1.
International Union for Conservation of Nature
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The International Union for Conservation of Nature is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying. IUCNs mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of resources is equitable. Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to equality, poverty alleviation. Unlike other international NGOs, IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation and it tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice, and through lobbying and partnerships. The organization is best known to the public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List. IUCN has a membership of over 1200 governmental and non-governmental organizations, some 11,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs approximately 1000 full-time staff in more than 60 countries and its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland. IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, and plays a role in the implementation of several conventions on nature conservation. It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature, in the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its relations with the business sector have caused controversy. It was previously called the International Union for Protection of Nature, establishment In 1947, the Swiss League for the Protection of Nature organised an international conference on the protection of nature in Brunnen. It is considered to be the first government-organized non-governmental organization, the initiative to set up the new organisation came from UNESCO and especially from its first Director General, the British biologist Julian Huxley. At the time of its founding IUPN was the international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation Early years. Its secretariat was located in Brussels and its first work program focused on saving species and habitats, increasing and applying knowledge, advancing education, promoting international agreements and promoting conservation. Providing a solid base for conservation action was the heart of all activities. IUPN and UNESCO were closely associated and they jointly organized the 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature. In preparation for this conference a list of endangered species was drawn up for the first time
2.
Natural monument
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A natural monument is a natural or natural/cultural feature of outstanding or unique value because of its inherent rarity, representative of aesthetic qualities or cultural significance. They are generally quite small protected areas and often have high visitor value and this is a lower level of protection than level II and level I. The European Environment Agencys guidelines for selection of a natural monument are, the area should be large enough to protect the integrity of the feature and its immediately related surroundings
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
5.
Sucre Department
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Sucre is a department in the Caribbean Region of Colombia. The department ranks 27th by area,10,670 km2 and it has a population of 772,010, Sucre is bordered by the Caribbean on the northwest, by Bolívar Department on the east and by Córdoba Department on the west. As of 2009, the Sucre Department has an population of 802,733, of which 234,886 are in the department capital Sincelejo. Before the Spanish Conquest, the land comprising the department of Sucre was mainly inhabited by two groups of indigenous people — the Zenú and the Turbacos, the Zenú language was perhaps part of the Chibchan language family by the Arhuacos branch. The Turbaco people were part of the Cariban language family and they controlled the adjacent to the Gulf of Morrosquillo. The area adjacent to the coast was inhabited by the Turbaco people and this specific part of the Caribs included the coasts of the present day departments of Magdalena, Atlántico and Bolívar. The first Spanish conquerors that sighted to the coastline of the present day Sucre Department were Alonso de Ojeda, Juan de la Cosa, Rodrigo de Bastidas and Francisco Cesar around 1499. The conquerors thought the territory to be rich in precious metals since and this situation led to the encomenderos to employ the indigenous workforce almost exclusively for cattle rising on the northern areas. In 1963, the Second Assembly of Municipalities created the Department of Sucre, people vouched for its creation after a campaign led by CorpoSucre. Sucre is subdivided into 5 regions or provinces, The Archipelago of San Bernardo is within the Sucre Department
6.
Caribbean region of Colombia
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The Caribbean region of Colombia or Caribbean coast region is in the north of Colombia and is mainly composed of eight Departments located contiguous to the Caribbean. The Caribbean region of Colombia is home to approximately 9 million people according to the Colombian Census 2005, the Caribbean region coast extends from the Gulf of Urabá to the Gulf of Venezuela. Straddling the coast are Colombias two main Atlantic port cities of Barranquilla and Cartagena, the administration of the region is covered by eight department governments, Atlántico, Bolívar, Cesar, Sucre, Córdoba, Magdalena, La Guajira and San Andrés y Providencia. These 8 departments also cover approximately 182 municipalities,1093 corregimientos and 493 caserios according to the 2005 Census by DANE, most of its inhabitants speak a dialect of Caribbean Spanish with variations within its subregions. Eight departments form the Caribbean region, partial territory pertaining to Antioquia Department, chocó Department, covering a small territory in the Gulf of Urabá. Chocó is the only Department of Colombia with coasts on both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, the predominant ethnic group in the region is the pardo, a mixture of white people of European descent, mainly Spanish, the indigenous peoples and Afro-Colombian. During the early 20th century, a wave of immigrants came from Europe, a second wave followed during World War II. Most of the immigrants settled in the urban centers or trade port towns such as in Barranquilla, Santa Marta, Cartagena, Sincelejo, Santa Cruz de Mompox, El Banco. The two most populous ethnic groups are the wayuu in the Guajira Peninsula and the Arhuacos, Koguis. There are 9,746,886 inhabitants in the Colombian Caribbean Region of Colombia in 2010, according with Dane population projection there will be 10,441,463 in 2015 and 11,142,852 in 2020. The principal metropolitan area is Barranquilla Metropolitan Area with 1,836,331 inhabitants, there is also a service industry and a local import-export industry mainly in the ports of Cartagena, Barranquilla and Santa Marta. Another major part of the economy is tourism, which also in Cartagena and Santa Marta along with San Andres. Known for its peacefulness and easygoing demeanour, the inhabitants from the region enjoy a warm climate and it has been always a basis of the culture the cultivation of intellectual traits and virtues. The city is known to many for this and it is said even the poorest man in the city is rich in wisdom in the country for this cultural trait. The Caribbean region has been the home of football players, many of them world famous like Carlos Valderrama, Radamel Falcao. Unlike in rest of the country, but shared with Venezuela, baseball is an important sport in the region, nevertheless, the region has produced major league players like Edgar Rentería and Orlando Cabrera. The region also is known for its love of combat sports, boxing is a popular sport in certain zones and the region had produced many world champions, such as Antonio Cervantes, Rodrigo Valdéz, and Miguel Happy Lora. This influence also developed the Champeta which has similarities with reggaeton, traditional dances are mostly of Afro-Colombian origin with the influence in cumbia and the mapalé
7.
