1.
Synonym
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A synonym is a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase in the same language. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy, the word comes from Ancient Greek sýn and ónoma. An example of synonyms are the words begin, start, commence, words can be synonymous when meant in certain senses, even if they are not synonymous in all of their senses. For example, if one talks about a time or an extended time, long. Some academics call the former type cognitive synonyms to distinguish them from the latter type, some lexicographers claim that no synonyms have exactly the same meaning because etymology, orthography, phonic qualities, ambiguous meanings, usage, etc. make them unique. Different words that are similar in meaning usually differ for a reason, feline is more formal than cat, long and extended are only synonyms in one usage, synonyms are also a source of euphemisms. In the figurative sense, two words are said to be synonymous if they have the same connotation. a widespread impression that. Metonymy can sometimes be a form of synonymy, as when, for example, thus a metonym is a type of synonym, and the word metonym is a hyponym of the word synonym. The analysis of synonymy, polysemy, hyponymy, and hypernymy is inherent to taxonomy and it has applications in pedagogy and machine learning, because they rely on word-sense disambiguation and schema. Synonyms can be any part of speech, as long as both words belong to the part of speech. Such like, he expired means the same as he died, in English, many synonyms emerged in the Middle Ages, after the Norman conquest of England. While Englands new ruling class spoke Norman French, the lower classes continued to speak Old English, thus, today we have synonyms like the Norman-derived people, liberty and archer, and the Saxon-derived folk, freedom and bowman. For more examples, see the list of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English, the purpose of a thesaurus is to offer the user a listing of similar or related words, these are often, but not always, synonyms. The word poecilonym is a synonym of the word synonym. It is not entered in most major dictionaries and is a curiosity or piece of trivia for being a word because of its meta quality as a synonym of synonym. Antonyms are words with opposite or nearly opposite meanings, for example, hot ↔ cold, large ↔ small, thick ↔ thin, synonym ↔ antonym Hypernyms and hyponyms are words that refer to, respectively, a general category and a specific instance of that category. For example, vehicle is a hypernym of car, and car is a hyponym of vehicle, homophones are words that have the same pronunciation, but different meanings. For example, witch and which are homophones in most accents, homographs are words that have the same spelling, but have different pronunciations
2.
Large intestine
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The large intestine, or the large bowel, is the last part of the gastrointestinal tract and of the digestive system in vertebrates. Water is absorbed here and the waste material is stored as feces before being removed by defecation. Most sources define the large intestine as the combination of the cecum, colon, rectum, some other sources exclude the anal canal. In humans, the large intestine begins in the right region of the pelvis, just at or below the waist. It then continues as the colon ascending the abdomen, across the width of the cavity as the transverse colon. Overall, in humans, the intestine is about 1.5 metres long. The colon is the last part of the digestive system and it extracts water and salt from solid wastes before they are eliminated from the body and is the site in which flora-aided fermentation of unabsorbed material occurs. Unlike the small intestine, the colon does not play a role in absorption of foods. About 1.5 litres or 45 ounces of water arrives in the each day. The length of the human male colon is 166 cm, on average. In mammals, the colon consists of five sections, the cecum plus the colon, the transverse colon, the descending colon, the sigmoid colon. Retroperitoneal organs in general do not have a covering of peritoneum. Intraperitoneal organs are completely surrounded by peritoneum and are therefore mobile, of the colon, the ascending colon, descending colon and rectum are retroperitoneal, while the cecum, appendix, transverse colon and sigmoid colon are intraperitoneal. This is important as it affects which organs can be accessed during surgery. The ascending colon is the first of four sections of the large intestine and it is connected to the small intestine by a section of bowel called the cecum. The ascending colon runs upwards through the abdominal cavity toward the transverse colon for approximately eight inches, one of the main functions of the colon is to remove the water and other key nutrients from waste material and recycle it. As the waste material exits the small intestine through the valve, it will move into the cecum. The unwanted waste material is moved upwards toward the transverse colon by the action of peristalsis, the ascending colon is sometimes attached to the appendix via Gerlachs valve
3.
