gothic style and one, the oldest, which is still in the Romanesque tradition, in the western, tower façade there is a rose window. There are also Gothic windows with still extant painted glass from c.1280 in the apse, inside, Barlingbo Church is divided by vaults in three sections, length-wise. Its consciously conceived plan has been interpreted as being influenced by Cistercian architecture, the walls are decorated by frescos from different times. Oldest of these are a number of decorative, grey triangles and crosses. A set of more monumental but likewise purely decorative frescos in the nave, later, from the 14th century, are frescos in the apse depicting six apostles, unique in their appearance on Gotland. Among the furnishings, the altar has a Baroque top, dated 1683. The triumphal cross is from c, perhaps the most unusual item in the church is the baptismal font, dating from the second part of the 12th century and richly decorated with carved figures. It displays figures from the Bible and the symbols of the evangelists, some of the figures are also marked with runes. The unusual font, carved from a block of limestone, is not comparable to any other baptismal font on Gotland. Art historian Johnny Roosval considered it to be one of the finest pieces of art from medieval Sweden, influences from English art from the time have been traced in the font. In the choir, some tombstones from the 13th and 14th centuries are visible, the pews and the organ cover are from the 19th century. One of the bells is from c.1440 and carries inscriptions evoking Christ, Mary and Saint Dionysius. Close to the lies the old parsonage. It was built in 1902 in a style mixing Gothic Revival with Renaissance Revival architecture and this turn-of-the-century interpretation of Medieval architecture is unique on Gotland
24.
Boge Church
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Boge Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Boge not far from Slite on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. Boge Church is an early Gothic church, the oldest parts are the choir and the sacristy, dating from the mid-13th century. The nave is somewhat later, and replaced an earlier, Romanesque nave, the tower seen today however dates from 1867–92, as the old tower collapsed during a storm in 1857. On this occasion, the nave was also damaged. Externally, the church is supported by a buttress, erected after the storm in 1857 to stabilise the church. The main portal is somewhat later than the rest of the building, internally, the church is decorated with two sets of frescos dating from the construction period and the mid-15th century, respectively. The later ones are in the style of the so-called Master of the Passion of Christ, most of the furnishings date from the 18th century, with the exception of the baptismal font and a large, medieval iron chandelier. Some medieval tombstones are also visible in the choir, media related to Boge Church at Wikimedia Commons
25.
Bro Church, Gotland
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Bro Church is a Lutheran church of the Diocese of Visby built in medieval times. It lies in Bro, on the Swedish island of Gotland, the present-day church is possibly located on an ancient pre-Christian sacred site. There is a nearby the church which tradition claims to have been a sacrificial well. More concretely, the area is rich in ancient remains, notably a number of stones dating from the 5th century. A first Christian church was built in the form of a stave church during the 12th century. Building of the visible stone church probably began in the early 13th century. The present tower, dating from the 1240s, is a remains of this first, during the middle of the 13th century, a new Gothic apse replaced the previous Romanesque, and likewise a new nave was erected at the end of the century. During this time the profusely rich medieval decoration of the church was also successively added. Several of the details, such as the pulpit and altarpiece, were also added during the Baroque era. Even so, the church one of the most well-preserved medieval churches on Gotland. Bro church displays a mix of Romanesque and Gothic architecture and art, the tower is a sturdy late Romanesque edifice. The nave is a high, Gothic room with broad vaults which do not rest on any supporting pillars, the apse is straight, typically for churches on Gotland, instead of semi-circular. Several Romanesque friezes, dating from the church, has been incorporated haphazardly in the Gothic church in the exterior wall. A few considerably older picture stones have also been immured in the church, the church has a richly carved southern portal, with capitals depicting, on one side the childhood of Christ, the Resurrection and Hell, while the other side displays intricately carved foliage. Wall paintings cover much of the interior of the church, the original, medieval paintings display scenes from the Passion of Christ, and Christ in Majesty. These paintings have on several places been painted over during the 17th century with acanthus-motives, Bro church still has its original Romanesque baptismal font, a work by the sculptor Sigraf. Media related to Bro church, Gotland at Wikimedia Commons Official site
26.