Mangrove
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A mangrove is a shrub or small tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. The term is used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are salt tolerant trees, also called halophytes, and are adapted to life in coastal conditions. They contain a complex filtration system and complex root system to cope with salt water immersion. They are adapted to the low oxygen conditions of waterlogged mud, the saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water, through pure seawater, to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater. The term mangrove comes to English from Spanish, and is likely to originate from Guarani and it was earlier mangrow, but this word was corrupted via folk etymology influence of the word grove. Mangrove swamps are found in tropical and subtropical tidal areas, areas where mangal occurs include estuaries and marine shorelines. The intertidal existence to which trees are adapted represents the major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in water, and when the tide recedes. The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater. At low tide, organisms are exposed to increases in temperature and desiccation. About 110 species are considered mangroves, in the sense of being a tree grows in such a saline swamp, though only a few are from the mangrove plant genus. However, a mangrove swamp typically features only a small number of tree species. It is not uncommon for a mangrove forest in the Caribbean to feature three or four tree species. For comparison, the tropical rainforest biome contains thousands of tree species, though the trees themselves are few in species, the ecosystem that these trees create provides a home for a great variety of other organisms. Mangrove plants require a number of adaptations to overcome the problems of anoxia, high salinity. Each species has its own solutions to problems, this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines. Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods for coping with the environment, once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it is already occurring
8.
Rhizophora mangle
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Rhizophora mangle, known as the red mangrove, is distributed in estuarine ecosystems throughout the tropics. Its viviparous seeds, in actuality called propagules, become fully mature plants before dropping off the parent tree and these are dispersed by water until eventually embedding in the shallows. Rhizophora mangle grows on aerial roots, which arch above the water level. It is a plant in Florida, Louisiana, and Texas coastal ecosystems. In its native habitat it is threatened by species such as the Brazilian pepper tree. The red mangrove itself is considered a species in some locations, such as Hawaii. R. mangle thickets, however, provide nesting and hunting habitat for an array of organisms, including fish, birds. Red mangroves are found in subtropical and tropical areas in both hemispheres, extending to approximately 28°N to S latitude and they thrive on coastlines in brackish water and in swampy salt marshes. Because they are adapted to salt water, they thrive where many other plants fail and create their own ecosystems. Red mangroves are found near white mangroves, black mangroves. Through stabilisation of their surroundings, mangroves create a community for other plants, though rooted in soil, mangrove roots are often submerged in water for several hours or on a permanent basis. The roots are usually sunk in a sand or clay base, Red mangroves are easily distinguishable through their unique prop roots system and viviparous seeds. The prop roots of a red mangrove suspend it over the water, thereby giving it extra support and they also help the tree to combat hypoxia by allowing it a direct intake of oxygen through its root structure. A mangrove can reach up to 80 feet in height in ideal conditions, however and its bark is thick and a grey-brown color. Mangrove leaves are 1–2 inches wide and 3–5 inches long, with smooth margins and they are a darker shade of green on the tops than on the bottoms. The tree produces pale pink flowers in the spring, as a viviparous plant, R. mangle creates a propagule that is in reality a living tree. Though resembling a seed pod, the fully-grown propagule on the mangrove is capable of rooting and producing a new tree. The trees are hermaphrodites, capable of self pollination or wind pollination, the tree undergoes no dormant stage as a seed, but rather progresses to a live plant before leaving its parent tree
9.
Avicennia germinans
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The black mangrove, is a shrub in the acanthus family, Acanthaceae. It is common throughout areas of Texas and Florida, and ranges as far north as southern Louisiana. Like many other species, it reproduces by vivipary. Seeds are encased in a fruit, which reveals the germinated seedling when it falls into the water, unlike other mangrove species, it does not grow on prop roots, but possesses pneumatophores that allow its roots to breathe even when submerged. It is a species and expels absorbed salt mainly from its leathery leaves. The name black mangrove refers to the color of the trunk, the leaves often appear whitish from the salt excreted at night and on cloudy days. It is often found in its range with the red mangrove. White mangroves grow inland from black mangroves which themselves grow inland from red mangroves, the black mangrove grows just above the high tide in coastal lagoons and brackish water estuaries. It is less tolerant of saline conditions than certain other species that occur in mangrove ecosystems. It can reach 10–15 m in height, although it is a shrub in cooler regions of its range. The seeds germinate in midsummer, but may be seen all year on the trees, the seeds can remain viable for over a year once released. The heartwood is dark-brown to black, while the sapwood is yellow-brown and it has the unusual property of having less dense heartwood than sapwood. The sapwood sinks in water while the heartwood floats, the wood is strong, heavy, and hard, but is difficult to work due to its interlocked grain and is somewhat difficult to finish due to its oily texture. Uses include posts, pilings, charcoal, and fuel, despite growing in a marine environment, the dry wood is subject to attack by marine borers and termites. Like many species, it contains tannin in the bark and has used to tan leather products. List of honey plants Mangrove ecoregions Haehle, Robert, mcKee, Karen L. Irving A. Mendelssohn, and Mark W. Hester. Reexamination of pore water sulfide concentrations and redox potentials near the roots of Rhizophora mangle. Media related to Avicennia germinans at Wikimedia Commons Interactive Distribution Map of Avicennia germinans Avicennia germinans in West African plants – A Photo Guide, data related to Avicennia germinans at Wikispecies
10.