Lower gastrointestinal series
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A lower gastrointestinal series is a medical procedure used to examine and diagnose problems with the human colon. Radiographs are taken while barium sulfate, a radiocontrast agent, fills the colon via an enema through the rectum, the term barium enema usually refers to a lower gastrointestinal series, although enteroclysis is often called a small bowel barium enema. This test may be done in a hospital or clinic, the patient lies on the X-ray table and a preliminary X-ray is taken. The patient is asked to lie on the side while a well lubricated enema tube is inserted into the rectum. As the enema enters the body, the patient might have the sensation that they have to have a bowel movement, the barium sulfate, a radiodense contrast medium, is then allowed to flow into the colon. A large balloon at the tip of the tube may be inflated to help keep the barium sulfate inside. The flow of the sulfate is monitored by the health care provider on an X-ray fluoroscope screen. Air may be puffed into the colon to distend it and provide better images, if air is used, the enema tube will be reinserted if it had been removed and a small amount of air will be introduced into the colon, and more X-ray pictures are taken. The patient is asked to move to different positions and the table is slightly tipped to get different views. If there is a bowel perforation, a water-soluble contrast agent is used instead of barium. The procedure is very similar, although the images will be of poorer quality. Thorough cleaning of the intestine is necessary for accurate pictures. Test preparations include a liquid diet or nothing at all after midnight, drinking a bottle of magnesium citrate. Barium enemas are most commonly used to check bowel health, they can help diagnose and evaluate the extent of inflammatory diseases such as ulcerative colitis. Polyps can be seen, though not removed during the exam like with a colonoscopy— they may be cancerous, other problems such as diverticulosis and intussusception can be found. An acute appendicitis or twisted loop of the bowel may also be seen, if the picture is normal a functional cause such as irritable bowel syndrome may be considered. In a healthy colon, barium should fill the colon uniformly and show normal bowel contour, patency, most experts feel that the risk is low compared with the benefits. Pregnant women and children are sensitive to the risks of ionizing radiation
4.
Management of dehydration
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The management of dehydration typically involves the use of oral rehydration solution. Standard home solutions such as salted rice water, salted yogurt drinks, vegetable, clean plain water can also be one of several fluids given. There are commercial solutions such as Pedialyte, and relief agencies such as UNICEF widely distribute packets of salts, the World Health Organization describes a homemade ORS with one liter water with one teaspoon salt and six teaspoons sugar added. The WHO, however, does not generally recommend homemade solutions as how to make them is easily forgotten. Rehydration Project recommends adding the amount of sugar but only one-half a teaspoon of salt. Both agree that drinks with too much sugar or salt can make dehydration worse, in what the World Health Organization terms some dehydration, the child or adult is restless and irritable, is thirsty, and will drink eagerly. WHO recommends that if there is vomiting, don’t stop, but do pause for 5–10 minutes, with the older WHO solution, also give some clean water during rehydration. With the newer reduced-osmolarity, more dilute solution, this is not necessary, begin to offer food after the initial four-hour rehydration period with children and adults. With infants, continue to breastfeed even during rehydration as long as the infant will breastfeed, begin zinc supplementation after initial four-hour rehydration to reduce severity and duration of episode. If available, zinc supplementation should be continued for 10 to 14 days, during the initial period of rehydration, the patient should be re-assessed at least every four hours. The family should be provided with at least two days worth of ORS packets, in severe dehydration, the person may be lethargic or unconscious, drinks poorly, or may not be able to drink. Malnourished patients should receive a modified ORS which has less sodium, more potassium, for patients not malnourished, rehydration should be performed relatively rapidly by means of intravenous solution. Patients who can drink, even poorly, should be given Oral Rehydration Solution by mouth until the IV drip is running. In addition, all patients should start to receive some ORS when they are able to drink without difficulty, ORS provides additional base and potassium which may not be adequately supplied by IV fluid. Ideally, patients should be reassessed every fifteen to thirty minutes until a radial pulse is present. Hopefully, patients will graduate to the medium dehydration or some dehydration category, inadequate replacement of potassium losses during diarrhea can lead to potassium depletion and hypokalaemia especially in children with malnutrition. This can potentially cause muscle weakness, impaired kidney function, hypokalaemia is worsened when base is given to treat acidosis without simultaneously providing potassium, as happens in standard IVs including Ringers Lactate Solution. ORS can help correct potassium deficit, as can giving foods rich in potassium during diarrhea, as in above sections, for all patients, supplemental zinc can help to reduce the severity and duration of diarrhea
5.