Bunge Church
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Bunge Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Bunge on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. Archaeological excavations carried out in 1916 and 1971 have shown that the present, mainly Gothic church was pre-dated by a Romanesque church, the massive, fortress-like tower of the church is somewhat later but belonged to this first edifice. The church and churchyard are surrounded by a wall which originally reached much higher and had a defensive purpose, four medieval gates still survive in the wall. The church complex evidently has fulfilled a role, as there are marks from pikes and crossbow bolts in the sturdy tower-door. In addition, the inside of the church is decorated with frescos depicting, among other things. The frescos and the wall may date from the short period in history when Gotland belonged to the Teutonic Order. This has led scholars to speculate whether the church for a time might have been owned by the crusading Order. The church is one of the largest on northern Gotland, as mentioned, it displays a mix between Romanesque and Gothic. The church has a finely carved southern portal, rich in sculpture, the most distinguishing feature of the interior is no doubt the richly painted walls, with frescos executed by a master painter probably from Prussia or Bohemia. As for the previously mentioned depicted knights, scholars have different views of what they may depict or represent, one theory is that they are Teutonic knights. A single remaining painted glass window remains, a font from the 13th century and an oddity, a mite box in stone. Media related to Bunge Church at Wikimedia Commons
27.
Burs Church
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Burs Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Burs on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The church in Burs derives its shape from the fact that it was built in stages. The nave is the oldest part of the church, dating from the early 13th century, the large tower was built in the middle of the same century, while the un-proportionally large Gothic choir was built a century later, replacing an earlier Romanesque choir and apse. Externally, the church is not least for its choir portal. The doorway displays Gothic sculptures depicting a blessing Christ, apostles and saints, as well as a large frieze spanning the whole of the portal, the choir, and hence the choir portal, was probably built by a stonemasons workshop sometimes referred to as Master Egypticus. The same workshop probably made an unusual, very elaborate carved limestone bench inside the church, the interior is spacious and airy. Of furnishings, the altarpiece deserves special mention and it is an unusually accomplished work of art made in Lübeck or northern Germany during the first half of the 15th century. The church also has a cross from the 13th century, traces of medieval stained glass paintings and several pieces if furnishings which are later. The church was renovated in 1960-1964. Media related to Burs Church at Wikimedia Commons
28.
Buttle Church
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Buttle Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Buttle on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. It is one of the more well-preserved Romanesque churches on Gotland, Buttle Church is one of the more well-preserved Romanesque churches on Gotland. The oldest parts are the part of the choir and the nave. The tower was added circa 1220, an original apse was pulled down during the middle of the 14th century and replaced by the present structure with a straight east end, in Gothic style. The only later additions are the windows of the nave, which were made in 1882-83, internally, the church is decorated with frescos. All the frescos in the church have been attributed to the Master of the Passion of Christ or his workshop, the church retains several medieval furnishings. The triumphal cross is one of the earliest of its kind on Gotland and it was probably made by a local artist but shows influences from German art from the period. The altarpiece is also medieval, from the 15th century, the altarpiece displays carved wooden figures depicting the crucifixion and a number of saints. The baptismal font is also noteworthy, from the middle of the 13th century and its base is decorated with sculpted heads of humans and beasts. The pews are in a vernacular Baroque style, in the 1950s they were restored to their original colour scheme. They were probably decorated by the same artist who worked in Vänge Church, media related to Buttle Church at Wikimedia Commons Curman, Sigurd, Tuulse, Armin
29.
Dalhem Church
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Dalhem Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Dalhem on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The very first church on the site was a stave church and this was followed by small stone church on the same site. This church, probably Romanesque in style, seems to have had a choir with an apse, in the presently visible church, the choir and nave are the oldest parts, dating from the 13th century. The tower, the portal and the large window on the western façade date from the 14th century. The construction was led by Cistercian monks from nearby Roma Abbey, the church was subsequently left more or less unchanged, with only some furnishings – notably, the carved wooden pulpit – being added later. In 1899 a major renovation of the church started, which to a large degree transformed the church, in 1899 a renovation of the church began. The architect and artist Axel Herman Hägg collected money, also internationally, the work continued for fifteen years, until 1914. The church was altered both externally and internally, in an attempt to make the church appear even more medieval. The renovation was considered remarkable at the time, and led to the church being called the shrine of Gotland. Today, the renovation has been described instead as a harsh and it remains an interesting example of the ideas of cultural heritage conservation prevalent at the time. The church consists of three parts, the tower, nave and choir. The tower, which reaches over 50 metres is adorned with galleries, the main portal, on the south façade, is decorated with carved stone sculptures with motifs unusual for Gotland. In the wall adjacent to the portal, a tombstone originating from the earlier stone church has been immured. The exterior of the church has been whitewashed but the limestone was laid bare during the 1899–1914 renovation. Internally, the church is dominated by the changes made in 1899–1914. The church for example has the oldest preserved stained glass windows on Gotland, several medieval frescos also survive, depicting e. g. the crucifixion and the archangel Michael. The walls are dominated by the many paintings made by Hägg during the renovation. A niche intended to house the bread and wine of the Eucharist, is actually a fragment from the earlier
30.
