1.
Classical Irish
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After the conversion to Christianity in the 5th century, Old Irish begins to appear as glosses and other marginalia in Latin manuscripts, beginning in the 6th century. It evolved in the 10th century to Middle Irish, early Modern Irish, otherwise known as Classical Irish, was a literary language that represented a transition between Middle and Modern Irish. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Irish has continued to survive in Gaeltacht regions and it has once again come to be considered an important part of the islands culture and heritage, with efforts being made to preserve and promote it. The history of the Irish language begins with the arrival of an ancestral Celtic language in Ireland and it is highly unlikely that the Mesolithic language of the first settlers or the Neolithic language of the first farmers was related to Irish. There is also evidence for Celtic tribal names in Ireland in this period, from these domains the language spread, just as English was to do later. The date of introduction continues to be debated by linguists and archaeologists, some scholars put the earliest date at ca.1200 BC, while others posit dates between 2600 and 2000 BC. The earliest written form of the Irish language is known to linguists as Primitive Irish, Primitive Irish is known only from fragments, mostly personal names, inscribed on stone in the Ogham alphabet. The earliest of such inscriptions probably date from the 3rd or 4th century, Ogham inscriptions are found primarily in the south of Ireland as well as in Wales and Cornwall, where it was brought by settlers from Ireland to sub-Roman Britain, and in the Isle of Man. Old Irish first appears in the margins of Latin manuscripts as early as the 6th century, a large number of early Irish literary texts, though recorded in manuscripts of the Middle Irish period, are essentially Old Irish in character. Middle Irish is the form of Irish used from the 10th to 12th centuries, it is therefore a contemporary of late Old English and it is the language of a large amount of literature, including the entire Ulster Cycle. Early Modern Irish, also called Classical Irish or in Scotland Classical Irish, was used as a language in Ireland and Scotland from the 13th to the 18th century. The tracts were edited and published by Osborn Bergin as a supplement to Ériu between 1916 and 1955, linguistically, this stage of Irish represents a transition between Middle Irish and Modern Irish. For example, neuter nouns still trigger eclipsis of a complement, as they did in Middle Irish. Verb endings are also in transition, the ending -ann, today the usual 3rd person ending in the present tense, was formerly found only in the imperfective. Queen Elizabeth I encouraged the use of Irish even in the Pale with a view to promoting the reformed religion. She was a proficient linguist and is reported to have expressed a desire to understand Irish, so a primer was prepared on her behalf by Sir Christopher Nugent, ninth baron of Delvin. The first book printed in any Goidelic language was published in 1564 in Edinburgh and he used a slightly modified form of the language shared by Ireland and Scotland at the time and also used the Roman script. In 1571 the first book in Irish to be printed in Ireland was a Protestant catechism, containing a guide to spelling and it was written by John Kearney, treasurer of St. Patricks Cathedral
2.
Mythological Cycle
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It is one of the four major cycles of early Irish literary tradition, the others being the Ulster Cycle, the Fenian Cycle and the Cycles of the Kings. The term Mythological Cycle seems to have gained currency with Arbois de Jubainville, 1881–1883, usage predating this applies the term generically, e. g. to Norse mythology. In the opinion of Mackillop, use of the term is somewhat awkward today, the characters appearing in the cycle are essentially gods from the pre-Christian pagan past in Ireland. Commentators exercising caution, however, qualify them as representing only godlike beings and this is because the Christian scribes who composed the writings were generally careful not to refer to the Tuatha Dé Danann and other beings explicitly as deities. The disguises are thinly veiled nonetheless, and these writings contain discernible vestiges of early Irish polytheistic cosmology, examples of works from the cycle include numerous prose tales, verse texts, as well as pseudo-historical chronicles found in medieval vellum manuscripts or later copies. Some of the romances are of later composition