Proctoclysis
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Enema, also known as clyster, is a fluid injected into the lower bowel by way of the rectum. The most frequent use of an enema is to relieve constipation or for bowel cleansing before an examination or procedure. Enemas are used as part of some alternative health therapies and are used to administer drugs for recreational or religious reasons. Bowel management is achieved through a daily enema which empties the colon to prevent unwanted and uncontrolled bowel movements that day. As part of their bowel management regime, some also use laxatives. Enemas have been used around the time of childbirth however there is no evidence for this practice, in-home use of enemas for constipation and alternative health purposes is somewhat harder to measure. Bowel stimulating enemas usually consist of water, which works primarily as a mechanical stimulant, mineral oil functions as a lubricant and stool softener, but often has the side effect of sporadic seepage from the patients anus which can soil undergarments for up to 24 hours. Glycerol is a specific bowel mucosa irritant and when introduced in very dilute solution serves to induce peristalsis, other types of enema solutions are also used, including equal parts of milk and molasses heated together to slightly above normal body temperature. At the opposite end of the spectrum, a saline solution is least irritating to the rectum and colon. This neither draws electrolytes from the body – as can happen with plain water – nor draws water into the colon, thus, a salt water solution can be used when a longer period of retention is desired, such as to soften an impaction. Emptying the lower bowel prior to a surgical procedure such as colonoscopy, because of speed and supposed convenience, enemas used for bowel emptying are commonly the more costly, sodium phosphate variety – often called a disposable enema. In a lower gastrointestinal series an enema that may contain barium sulfate powder or a water-soluble contrast agent is used in the imaging of the bowel. Called a barium enema, such enemas are sometimes the only way to view the colon in a relatively safe manner. The administration of substances into the bloodstream and this may be done in situations where it is undesirable or impossible to deliver a medication by mouth, such as antiemetics given to reduce nausea. Additionally, several agents, which work better without digestion. The topical administration of medications into the rectum, such as corticosteroids, rectal corticosteroid enemas are sometimes used to treat mild or moderate ulcerative colitis. There have been a few cases in remote or rural settings, benefits include not needing to use sterile fluids. Improper administration of an enema can cause electrolyte imbalance or ruptures to the bowel or rectal tissues resulting in internal bleeding, however, these occurrences are rare in healthy, sober adults
6.
Intravenous therapy
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Intravenous therapy is the infusion of liquid substances directly into a vein. Intravenous infusions are commonly referred to as drips, the intravenous route is the fastest way to deliver fluids and medications throughout the body. Intravenous therapy may be used for administration, to correct electrolyte imbalances, to deliver medications. IVs can be categorized by type of vein the tube inserted, called the catheter. A peripheral IV is used on peripheral veins and this is the most common type of IV therapy used. Central IV lines have their catheters that are advanced through a vein and empty into a central vein, usually the superior vena cava. Other advantages are that because it empties near the heart, medications can also be distributed to the rest of the body. As there is room for multiple parallel compartments within the catheter, caregivers can also measure central venous pressure and other physiological variables through the line. They are also longer, which as reflected in Poiseuilles law, requires higher pressure to achieve the same flow, central IV lines carry risks of bleeding, infection, gangrene, thromboembolism and gas embolism. Surrounding structures such as the pleura and carotid artery are also at risk of damage with the potential for pneumothorax or even cannulation of the artery. There are several types of central IVs, depending on the route that the catheter takes from the outside of the body to the vein, typical uses for a PICC include, long chemotherapy regimens, extended antibiotic therapy, or total parenteral nutrition. This is usually done by measuring the distance to a landmark, such as the suprasternal notch. An X-ray must be used to verify that the tip is in the place when fluoroscopy was not used during the insertion. A PICC may have a tube and connector, two or three compartments, each with its own external connector. Power-injectable PICCs are now available as well, from the outside, a single-lumen PICC resembles a peripheral IV, except that the tubing is slightly wider. The insertion site requires better protection than that of a peripheral IV, however, a PICC poses less of a systemic infection risk than other central IVs, because the insertion site is usually cooler and dryer than the sites typically used for other central lines. This helps to slow the growth of bacteria which could reach the bloodstream by traveling under the skin along the outside of the catheter, although special training is required, a PICC does not require the skill level of a physician or surgeon. It is also externally unobtrusive, and with proper hygiene and care can be left in place for months to years if needed for patients who require extended treatment, also, as a PICC travels through the axilla, it can become kinked, causing poor function
7.