Laguncularia racemosa
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Laguncularia racemosa is a species of flowering plant in the leadwood tree family, Combretaceae. It is a tree, growing to 12–18 metres tall. The bark is gray-brown or reddish, and rough and fissured, pneumatophores and/or prop roots may be present, depending on environmental conditions. The petiole is stout, reddish, 10–13 mm long, with two small glands near the blade that exude sugars, the white, bell-shaped flowers are mostly bisexual and about 5 mm long. The fruit is a drupe, about 12–20 mm long. The single seed is sometimes viviparous and it grows in coastal areas of bays, lagoons, and tidal creeks, typically growing inland of other mangroves, well above the high tide line. San Diego Natural History Museum, Laguncularia recemosa Smithsonian Marine Station, Laguncularia recemosa Purdue University, Laguncularia recemosa
11.
Conocarpus erectus
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Conocarpus erectus, commonly called buttonwood or button mangrove, is a mangrove shrub in the family Combretaceae. This species grows on shorelines in tropical and subtropical regions around the world and it was introduced in Kuwait because it can thrive in high temperatures and absorbs brackish water. C. erectus is usually a dense multiple-trunked shrub, 1–4 m tall, the United States National Champion green buttonwood is 35 ft tall, has a spread of 70 ft, and a circumference of 207 in. The bark is thick and has broad plates of scales which are gray to brown. The twigs are brittle, and angled or narrowly winged in cross-section, the leaves are alternately arranged, simple and oblong, 2–7 cm long and 1–3 cm broad, with a tapering tip and an entire margin. They are dark green and shiny on top, and paler with fine hairs underneath. The fruits are button-like, 5–8 mm diameter, with no petals, the fruit is a cluster of red to brown, small scaly, two-winged cone-like seeds, 5–15 mm long. The seed heads burst when ripe, and the seeds are dispersed by water and it is generally found growing in brackish water in tidal lagoons and bays, but can grow in inland habitats, with records at up to 745 m altitude in Costa Rica. The variety sericeus, with leaves, is especially prized for landscaping. It is an important host plant for epiphytes, as a result of ornamental planting, it has become naturalized in Hawaii. It has been used extensively in landscaping in Kuwait and became the most abundant tree/shrub, conocarpus is widely believed to be fodder for the African buffalo, and it is understood that this is the source of their acidic urine. The wood is used in cabinets, it is difficult to work. It is also used as firewood, and is reported to be good for smoking meat and fish, as it very hot and slowly. The bark is high in tannin, for which it has been harvested commercially
12.
Cork (material)
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Cork is an impermeable buoyant material, the phellem layer of bark tissue that is harvested for commercial use primarily from Quercus suber, which is endemic to southwest Europe and northwest Africa. The montado landscape of Portugal produces approximately half of cork harvested annually worldwide, Cork was examined microscopically by Robert Hooke, which led to his discovery and naming of the cell. There are about 2,200,000 hectares of cork forest worldwide, 34% in Portugal and 27% in Spain. Annual production is about 200,000 tons,49. 6% from Portugal,30. 5% from Spain,5. 8% from Morocco,4. 9% from Algeria,3. 5% from Tunisia,3. 1% Italy, and 2. 6% from France. Once the trees are about 25 years old the cork is traditionally stripped from the trunks every nine years, the trees live for about 300 years. The cork industry is regarded as environmentally friendly. Cork production is considered sustainable because the cork tree is not cut down to obtain cork. The tree continues to live and grow, the sustainability of production and the easy recycling of cork products and by-products are two of its most distinctive aspects. Cork Oak forests also prevent desertification and are a habitat in the Iberian Peninsula. The Corticeira Amorim’s study, in particular, was developed by PricewaterhouseCoopers, results concluded that, concerning the emission of greenhouse gases, each plastic stopper released 10 times more CO2, whilst an aluminium stopper releases 26 times more CO2 than does a cork stopper. The Cork Oak is unrelated to the trees, which have corky bark but are not used for cork production. Cork is extracted only from early May to late August, when the cork can be separated from the tree without causing permanent damage, when the tree reaches 25–30 years of age and about 24 in in circumference, the cork can be removed for the first time. However, this first harvest almost always produces poor quality or male cork, bark from initial harvests can be used to make flooring, shoes, insulation and other industrial products. Subsequent extractions usually occur at intervals of 9 years, though it can take up to 13 for the cork to reach an acceptable size. If the product is of quality it is known as gentle cork. The workers who specialize in removing the cork are known as extractors and this is the most delicate phase of the work because, even though cutting the cork requires quite a bit of strength, the extractor must not damage the underlying phellogen or the tree will be harmed. To free the cork from the tree, the extractor pushes the handle of the axe into the rulers, a good extractor needs to use a firm but precise touch in order to free a large amount of cork without damaging the product or tree. These freed portions of the cork are called planks, the planks are usually carried off by hand since cork forests are rarely accessible to vehicles
13.
Pterocarpus
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Pterocarpus is a pantropical genus of trees in the family Fabaceae. It belongs to the subfamily Faboideae, and was assigned to the informal monophyletic Pterocarpus clade within the Dalbergieae. Most species of Pterocarpus yield valuable timber traded as padauk, other names are mukwa or narra. The wood is marketed as amboyna when it has grown in the burl form, the scientific name is Latinized Ancient Greek and means wing fruit, referring to the unusual shape of the seed pods in this genus. Padauk wood is obtained from species of Pterocarpus. All padauks are of African or Asian origin, padauks are valued for their toughness, stability in use, and decorativeness, most having a reddish wood. Most Pterocarpus woods contain either water- or alcohol-soluble substances and can be used as dyes, the padauk found most often is African Padauk from Pterocarpus soyauxii which, when freshly cut, is a very bright red/orange but when exposed to sunlight fades over time to a warm brown. Its colour makes it a favourite among woodworkers, burmese Padauk is Pterocarpus macrocarpus while Andaman Padauk is Pterocarpus dalbergioides. Padauks can be confused with rosewoods to which they are somewhat related, like rosewood, padauk is sometimes used to make xylophone and marimba keys, and guitars. It is an important material in traditional Chinese furniture, Some padauks, e. g. P. soyauxii, are used as herbal medicines, for example to treat skin parasites and fungal infections. Pterocarpin is a found in Pterocarpus spp. A total of 35 species are accepted,1 Some sources treat Pterocarpus echinatus as a synonym of Pterocarpus indicus. Pterocarpus in West African plants – A Photo Guide
14.