and found only in manuscripts dating to near-modern times. The god-folk of the invasions are euhemerised, i. e. described as having dwelt terrestrially. Afterwards, the Tuatha Dé Danann are said to have retreated into the sídhe, having disappeared but not died, the deities oftentimes make guest appearances in narratives categorised under other cycles. Collected #lore literature, while they do not belong to the cycle in entirety, in the list that follows, citations are generally only given if the wiki page for that work is not developed. Otherwise, citations are deferred to the article in question. See #External links for additional titles, aislinge Óenguso Altram Tige Dá Medar. Cath Muige Tuired Cunga Cath Maige Tuired Ceithri cathracha i r-robadar Tuatha De Danand De Gabáil in t-Sída Echtra Nera Eachtra Léithín How the Dagda Got His Magic Staff, Oidheadh Chloinne Lir Oidheadh Chloinne Tuirenn Scél Tuáin meic Chairill Tochomlod Nemid co hErin Tochomlod mac Miledh a hEspain i nErind. Besides independent verses, a number of poems are embedded in prose tales, a number of them are also preserved in the pseudohistorical LGE, Keating, etc. Arsaidh sin a eóuin Accla Coire Érmai / Coire Goriath Collected lore are not wholly of mythological content, the Fitness of Names provides interesting explanations on names of Dian Cecht among others. Irish onomastica, the Dindshenchas, also include stories about such as Boann. Genealogical tracts and the Roll of the Kings, various glosses may also be culled for information, banshenchus Dobbs 1932 Cóir Anmann, Stokes 1897 Dindsenchas Sanas Cormaic, Nes Triads of Ireland, mention of the indeoin Dagdai, ox of Díl, etc. Chronicon Scotorum Lebor Gabála Érenn Glas Gaibhnenn The euhemerised deities arrived in five sets of migrations, remnants of the migration tales are the summarised accounts given in the LGE. Apart from these are the tale of Tuan mac Cairill, Fintan mac Bóchra colloquy, Tuan and Fintan are ancient beings from the Antediluvian past, who have reincaranted into different creatures, and are referred to in the LGE as well
3.
Lugh
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Lugh or Lug is an important god of Irish mythology. A member of the Tuatha Dé Danann, Lugh is portrayed as a warrior hero. He is associated with skill, crafts and the arts as well as with oaths, truth and he is sometimes interpreted as a sun god, a storm god or a sky god. Lugh is also associated with the harvest festival of Lughnasadh. Lugh is known by the epithets Lámfada, possibly for his skill with a spear or sling, Ildánach, Samildánach, Lonnbéimnech, Macnia, as to ancestry, Lugh is given the matriname mac Ethlenn or mac Ethnenn and the patriname mac Cein. He is the grandson of the Fomorian, Balor, whom Lugh kills in the Battle of Mag Tuired. His foster-father is the sea god Manannán, Lughs son is the hero Cú Chulainn, who is believed to be an incarnation of Lugh. He wields a fiery spear, a sling stone. He also owns a boat named Scuabtuinne, a horse named Enbarr. He is a reflex of the pan-Celtic god Lugus, and his Welsh counterpart is Lleu Llaw Gyffes, Lughs father is Cian of the Tuatha Dé Danann, and his mother is Ethniu, daughter of Balor, of the Fomorians. In Cath Maige Tuired their union is a dynastic marriage following an alliance between the Tuatha Dé and the Fomorians, in the Lebor Gabála Érenn Cian gives the boy to Tailtiu, queen of the Fir Bolg, in fosterage. In the Dindsenchas Lugh, the foster-son of Tailtiu, is described as the son of the Dumb Champion, a folktale told to John ODonovan by Shane ODugan of Tory Island in 1835 recounts the birth of a grandson of Balor who grows up to kill his grandfather. In this tale, Balor hears a prophecy that he will be killed by his own grandson. To prevent this he imprisons his daughter in the Tór Mór of Tory Island, cared for by twelve women. On the mainland, Mac Cinnfhaelaidh owns a cow who gives such abundant milk that everyone, including Balor. While the cow is in the care of Mac Cinnfhaelaidhs brother Mac Samthainn, Balor appears in the form of a little red-haired boy and tricks him into giving him the cow. Looking for revenge, Mac Cinnfhaelaidh calls on a leanan sídhe called Biróg, who transports him by magic to the top of Balors tower, in time she gives birth to triplets, which Balor gathers up in a sheet and sends to be drowned in a whirlpool. The messenger drowns two of the babies, but unwittingly drops one child into the harbour, where he is rescued by Biróg and she takes him to his father, who gives him to his brother, Gavida the smith, in fosterage
4.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
5.