Alternative health
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Alternative therapies or diagnoses are not part of medicine or science-based healthcare systems. Contrary to popular belief, significant expense is paid to test alternative medicine, almost none show any effect beyond that of false treatment. Alternative treatments are neither the same as experimental medicine, nor traditional medicine — although the latter, Alternative medicine has grown in popularity and is used by a significant percentage of the population in many countries. While it has rebranded itself, from quackery to complementary or integrative medicine—it promotes essentially the same practices. Newer proponents often suggest alternative medicine be used together with medical treatment. Despite being illegal to market alternative therapies for treatment in most of the developed world. Alternative therapies are based on religion, tradition, superstition, belief in supernatural energies, pseudoscience, errors in reasoning, propaganda, fraud. Regulation and licensing of alternative medicine and health care providers varies between and within countries, Alternative medicine is criticized for being based on misleading statements, quackery, pseudoscience, antiscience, fraud, or poor scientific methodology. Promoting alternative medicine has been called dangerous and unethical, testing alternative medicine that has no scientific basis has been called a waste of scarce research resources. It has been suggested that the very idea of any alternative treatment that works is paradoxical. Practitioners of complementary medicine usually discuss and advise patients as to available alternative therapies, patients often express interest in mind-body complementary therapies because they offer a non-drug approach to treating some health conditions. In addition to the underpinnings of the popularity of alternative medicine. One of the most critical is the placebo effect—a well-established observation in medicine, CAMs popularity may be related to other factors that Edzard Ernst mentioned in an interview in The Independent, Why is it so popular, then. Ernst blames the providers, customers and the doctors whose neglect, there are 40 million websites and 39.9 million tell lies, sometimes outrageous lies. They mislead cancer patients, who are encouraged not only to pay their last penny, at the same time, people are gullible. It needs gullibility for the industry to succeed and it doesnt make me popular with the public, but its the truth. An analysis of the reasons why this is so points towards the relationship as a key factor. Providers of CAM tend to build better therapeutic relationships than mainstream healthcare professionals, in turn, this implies that much of the popularity of CAM is a poignant criticism of the failure of mainstream healthcare
8.
Drug
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A drug is any substance that, when inhaled, injected, smoked, consumed, absorbed via a patch on the skin, or dissolved under the tongue, causes a physiological change in the body. In pharmacology, a drug, also called a medication or medicine, is a chemical substance used to treat, cure, prevent. Traditionally drugs were obtained through extraction from plants, but more recently also by organic synthesis. Pharmaceutical drugs may be used for a duration, or on a regular basis for chronic disorders. Another major classification system is the Biopharmaceutics Classification System and this classifies drugs according to their solubility and permeability or absorption properties. Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that affect the function of the nervous system, altering perception. They include alcohol, a depressant, and the nicotine and caffeine. These three are the most widely consumed psychoactive drugs worldwide and are also considered recreational drugs since they are used for rather than medicinal purposes. Other recreational drugs include hallucinogens, opiates and amphetamines and some of these are used in spiritual or religious settings. Some drugs can cause addiction and all drugs can have side effects, excessive use of stimulants can promote stimulant psychosis. Many recreational drugs are illicit and international such as the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs exist for the purpose of their prohibition. The transitive verb to drug arose later and invokes the psychoactive rather than properties of a substance. A medication or medicine is a drug taken to cure or ameliorate any symptoms of an illness or medical condition, the use may also be as preventive medicine that has future benefits but does not treat any existing or pre-existing diseases or symptoms. In the United Kingdom, behind-the-counter medicines are called pharmacy medicines which can only be sold in registered pharmacies and these medications are designated by the letter P on the label. The range of medicines available without a prescription varies from country to country, medications are typically produced by pharmaceutical companies and are often patented to give the developer exclusive rights to produce them. Those that are not patented are called generic drugs since they can be produced by other companies without restrictions or licenses from the patent holder, pharmaceutical drugs are usually categorised into drug classes. A group of drugs will share a chemical structure, or have the same mechanism of action. Another major classification system is the Biopharmaceutics Classification System and this groups drugs according to their solubility and permeability or absorption properties
9.