Eke Church
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Eke Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Eke on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The current church with its Romanesque nave and Gothic tower was predated by a church on the same location. The stave church had been decorated with paintings in Byzantine style, the oldest part of the current building is the nave and choir, dating from the mid-13th century. The disproportionally massive tower was added circa 1300, later additions to the church include the vestry, and the enlargement of all original windows save one. Externally, the church is dominated by the massive tower, the tower has a Gothic portal while the nave has Romanesque portals, decorated with alternating red limestone and grey-green sandstone. Internally, the church is decorated with medieval frescos. The oldest are found in the choir and depict animals, geometrical ornaments. The other frescos are from the middle of the 15th century, among the church furnishings, the baptismal font by the Romanesque sculptor Sigraf, dating from the 12th century, deserves mention, as do a wooden Madonna from about 1500. The pews and the pulpit are from the 18th century, the church was renovated in 1916 and 1969-1971. Media related to Eke Church at Wikimedia Commons
31.
Ekeby Church
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Ekeby Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Ekeby on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The oldest part of Ekeby Church is the tower, dating from the end of the 12th century, the nave and choir are circa one century younger and Gothic in style. At the end of the 13th century, the tower was heightened to its present height. Most notable in the exterior of the church are the two portals, which are richly decorated with stone carvings. These were originally painted, and fragments of colour survive, inside, the church is profusely decorated with frescos. The nave has frescos from the 13th, 14th and 18th century, among the other frescos, the large frescos depicting the apostles are the oldest, from the end of the 13th century. Under them are frescos done by the Master of the Passion of Christ depicting, on the wall, the Passion of Christ and, on the southern. During a renovation in 2004, further frescos were discovered, originally, all the windows had stained glass panes, but today only a few original remain. An unusual niche in the choir, probably designed as a storage for the bread and wine from the Eucharist, among the furnishings, the accomplished Romanesque triumphal cross deserves mention. It is from the end of the 12th century, the sandstone baptismal font is also an unusual fine piece, from approximately the same time. Scholars believe that it may have made by either Master Majestatis or Hegvald. Church frescos in Sweden Media related to Ekeby Church at Wikimedia Commons
32.
Endre Church
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Endre Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Endre on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The presently visible church was preceded by an older, Romanesque church, of this church, only the tower, built in the 12th century and heightened in the 14th, remains. A few stone sculptures have also been re-used in the church, e. g. one sculpture depicting a dragon. These are now immured in the southern façade of the church, the rest of the church dates from the 13th century and the early 14th. The building material of the church is limestone, apart from the aforementioned Romanesque sculptures, the exterior of the church is also adorned with sculpted portals, both Romanesque and Gothic in style. Internally, the church is decorated with frescos made by the artist known as the Master of the Passion of Christ in the middle of the 15th century, the frescos were uncovered during a renovation in 1915. The church also have several preserved stained glass panes from the Middle Ages. The altarpiece is furthermore medieval, from the late 14th century, the triumphal cross dates from circa 1300, and the baptismal font, possibly made by the artist Hegvald, is a Romanesque piece from the 12th century, richly decorated. The church lies in a cemetery that is surrounded by a low limestone wall, media related to Endre Church at Wikimedia Commons Official site
33.
Eskelhem Church
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Eskelhem Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Eskelhem on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. Eskelhem Church was preceded by a church, of which nothing remains. Circa 1200 it was replaced by a stone church, the walls of the nave of the present church are all that remains of this edifice. The church was enlarged and rebuilt until it received its present form in the middle of the 14th century. Internally, the church is decorated with different sets of frescos, dating from the end of the 13th century and the 15th, the latter by the Master of the Passion of Christ. Among the church furnishings, the font from the 12th century, probably made by Master Byzantios. Media related to Eskelhem Church at Wikimedia Commons Official site
34.
Etelhem Church
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Etelmhem Church is a medieval Lutheran church on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The first church erected on the site was probably a small Romanesque stone church, the oldest part of the presently visible, mainly Gothic church is the tower, erected in the early 13th century and still in Romanesque style. The choir and nave seem to have been built circa 1300, the vestry is the latest addition to the church, stemming from the 17th century. Externally, the church displays a few sculpted elements of Romanesque origins, inside, the church is decorated with frescos from two different periods. The oldest ones, dating from the 14th century, are fragmentary, while the somewhat later depict apostles and these later frescos were made by the artist known as the Master of the Passion of Christ. A few original stained glass windows also remain, the most noteworthy item among the furnishings is the 12th century baptismal font by the little-known master stone sculptor Hegvald. The triumphal cross is from the 14th century and still in its original place, most later furnishings are from the 17th century. The church was renovated in 1957-58, media related to Etelhem Church at Wikimedia Commons
35.