Eugene O'Curry
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Eugene OCurry was an Irish philologist and antiquary. He was born at Doonaha, near Carrigaholt, County Clare, the son of Eoghan Ó Comhraí, a farmer, Eoghan had spent some time as a travelling pedlar and had developed an interest in Irish folklore and music. Unusually for someone of his background, he appears to have been literate and it is likely that Eoghan was primarily responsible for his sons education. Having spent some years working on his fathers farm and as a teacher, Eugene OCurry moved to Limerick in c.1824. He married Anne Broughton, daughter of John Broughton of Killaderry near Broadford, OCurry was a supporter of Catholic Emancipation and in 1828 wrote a poem congratulating Daniel OConnell on his election as an MP. During this period OCurry was establishing a reputation for his knowledge of the Irish language and Irish history and he was employed, from 1835 to 1842, on ODonovans recommendation, in the topographical and historical section of the Irish Ordnance Survey. ODonovan went on to marry OCurrys sister-in-law, Mary Anne Broughton, OCurry was responsible for the transcripts of Irish manuscripts from which ODonovan edited The Annals of the Four Masters between 1848 and 1851. In 1851 he was elected a member of the Royal Irish Academy and, on the founding of the Catholic University of Ireland in 1854, he was appointed professor of Irish history and he worked with George Petrie on the Ancient Music of Ireland. In 1852, he and ODonovan proposed the Dictionary of the Irish Language and his lectures were published by the university in 1860, and give a better knowledge of Irish medieval literature than can be obtained from any other one source. Three other volumes of lectures were published posthumously, under the title On the Manners and his voluminous transcripts, notably eight huge volumes of ancient Irish law, testify to his unremitting industry. The Celtic Society, of the council of which he was a member and he died of a heart attack, at his home in Dublin, on 30 July 1862, and was survived by two sons and two daughters. He is buried at Glasnevin cemetery, Dublin, OCurry Road in the Tenters area of Dublin 8 is named in his honour. Works by Eugene OCurry at Open Library OCurry, Eugene, ed, on the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish, I, London, Williams and Norgate, retrieved 9 August 2008 OCurry, Eugene, Sullivan, William Kirby, ed. On the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish, II, London, Williams and Norgate, retrieved 9 August 2008 OCurry, Eugene, Sullivan, William Kirby, ed. On the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish, III, London, Williams and Norgate, retrieved 9 August 2008 ODonovan, John, OCurry, Eugene, eds. Ancient Laws of Ireland, I, Dublin, Alexander Thom, retrieved 9 August 2008 ODonovan, John, OCurry, Eugene, Ancient Laws of Ireland, II ODonovan, John, OCurry, Eugene, eds. Ancient Laws of Ireland, III, Dublin, Alexander Thom, retrieved 9 August 2008 ODonovan, John, OCurry, Eugene, eds. Ancient Laws of Ireland, IV, Dublin, A. Thom & Co, retrieved 9 August 2008 ODonovan, John, OCurry, Eugene, eds
6.
John Rhys
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Sir John Rhys, PC, FBA was a Welsh scholar, fellow of the British Academy, Celticist and the first Professor of Celtic at Oxford University. He was born John Rees at Ponterwyd in Ceredigion, to a miner and farmer, Hugh Rees. Rhys was educated at schools in Pantyffynnon and Ponterwyd before moving to the British School, here Rhys was enrolled as a pupil and teacher, and after leaving studied at Bangor Normal College from 1860 to 1861. Upon leaving Bangor Normal College, Rhys gained employment as headmaster at Rhos-y-bol and it was here that Rhys was introduced to Dr Charles Williams, then the Principal of Jesus College, Oxford, in 1865. This meeting eventually led to Rhys being accepted into the college, in 1869, he was elected to a fellowship at Merton College. Rhys also travelled and studied in Europe during this period, staying in Paris, Heidelberg, Leipzig and he attended lectures by Georg Curtius and August Leskien whilst in Leipzig, and it was during this period that his interest in philology and linguistics developed. Rhys matriculated from Leipzig in 1871, and it was around this time that he adopted the Welsh spelling of his name and he returned to Wales as a government inspector of schools, covering Flint and Denbigh, and he settled in Rhyl. Rhys also began to write, with articles on the grammar of the Celtic language and articles on the glosses in the Luxembourg manuscript being printed, in 1872 Rhys married Elspeth Hughes-Davies. In 1874 Rhys delivered a series of lectures in Aberystwyth, later published as Lectures on Welsh Philology and this reputation saw him appointed as the first Professor of Celtic at Oxford University in 1877. He was also made a Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford, Rhys was elected bursar of the college in 1885, a position he held until 1895, when he succeeded Daniel Harper as principal. Rhys served on public bodies. Rhys gained his knighthood in 1907, and in 1911 was appointed to the Privy Council
7.