West Indian manatee
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The West Indian manatee or sea cow is a manatee, and the largest surviving member of the aquatic mammal order Sirenia. The West Indian manatee is a distinct from the Amazonian manatee. Based on genetic and morphological studies, the West Indian manatee is divided into two subspecies, the Florida manatee and the Antillean or Caribbean manatee, like the other sirenians, the West Indian manatee has adapted fully to an aquatic life style, having no hind limbs. Pelage cover is sparsely distributed across the body, which may play a role in reducing the build-up of algae on their thick skin, the average West Indian manatee is about 2. 7–3.5 m long and weighs 200–600 kg, with females generally larger than males. The difference between the two subspecies of the West Indian manatee is that the Florida manatee is commonly reported as being larger in size compared to Antillean manatee, the largest individual on record weighed 1,655 kg and measured 4.6 m long. This manatees color is gray or brown and its flippers also have either three or four nails. As its name implies, the West Indian manatee lives in the West Indies, or Caribbean, however, it is known to withstand large changes in water salinity, so has also been found in shallow rivers and estuaries. It can live in fresh, brackish, and saline water and it is limited to the tropics and subtropics due to an extremely low metabolic rate and lack of a thick layer of insulating body fat. While this is a regularly occurring species along coastal southern Florida, during summer, the Florida manatee, a subspecies of the West Indian manatee, is the largest of all living sirenians. Florida manatees inhabit the most northern limit of sirenian habitats, over three decades of research by universities, governmental agencies, and NGOs has contributed to understanding of Florida manatee ecology and behavior. They are found in rivers, in estuaries, and in the coastal waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Florida manatees may live to be more than 28 years old in the wild, large concentrations of Florida manatees are located in the Crystal River and Blue Springs regions in central and north Florida, as well as along the Atlantic Coast, and Florida Gulf Coast. The other subspecies of the West Indian manatee is sometimes referred to as the Antillean manatee, Antillean manatees are sparsely distributed throughout the Caribbean and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean, from Mexico, east to the Greater Antilles, and south to Brazil. Historically, Antillean manatees were hunted by local natives and sold to European explorers for food, today, they are threatened by loss of habitat, poaching, entanglement with fishing gear, and vessel strikes. The West Indian manatee is surprisingly agile in water, and individuals have been seen doing rolls, somersaults, manatees are not territorial and do not have complex predator avoidance behavior, as they have evolved in areas without natural predators. The common predators of marine mammals, such as killer whales, based upon their behavior, Bauer et al. suggests that manatees may obtain the characteristic of pheromonal communication like their relative, the elephant. Manatees feed on about 60 plant species, which include sea grasses as their food source. They also consume fish and small invertebrates
15.
Jaguar
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The jaguar is a big cat, a feline in the Panthera genus, and is the only extant Panthera species native to the Americas. The jaguar is the third-largest feline after the tiger and the lion, the jaguars present range extends from Southwestern United States and Mexico across much of Central America and south to Paraguay and northern Argentina. Apart from a known and possibly breeding population in Arizona and the bootheel of New Mexico and this spotted cat most closely resembles the leopard physically, although it is usually larger and of sturdier build and its behavioral and habitat characteristics are closer to those of the tiger. While dense rainforest is its habitat, the jaguar will range across a variety of forested. Its preferred habitats are swamps and wooded regions, but jaguars also live in scrublands. The jaguar is notable, along with the tiger, as a feline that enjoys swimming, the jaguar is largely a solitary, opportunistic, stalk-and-ambush predator at the top of the food chain. It is a species, playing an important role in stabilizing ecosystems. The jaguar has a powerful bite, even relative to the other big cats. This allows it to pierce the shells of armored reptiles and to employ an unusual killing method, the jaguar is a near threatened species and its numbers are declining. Threats include loss and fragmentation of habitat, while international trade in jaguars or their parts is prohibited, the cat is still frequently killed by humans, particularly in conflicts with ranchers and farmers in South America. Although reduced, its range remains large, given its historical distribution, the jaguar has featured prominently in the mythology of numerous indigenous American cultures, including those of the Maya and Aztec. The word jaguar comes to English from one of the Tupi–Guarani languages, presumably the Amazonian trade language Tupinambá, the Tupian word, yaguara beast, is sometimes translated as dog. The specific word for jaguar is yaguareté, with the suffix -eté meaning real or true, the first component of its taxonomic designation, Panthera, is Latin, from the Greek word for leopard, πάνθηρ, the type species for the genus. Onca is the Portuguese onça, with the cedilla dropped for reasons, found in English as ounce for the snow leopard. It derives from the Latin lyncea lynx, with the letter L confused with the definite article, the jaguar, Panthera onca, is the only extant New World member of the genus Panthera.8 million years ago. Phylogenetic studies generally have shown the clouded leopard is basal to this group, the position of the remaining species varies between studies and is effectively unresolved. Based on morphological evidence, British zoologist Reginald Pocock concluded the jaguar is most closely related to the leopard, however, DNA evidence is inconclusive and the position of the jaguar relative to the other species varies between studies. Fossils of extinct Panthera species, such as the European jaguar, analysis of jaguar mitochondrial DNA has dated the species lineage to between 280,000 and 510,000 years ago, later than suggested by fossil records
16.