Fardhem Church
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Fardhem Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Fardhem on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. According to the Gutasaga, one of the earliest churches on Gotland was built in Fardhem, if so, this was a wooden church of which nothing remains today. Early graves found in the area indicate that there might well have been a wooden church at the site of the presently visible one early on. The church seen today is also of considerable age and it is a Romanesque building, erected in stages from the end of the 12th century to the second quarter of the 13th century. Only the vestry is later, added in 1871-72 and designed by Axel Herman Hägg, externally, the church has a uniform, Romanesque appearance. It is considered to be one of the best-preserved Romanesque churches on Gotland, especially noteworthy is the choir portal. It is decorated with a few rather primitive sculpted elements, difficult to interpret, the work has been attributed to the locally active stone sculptor Hegvald but may also be the work of some unknown master from Jutland. There are no works on Gotland. The interior of the church is less well-preserved, fragments of frescos from the 14th century were discovered during a restoration in 1951-52, and are now again visible. The baptismal font is Romanesque, probably a work by the anonymous Master Semi-Byzantios, most other furnishings are from the 17th and 18th centuries. Media related to Fardhem Church at Wikimedia Commons
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Fide Church
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Fide Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Fide on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. Fide Church dates from the 13th century, oldest are the nave and choir, while the tower was added slightly later. The roof lantern which gives the top of the tower its distinctive shape is however considerably later, the church lies in an unusually well-preserved medieval cemetery which is surrounded by a low wall in which three medieval gates still sits. The building material of the church is sandstone, the exterior of the church is rather barren, but rather unusually the church still keeps the original windows, which have never been enlarged. Inside, the church is decorated with frescos from two different periods, the oldest are from the early 15th century and includes religious motifs as well as an inscription in latin that has been interpreted as a lamentation of the Battle of Visby in 1361. In translation it reads, The field is burnt and the men cry, beaten, the other, somewhat later set of frescos depict scenes from the Passion of Christ and have been attributed to the Master of the Passion of Christ. Among the furnishings, especially the altarpiece deserves mention. The church furthermore has a cross from the time of the construction of the church. Media related to Fide Church at Wikimedia Commons
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Fleringe Church
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Fleringe Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Fleringe on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. Fleringe Church dates from the 13th century, and the nave, somewhat later during the same century the tower was added. The church has not been altered since, but suffered damage in a heavy fire in 1676. The church is located in a surrounded by a low wall in which a remaining medieval lychgate still sits. Outside, the church still stand, which is uncommon. The façade of the church itself is adorned with carved portals, of these, the one in the tower is the most richly decorated. Inside, nothing remains of the furnishings as they were destroyed in the 1676 fire. The main supporting pillar has a taken from another, ruined. This was probably done because the former base likewise had been damaged by fire, a few fragments of frescos, probably executed by the Master of the Passion of Christ, also survive. The altarpiece is from 1701, the pulpit from 1726 and the pews also from the 18th century, the baptismal font carries the monogram of Christian IV of Denmark and stood originally in the church of Visborg Castle. Media related to Fleringe Church at Wikimedia Commons
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Fole Church
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Fole Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Fole on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The currently visible church was preceded by a Romanesque stone church, of this church, the tower remains and is thus the oldest part of Fole Church. The Romanesque church was replaced with the current, more Gothic church. During the middle of the 13th century, the choir and about half of the nave were rebuilt, and a few decades later, the rebuilt church was inaugurated in 1280. The church has remained intact since. The sacristy was redecorated in 1707, and minor alterations to the interior have been made throughout the centuries. The church exterior have both Gothic and Romanesque elements, the tower is in its entirety Romanesque, reminiscent of the tower of nearby Bro Church. A portal, originally the choir portal, has been re-used from the earlier Romanesque stone church, the nave and the choir are however Gothic. The church lacks an apse and has an eastern wall with three vertical windows. One of the walls is inscribed with runes made by the locals as a sort of permanent record about their right to use a road part of Fole. The interior of the church has decorated with frescos, of which fragments remain. The church does however still contain several medieval items, the baptismal font dates from the early 13th century, with the upper part painted over during the 18th century. It contains on the upper part depicting the flight into Egypt and the apostles. The church also has a cross from the middle of the 13th century. Other furnishings are later, including the Neo-Gothic gallery, one of only a few pieces on Gotland. In the vicinity of the church, there is a building from 1858. Media related to Fole Church at Wikimedia Commons Official site
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Follingbo Church