Mare
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A mare is an adult female horse or other equine. In most cases, a mare is a horse over the age of three, and a filly is a female horse three and younger. In Thoroughbred horse racing, a mare is defined as a horse more than four years old. The word can also be used for other female equine animals, particularly mules and zebras, a broodmare is a mare used for breeding. A horses female parent is known as its dam, an uncastrated adult male horse is called a stallion and a castrated male is a gelding. Occasionally, the horse is used to designate only a male horse. Mares carry their young for approximately 11 months from conception to birth, usually just one young is born, twins are rare. When a domesticated mare foals, she nurses the foal for at least four to six months before it is weaned, the estrous cycle, also known as season or heat of a mare occurs roughly every 19–22 days and occurs from early spring into autumn. As the days shorten, most mares enter a period during the winter. The reproductive cycle in a mare is controlled by the photoperiod, as the days shorten, the mare returns to the anestrus period when she is not sexually receptive. However, for most competitive purposes, foals are given a birthday of January 1. Therefore, many breeding farms begin to put mares under lights in late winter in order to bring out of anestrus early. One exception to this rule is the field of endurance riding. Fillies are sexually mature by age two and are bred at that age, but generally should not be bred until they themselves have stopped growing. A healthy, well-managed mare can produce a foal every year into her twenties, in addition, some mares become anxious when separated from their foals, even temporarily, and thus are difficult to manage under saddle until their foals are weaned. Mares are considered easier to handle than stallions, however, geldings have little to no hormone-driven behavior patterns at all, thus sometimes they are preferred to both mares and stallions. Mares have a notorious, if generally undeserved, reputation for being marish, however, there is considerable evidence that much marish behavior is mostly the result of humans expecting or allowing the mare to misbehave. Because horses in general are very attuned to the state of their riders, expectation by a rider of difficult manners during estrus can create a self-fulfilling prophecy
8.
Coracle
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The word coracle comes from the Welsh cwrwgl, cognate with Irish and Scottish Gaelic currach, and is recorded in English as early as the sixteenth century. Other historical English spellings include corougle, corracle, curricle and coricle, oval in shape and very similar to half a walnut shell, the structure is made of a framework of split and interwoven willow rods, tied with willow bark. The outer layer was originally an animal such as horse or bullock hide, with a thin layer of tar to make it fully waterproof – today replaced by tarred calico or canvas. The Vietnamese/Asian version of the coracle is made differently, using interwoven bamboo and waterproofed by using resin. Each coracle is unique in design, as it is tailored to the conditions where it was built. In general there is one design per river, but this is not always the case, Teifi coracles are made from locally harvested wood – willow for the laths, hazel for the weave – while Tywi coracles have been made from sawn ash for a long time. The working boats tend to be made from fibreglass these days, Teifi coracles use no nails, relying on the interweaving of the laths for structural coherence, whilst the Carmarthen ones use copper nails and no interweaving. The coracle is propelled by means of a paddle, which traditionally varies in design between different rivers. It is used in an action, the blade describing a figure-of-eight pattern in the water. The paddle is used towards the front of the coracle, pulling the boat forward, another important aspect to the Welsh Coracle is that it can be carried on his back by one person. Llwyth dyn ei gorwgl — the load of a man is his coracle, remains interpreted as a possible coracle were found in an Early Bronze Age grave at Barns Farm near Dalgety Bay, and others have been described, from Corbridge and from near North Ferriby. According to Ian Harries, coracle fisherman, coracles are so light and portable that they can easily be carried on the shoulders when proceeding to. Coracle fishing is performed by two coraclers, where fishing is performed by two people, there is one fisherman per coracle. The net is stretched across the river between the two coracles and drawn downstream. When a fish is caught, each hauls up an end of the net until the two coracles are brought to touch, and the fish is then secured, using a priest to stun the fish. In the 1920s and 30s James Hornell personally visited hundreds of rivers in the British Isles to talk with remaining coracle makers and users and this resulted in his major book British Coracles and the Curraghs of Ireland containing drawings, diagrams and construction details gleaned from regular makers. The Welsh Rivers Teifi and Tywi are the best places to find coracles in Wales, on the Teifi they are most frequently seen between Cenarth, and Cilgerran and the village of Llechryd. In 1974 a Welsh coracle piloted by Bernard Thomas of Llechryd crossed the English Channel to France in 13½ hours