Howler monkey
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Howler monkeys are among the largest of the New World monkeys and one of only a few nest-building monkeys. Previously classified in the family Cebidae, they are now placed in the family Atelidae and these monkeys are native to South and Central American forests. Threats to howler monkeys include human predation, habitat destruction and being captured for pets or zoo animals and these monkeys are famous for their loud howls, which can travel three miles through dense rainforest. A. caraya group Black howler, Alouatta caraya Howler monkeys have short snouts and wide-set and their noses are very keen, and they can smell out food up to 2 km away. Their noses are usually roundish snout-type, and the nostrils have many sensory hairs growing from the interior. They range in size from 56 to 92 cm, excluding their tails, like many New World monkeys, they have prehensile tails, which they use for picking fruit and nuts from trees. Unlike other New World monkeys, both male and female howler monkeys have trichromatic color vision and this has evolved independently from other New World monkeys due to gene duplication. They have lifespans of 15 to 20 years, Howler species are dimorphic and can also be dichromatic. Males are, on average,1.5 to 2.0 kg heavier than females, the hyoid of Alouatta is pneumatized, one of the few cases of postcranial pneumaticity outside the Saurischia. The volume of the hyoid of male howler monkeys is negatively correlated with the dimensions of their testes, Howler monkeys generally move quadrupedally on the tops of branches, usually grasping a branch with at least two hands or one hand and the tail at all times. Their strong prehensile tails are able to support their body weight. Fully grown adult howler monkeys do not often rely on their tails for full body support, most howler species live in groups of six to 15 animals, with one to three adult males and multiple females. Mantled howler monkeys are an exception, commonly living in groups of 15 to 20 individuals with more than three adult males, the number of males in a given group is inversely correlated with the size of their hyoid, and is positively correlated with testes size. This results in two groups, wherein one male with a larger hyoid and smaller testes copulates exclusively with a group of females. The other group has more males, which have smaller hyoids, and larger testes, the larger the number of males, the smaller the hyoid, and the larger the testes. Physical fighting among group members is infrequent and generally of short duration, both males and females rarely fight with each other, but physical aggression is even more rare between sexes. Group size varies by species and by location, with a ratio of one male to four females. As their name suggests, vocal communication forms an important part of their social behavior and they each have an enlarged basihyal or hyoid bone, which helps them make their loud vocalizations
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
18.
Amacayacu National Park
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Amacayacu National Natural Park is a national park located along the Amazon River in the Amazonas Department in the south of Colombia. The park was created in 1975, the word Amacayacu means River of the Hamocs in the indigenous language Quechua. The Ticuna people currently inhabit a part of the park, the park comprises 4,220 square kilometres of jungle, a significant portion of which is annually flooded by the Amazon River during the wet season. The parks elevations vary from 200 to 300 meters above sea level, at present, the park is closed to the public, due to heavier than normal flooding in April to May in 2012. Check the Parques Nacionales Naturales website for updated information, in order to travel to the Amacayacu National Park, travellers must arrive in the city of Leticia then embark by boat upriver to the park itself. The park includes accommodations that consists of a maloka where travellers can sleep with a group of people in hammocks or cabins for 2 to 4 travellers, a recommended visit lasts approximately three days. Travellers must be careful about mosquitos when the sun goes down. Travellers are advised to wear shirts with sleeves and long trousers. The park is of considerable interest to scientists, many zoological specimens have been collected in the park. The parks page at Parques Nacionales Naturales de Colombia Cano Correa, Marcela
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Chingaza National Natural Park
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Chingaza National Park is located in the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes, northeast of Bogotá, Colombia in the departments of Cundinamarca and Meta. The elevation in the park, to the east of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, ranges from 800 metres to 4,020 metres, the park extends over the Cundinamarca municipalities La Calera, Fómeque, Guasca and San Juanito. The name Chingaza comes from Chibcha and means middle of the width, 99% of the park area is located in the Orinoco River basin in the upper basins of the Black and White, Guatiquía, Guacavía, Gazaunta, Gazamumo, Humea and Guavio rivers. 1% of its area is in the Magdalena River basin, where the San Lorenzo Creek, La Calera River tributary, and Teusacá, Siecha, Bogotá, Chingaza has about 40 natural glacial lakes. The largest lake is Lake Chingaza, located in the part of the park at an altitude of 3,250 metres. One of the most representative and culturally significant bodies of water are the Siecha Lakes, Chuza Reservoir is also located within the Chingaza Park in the basin of a tributary of the River Chuza Guatiquía. This reservoir is the center of the Bogotá Water Companys Chingaza System, Chingaza contributes 80% of the citys high quality drinking water. The animals found in Chingaza include spectacled bear, deer, tapir moor, pumas, Andean condors, Cock-of-the-rocks, jaguars, turkeys, woolly monkeys, nocturnal monkeys, ocelots, and toucans. The large number of endemic species makes the Eastern Cordillera one of the most important geographic regions for wildlife in Colombia, in the vicinity of the Chingaza lagoon, less than 383 species of plants have been recorded. It is estimated that the flora of the park may exceed 2,000 species. There are eight species of moss, which can absorb up to 40 times their weight in water. There are also endemic species, such as frailejones, that grow on the páramo, there are currently no indigenous groups within the territory of Chingaza. However, the area has historical importance, with over 10,000 years of Muisca and pre-Muisca inhabitation in the region, ponds, rock shelters, the mountains and especially the Siecha Lakes were sacred places of worship and respect, forming ceremonial centers. Recent studies indicate that Chingaza in the Chibcha language of the Muisca could have been called Chim-wa-za, which means Gods Night Mountains
20.