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Follingbo Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Follingbo on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The oldest parts of Follingbo Church are the nave and tower and they date from circa 1200 and together form an unusually accomplished example of Romanesque architecture on Gotland. Although lacking in ornamental sculpture, the tower and nave are well-proportioned, the choir is later and already Gothic in style, and also considered unusual for its kind. The choir replaced an earlier, Romanesque choir with an apse, the current choir instead has a straight eastern wall, adorned with a single tracery window, in which fragments of medieval stained glass panes remain. The sacristy was built in 1820-21, inside, the church has a painted ceiling, decorated at the end of the 17th century. Most of the furnishings are also from the 17th or 18th century, an exception is the undecorated baptismal font, which is medieval. The church underwent a renovation in 1955-56, media related to Follingbo Church at Wikimedia Commons
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Gammelgarn Church
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Gammelgarn Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Gammelgarn on the island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The church is next to a defensive tower, erected in the 12th century. The present-day church is largely from the 14th century, only the tower remains of an older church on the same site. The tower was part of the nave of this first. The current tower dates from 1755. The church is a High Gothic building, characterised by a spacious nave, the choir lacks an apse and instead the eastern end of the church is adorned with three Gothic windows. Possibly the most noteworthy part of the church is the southern portal, dating from the 14th century, it was executed by the Gotlandic workshop commonly referred to as Master Egypticus. It displays in a hasty manner scenes from the Old Testament, the interior of the church is adorned by frescos, of which only fragments remain. The altarpiece however is an accomplished piece dating from the 14th century. There is also a set in the floor of the choir. Other furnishings date from the late 17th century and the 18th century, media related to Gammelgarn church at Wikimedia Commons Official site
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Ganthem Church
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Ganthem Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Ganthem on the island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. Ganthem church is a well-preserved Romanesque church, finished in the middle of the 13th century, the choir with its apse is the oldest part, dating from the late 12th century. The nave is slightly later, from the beginning of the 13th century while the tower is the most recent addition. Apart from an enlargement of the made in the 19th century, and the addition of a sacristy in the 1930s. The interior of the church is decorated with frescos from the 15th century, on the northern wall, a set of paintings depict the Passion of Christ. This set is unusual inasmuch as it has never been painted over, on the southern wall, another set of frescos depicts other religious motifs. The church still contains a number of medieval items, the baptismal font is from the latter half of the 14th century and has been ascribed to the artist Hegvald. The triumphal cross is from circa 1200 and unusually well-preserved, the altarpiece is furthermore a copy of the original, 14th-century altarpiece now belonging to the Swedish History Museum. Media related to Ganthem Church at Wikimedia Commons
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Garde Church
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Garde Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Garde on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The remains of a stave church were discovered at the site of the presently visible church during an excavation in 1968. In the vicinity, Christian graves from the Viking Age have also been discovered, a number of picture stones, pre-dating Christian times, have also been uncovered in the church, where they were used by the earliest builders as building material. The first stone church was begun in the 1130s, remains of which are preserved in the nave of the church, including a few still usable, carved stone benches. The tower was heightened during the 13th century to its present altitude, the choir is the most recent part of the church. It is from the quarter of the 14th century and replaced an earlier. A similar fate is not uncommon for churches on Gotland, as the region suffered a downturn at the end of the Middle Ages. The church retains much of the ambience of the earliest churches on Gotland, it is dark, the windows are small, the ceiling is flat and wooden. One of the most distinguishing features of the interior are a number of paintings of frescos. They depict two saints and were executed by a Russian artist as they are Russo-Byzantine in style. The church also has a font made by the anonymous sculptor Byzantios sometime during the middle of the 12th century. The altarpiece is Baroque in style, and locally crafted, media related to Garde church at Wikimedia Commons Official site
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Gerum Church
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Gerum Church is a medieval Lutheran church in Gerum on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Diocese of Visby. The oldest parts of Gerum Church are the choir and apse, dating from circa 1200, the presently visible, Gothic nave dates from a later time of the 13th century and probably replaced an earlier, Romanesque nave. The tower, which was never finished, was built circa 1300, the only non-medieval part of the church is the sacristy, built in 1835. Gerum Church is constructed of limestone, the exterior is whitewashed apart from several finely carved stone details. The façade is broken by four windows on the side while the northern completely lacks windows. The church has three portals, one Romanesque in the choir and two Gothic in the nave and tower, respectively, the Gothic portals are decorated with stone sculptures. Inside, the church carries frescos from at least three different periods, the 13th century, the 15th century and the 18th century, the church also has a decorated stained glass window from the 14th century. Media related to Gerum Church at Wikimedia Commons
Media related to Eksta Church at Wikimedia Commons