Farallones de Cali
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Farallones de Cali is a cluster of mountains in the West Andes of Colombia. It is located west of the city of Cali and gives rise to many of the rivers that provide water, the PNN Farallones de Cali encompasses 150,000 ha in the mountains as well as much of the Pacific slope and is an area of very high biodiversity. The average temperature ranges from 25 °C in the foothills to 5 °C in the páramo. Average yearly rainfall is 6,000 mm in the Pacific region and 2,500 mm in the mountainous sector, plants growing in the area have sufficient water throughout the year. The topography of the park is characterized by the high, craggy peaks and these peaks are referred to as Los Farallones, the namesake of the mountains and national park. The foothills on the eastern side meet the Cauca Valley and the city of Cali, on the west slope there are numerous river canyons that wind their way toward the Pacific Ocean. The Farrallones are visible from the city of Cali, on the east slope the following rivers flow from the Farallones de Cali, Cali, Pichindé, Cañaveralejo, Melendez, Lilí, Pance, and Jamundí. These river all flow into the Cauca River, on the west slope there are many rivers flowing into the Pacific, but the main ones area the Dagua and Anchicayá. There is a dam on the Anchicayá River. The PNN Farallones de Cali is the largest national park in the Valle del Cauca Department and was formed in 1968, the area is popular for hiking and birdwatching. Access from Cali is by two routes, by way of the Pance River at the southern end or at the northern end via Peñas Blancas or the Pichindé River. Access to the Anchicayá area is via the town of El Queremal, the lowest altitude of the park is 200 m in the Pacific lowlands. Tropical Wet to Humid Forest is located between 200 m and 1,000 m above sea level and it is characterized by tall rain forest trees and a canopy reaching up to 40 m. This area is on the slope of the West Andes and is part of the Chocó Biogeographic Region. One of the key areas of biodiversity is centered around the upper Anchicayá River watershed, subtropical Cloud Forest is situated between 1,200 m and 2,000 m. The cloud forest is usually blanketed in fog and inside the forest it is extremely mossy with many epiphytes and this ecosystem is also referred to as Subandean Forest - Bosque Subandino. Montane Forest is located between 2,000 m and 3,500 m and this high mountain forest is characterized by dense vegetation and a canopy that reaches up to 20 m. As the elevation increases the tree height generally decreases and this ecosystem is also referred to as Andean Forest - Bosque Andino
21.
Gorgona Island (Colombia)
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Gorgona is a Colombian island in the Pacific Ocean situated about 35 km off the Colombian Pacific coast. The island is 9 km and 2.5 km wide, with a height of 338 m. Gorgona is separated from the continent by a 270 m deep underwater depression, administratively the island is part of the Municipality of Guapí in the Department of Cauca. Gorgona functioned as a prison from 1959 until 1984 when it was turned into a National Natural Park, Gorgona was first inhabited by people possibly associated with the Tumaco-Tolita culture. The indigenous Kuna or Cuna of Urabá and San Blas, have the tradition of being the first settlers of the island and they left archeological remains dating back to 1300 AD. They were expert sailors and lived off farming and fishing and they also worked with stone tools and were goldsmiths. Spanish conquistadors first visited Gorgona in 1524 when it was discovered by Diego de Almagro, three years later, in 1527, Francisco Pizarro, in his second expedition to Peru, arrived in the island from Gallo island, running away from the indigenous group that lived there. Pizarro and thirteen of his men remained for seven months on Gorgona waiting for the arrival of provisions, Pizarro, who considered the island an inferno, gave it the name Gorgona after losing many of his men to bites from the great number of snakes that inhabit the island. The name refers to the mythical Gorgon, Medusa who had living venomous snakes in place of hair, bartolome Ruiz, a Spanish boat pilot, was sent from Panama to rescue them. With Ruizs ship as the one at Pizarros disposal, they all left Gorgona to conquer Peru. In the period after the Spanish Conquest, the Cacique Yundigua and he probably was a member of the indigenous group Sindagua, a tribe that lived between Nariño and Cauca. In 1679, the English pirate Bartholomew Sharp, after attacking Guayaquil and he stayed for only a little more than a month. The island served as a refuge to the English privateers Woodes Rogers, the island, rich in fresh water and valuable wood, served as a supply station for ships en route from Panama to Peru and back. During the 1820s, after the independence of Colombia from Spain, Simón Bolívar gave Gorgona to Federico DCroz, by 1870 the island was inhabited by a small mestizo community which live off fishing. During the first half of the 20th century, Gorgona remained mostly inhabited, in 1959 the island was turned into a penal colony. It became a high security prison housing Colombias more violent criminals, generally those convicted of murder. The penitentiary was built following the model of Nazi concentration camps, prisoners slept on beds without a mattress or a pillow. The bathrooms were just a hole in the floor, because of constant rapes and murders that were carried out in the bathrooms, the walls were lowered so that the guards could see each prisoner
22.
Las Hermosas National Natural Park
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The Las Hermosas National Natural Park is a national park located in the Valle del Cauca and Tolima departments, at the highest elevation of Cordillera Central range in the Andean Region of Colombia. Its main feature is probably the wetlands and 387 glacial lakes, the park is bounded by the Magdalena River and Cauca River. Its elevation ranges from 1,600 m to 4,400 m above sea level. The area has a canyon, formed by the surrounding rivers and it is of historical importance as it was one of the most defended areas by the indigenous Pijao peoples against the Spanish Conquistadors. Three types of formations are found in the area, intrusive igneous rocks, metamorphic rock. Average yearly rainfall is 2000 mm at the elevations and 1500 mm above 3,000 m. Average temperature is 24°C at the elevations, and 4°C at the highest. December-March and July-August are dry periods, noteworthy plants include, wax palm trees, Podocarpus oleifolius, Aniba perutilis, Ocotea heterochroma, Chuquiraga jussieui, Passiflora tenerifensis and Andean Walnut. The most diverse group of fauna are the birds, followed by the mammals, recorded mammals include, spectacled bear, mountain tapir, cougar, oncilla, pudú, white-tailed deer. Fish in the glacial lakes feed on algae, blue-green algae. Villegas, Benjamin, Sesana, Laura, Colombia Natural Parks, Villegas Asociados, IUCN, IUCN directory of neotropical protected areas, IUCN, ISBN 978-0-907567-62-2
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Los Nevados National Natural Park
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Los Nevados National Natural Park is a national park located in the Cordillera Central of the Colombian Andes. The 5, 300-metre-high volcano Nevado del Ruiz dominates Los Nevados, out of the 55 protected areas in Colombia, Los Nevados National Natural Park was the third most visited in 2009, with 50,045 visitors. The most visited was the Rosario and San Bernardo Corals National Natural Park followed by the Tayrona National Natural Park, glacial activity has shaped the landscape 3,000 m above mean sea level, leaving U-shaped valleys and moraines behind. Extrusive igneous rock are dominant above 3,500 m on the slope and 2,200 m on the western slope. The Otún Lake lying in extinct volcano crater and Green Lake are located in the area, the parks hydrographic networks supply water to over 2,000,000 coffee-growers in the region and to most of the rice and cotton crops in the Tolima Department. The park is located in the departments of Caldas, Quindío, Risaralda, Tolima and divided in the municipalities Villamaría, Santa Rosa de Cabal, Pereira, Salento, the area is home to 1250 species of vascular plants,200 bryophytes,300 lichens and 180 macroscopic fungi. On the lower slopes and in the valleys the Andean wax palms are dominant, the upper Andean forest has trees reaching up to 30 m in height. Noteworthy birds include blue-crowned motmot, yellow-eared parrot, Fuertess parrot, rufous-fronted parakeet, Andean condor, brown-banded antpitta, the bearded helmetcrest hummingbird is endemic to the region. Noteworthy mammals include the tapir, spectacled bear, northern pudú, oncilla, cougar. IUCN, IUCN directory of neotropical protected areas, IUCN, ISBN 978-0-907567-62-2, Villegas, Benjamin, Sesana, Laura, Colombia Natural Parks, Villegas Asociados, ISBN 978-958-8156-87-3. Media related to Parque Nacional Natural de los Nevados at Wikimedia Commons The parks page at Parques Nacionales Naturales de Colombia
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Munchique National Natural Park
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The Munchique National Natural Park is a national park located in the Cauca Department in the Cordillera Occidental range in the Andean Region of Colombia. There are 30 streams and rivers, and 40 waterfalls in the area, the diversity of thermal levels makes the park a paradise for birds, especially hummingbirds. It is located in El Tambo, on the slopes of the Cordillera Occidental,61 km from the city of Popayán. It shares borders with the municipalities of Lopez, and Morales Cajibio and it was declared a national park in May 1977 and covers and area of 440 km2. The park takes its name from the Munchique Mountain, located in the southeast part of the area. Many of the rivers in the area are tributaries to the San Juan de Micay River, one of the largest rivers in the Colombian Pacific Basin and it is currently in danger due to illegal crops and other ecological threats. There are several levels in the area, shifting with elevation, warm,200 m –1,000 m above mean sea level, temperate,1,000 m –2,000 m. Average temperature is 24°C at the elevations, and 8°C at the highest. Average yearly rainfall is 3000 mm in the parts and it significantly increases with decreasing height up to 5000 mm in the lower areas. The largest precipitation occurs in December and minimum in June–August, the heavy rains results in a relative humidity, 87%. In the warm and temperate zones it is possible to find trees reaching above 40 m, the number of trees diminishes as elevation increases and epiphytes becomes more common. The park has one of Colombias highest biodiversity indices and a number of endemic and endangered species. Some 500 species of birds have been recorded in the area,37 of which are hummingbirds, noteworthy birds include long-wattled umbrellabird and the colorful puffleg, the latter being endemic to the region. The park is home to 182 mammals, among them spectacled bears, pumas, jaguars, northern pudú, South American coati, scaly-footed small-eared shrew, porcupines. Other species include 71 amphibians,70 bats and 55 butterfly species, western Andes toad is only known from the park. In 2003 a new species of wren was found in the area, IUCN, IUCN directory of neotropical protected areas, IUCN, ISBN 978-0-907567-62-2. Villegas, Benjamin, Sesana, Laura, Colombia Natural Parks, Villegas Asociados, ISBN 978-958-8156-87-3
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Nevado del Huila
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Nevado del Huila at 5,364 metres, is the highest volcano in Colombia located in Huila Department, Tolima and Cauca Departments. It is visible from the city of Cali, after being dormant for more than 500 years, the volcano showed heavy signs of activity in 2007 and 2008. As of February 20,2007, there were more than 7000 minor seismic events, the volcano erupted twice in April 2007, once in April 2008 and again in November 2008. On April 18,2007, the volcano erupted twice causing avalanches into the Paez River, more than 4,000 people were evacuated with no casualties reported. Nevado del Huila became active again in March 2008, after a multitude of earthquakes inside the volcano, Colombian authorities declared a state of yellow alert on March 18. The state of alert was increased to orange on March 29, on April 14,2008 at 11,08 pm, an ash eruption took place, prompting the government to issue a red alert and evacuate 13,000 to 15,000 people from around the mountain. The state of red alert was again lowered to orange on April 16, on November 20,2008, the volcano erupted at 02,45 GMT according to Colombian Institute of Geology and Mining. An immediate mass-scale evacuation was put in motion by the Colombian authorities, there were no injured reported at the time. The eruption had triggered an avalanche of earth and debris that damaged houses, bridges, the three small towns of Paicol, La Plata and Belalcázar along the Paez River were affected by this eruption. President Álvaro Uribe ordered the Air Force of Colombia to create an air bridge to provide supplies for cut off towns along the Paez River, global Volcanism Program Nevado del Huila Volcano Observatory
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Old Providence McBean Lagoon National Natural Park
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It is one of three national parks in the Colombian Caribbean with coral reefs on its territories, the other two being Tayrona and Rosario and San Bernardo Corals. The park contains different ecosystems, such as forests, coral formations, beds of marine grasses. Due to the coral reefs, the Providencia Island is also known as The Sea of Seven Colors. Crab Caye and the Three Brothers Cayes form four small islands that are part of the National Park, average yearly rainfall is 3000 mm, with the largest precipitation occurring in October–November. There is a dry period from January to June, average temperature is 25°C and relative humidity 73. 3%. The mangroves range from 3 m –12 m in height, the predominant species is red mangrove and there is also smaller populations of black mangrove and white mangrove. There are 74 recorded species of bird in the area, noteworthy marine species include, Audubons shearwater, magnificent frigatebird, brown booby and royal tern, non-marine, green heron and bananaquit. The extensive area of marine grasses around the lagoon and bordering mangroves is made up of Thalassia testudinum and Syringodium filiforme, a visitor centre on Crab Caye is accessible by boat. For conservation reasons, it is not permitted to access the small islands that form part of the National Park. Villegas, Benjamin, Sesana, Laura, Colombia Natural Parks, Villegas Asociados, cortés, Jorge, Latin American coral reefs, Gulf Professional Publishing, ISBN 978-0-444-51388-5. The parks page at Parques Nacionales Naturales de Colombia
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Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
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The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is an isolated mountain range separated from the Andes chain that runs through Colombia. The Sierra Nevada encompasses about 17,000 km2 and serves as the source of 36 rivers, the range is in the Departments of Magdalena, Cesar and La Guajira. SRTM data and local topographic maps show that their true elevations are approximately 5,700 m, the Sierra Nevada is a compact group, relatively small in area, and completely surrounded by lands with elevations below 200 m. Although it is associated with the Tropical Andes, the backbone of the Andes cannot be reached from the Sierra Nevada without dropping below this level. This makes its highest point the worlds fifth most prominent summit, several peaks in the Sierra Nevada are intervisible with Cerro Paramillo, a 3,730 m peak in Antioquia Department. This implies a direct line of sight of just over 500 km. It is calculated that the average rainfall is 4,000 mm at elevations of 500 m to 1,500 m. The temperature varies between 0 °C and 27 °C, the tropical rainforest is made up of perennial trees, with a canopy reaching between 30 m to 40 m. There is a variety and large populations of epiphytes and lianas. The indigenous peoples made an alcoholic beverage from fruits of the palm Attalea maripa found at the lower elevations, of Colombias 340 endemic species,44 are found in the park, for example seven species of endemic hummingbirds. Of the 3,057 endangered species,44 are found here, the area is home to 440 species of birds, including black-fronted wood-quail, king vulture, Andean condor, Santa Marta warbler and Santa Marta parakeet. Mammals found in the include, tapir, cougar, jaguar, squirrel, Transandinomys talamancae, otter. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is home to a number of ecoregions, the Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub region lies near the Caribbean seacoast to the north of the range. The Sinú Valley dry forests cover the lower slopes, up to an elevation of 500 m. The Santa Marta montane forests lie above 500 m to 800 m, the montane forests are separated from other moist forests by the lower-elevation dry forests and xeric shrublands, and have large numbers of endemic species. Above 900 m is a transitional forest zone of smaller trees, the Santa Marta Páramo, a high altitude belt of montane grasslands and shrublands interspersed with marshes and acid bogs, occupies the zone between 3,300 m and 5,000 m. The Santa Marta Páramo is the northernmost enclave of Páramo in South America, above 5,000 m meters lies the permanent snow cap. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Natural Park is Colombias second oldest national park and it is located in the Cordillera Oriental range, between the departments of La Guajira, Magdalena and Cesar, in the mountain range of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
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Tayrona National Natural Park
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The park covers approximately 30 square kilometres of maritime area in the Caribbean sea and approximately 150 square kilometres of land. It was the second most visited park in Colombia in 2012. The most visited park was the Rosario and San Bernardo Corals National Natural Park, the park has an area of 150 square kilometers. It is located in the jurisdiction of the Santa Marta municipality, in the Department of Magdalena, Taganga is its most southern part, its western boundary goes toward the northeast following the coastline, including a kilometer of sea area, until the Piedras River. Temperatures in the park and surrounding citites range from 27 to 35 °C at sea level, scholars have done an extensive classification of animal species living in the park, which include about 108 species of mammals and 300 species of birds. The Mantled howler, the oncilla, deer and more than 70 species of bats are among the parks typical residents, the parks 300 species of birds include the montane solitary eagle, the military macaw, black-backed antshrike, white-bellied antbird and the lance-tailed manakin. There are more than 350 algae and more than 770 species of plants and it is one of three national parks in the Colombian Caribbean with coral reefs on its territories, the other two being Old Providence McBean Lagoon and Rosario and San Bernardo Corals. There is archaeological evidence of ancient human settlements in the area of the park up until the 16th century, the place now has facilities for the eco-tourism, with paths suitable for walks. The Archaeologic Museum of Chairama is located in the Cañaveral Site, other places which attract visitors are Los Naranjos Path, Castilletes Beach, The Pool, the Piedras River and the San Juan Out. List of national parks of Colombia Taganga Cortés, Jorge, Latin American coral reefs, Gulf Professional Publishing, tayrona National Natural Park travel guide from Wikivoyage The parks page at Parques Nacionales Naturales de Colombia
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