Anus
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The anus is an opening at the opposite end of an animals digestive tract from the mouth. Amphibians, reptiles, and birds use the same orifice for excreting liquid and solid wastes, for copulation, monotreme mammals also have a cloaca, which is thought to be a feature inherited from the earliest amniotes via the therapsids. Marsupials have a single orifice for excreting both solids and liquids and, in females, a vagina for reproduction. The development of the anus was an important stage in the evolution of multicellular animals and it appears to have happened at least twice, following different paths in protostomes and deuterostomes. In animals at least as complex as an earthworm, the forms a dent on one side, the blastopore, which deepens to become the archenteron. In deuterostomes, the original dent becomes the anus while the gut tunnels through to make another opening. The protostomes were so named because it was thought that in their embryos the dent formed the mouth first and the anus was formed later at the opening made by the other end of the gut. More recent research, however, shows that in protostomes the edges of the dent close up in the middle, leaving openings at the ends become the mouth. Anal canal Imperforate anus, a birth defect, media related to Anus at Wikimedia Commons
10.
Malone antegrade continence enema
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The operation involves connecting the appendix to the abdominal wall and fashioning a valve mechanism that allows catheterization of the appendix, but avoids leakage of stool through it. If the appendix was removed or is unusable, a neoappendix can be created with a cecal flap. It is done to treat fecal incontinence unresponsive to treatment with medications and it is frequently done with a procedure to treat urinary incontinence as the two often co-exist, such as in spina bifida. A percutaneous cecostomy tube is an alternative to a MACE and it involves the surgical insertion of a catheter into the cecum for the same goal. Percutaneous cecostomy procedures, like MACEs, have been performed laparoscopically and it is named after the surgeon who popularized it. Malone described it as an antegrade continence enema procedure, Mitrofanoff appendicovesicostomy Mitrofanoff principle Monti procedure Malone procedure - surgery. med. umich. edu
11.
Defecation
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Defecation is the final act of digestion, by which organisms eliminate solid, semisolid, or liquid waste material from the digestive tract via the anus. Humans expel feces with a frequency varying from a few times daily to a few times weekly, waves of muscular contraction in the walls of the colon move fecal matter through the digestive tract towards the rectum. Undigested food may also be expelled this way, in a process called egestion, as the waste fills the rectum and expands the rectal walls, nervous system stretch receptors in the rectal walls stimulate the desire to defecate. If defecation is delayed for a period the fecal matter may harden. If defecation occurs too fast, before liquid is absorbed. When the rectum is full, an increase in intra-rectal pressure forces apart the walls of the anal canal, the rectum shortens as material is forced into the anal canal and peristaltic waves push the feces out of the rectum. The internal and external anal sphincters along with the puborectalis muscle allow the feces to be passed by muscles pulling the anus up over the exiting feces, Defecation is normally assisted by taking a deep breath and trying to expel this air against a closed glottis. This contraction of expiratory chest muscles, diaphragm, abdominal wall muscles, ventilation at this point temporarily ceases as the lungs push the chest diaphragm down to exert the pressure. Thoracic blood pressure rises and as a response the amount of blood pumped by the heart decreases. Death has been known to occur in cases where defecation causes the pressure to rise enough to cause the rupture of an aneurysm or to dislodge blood clots. Also, in releasing the Valsalva maneuver blood pressure falls, this, coupled with standing up quickly to leave the toilet, during defecation, the external sphincter muscles relax. The anal and urethral sphincter muscles are closely linked, experiments by Harrison Weed at the Ohio State University Medical Center have shown they can only be contracted together, not individually, and that both show relaxation during urination. This explains why defecation is frequently accompanied by urination, Defecation may be involuntary or voluntary. Young children learn voluntary control through the process of toilet training, the anus and buttocks may be cleansed after defecation with toilet paper, similar paper products, or other absorbent material. In many cultures, such as Hindu and Muslim, water is used for cleansing after defecation. When water is used for cleansing after defecation, toilet paper may be used for drying the area afterwards. The positions and modalities of defecation are culture-dependent, squat toilets are used by the vast majority of the world, including most of Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. The use of sit-down toilets in the Western world is a recent development
12.
Healthy diet
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A healthy diet is one that helps to maintain or improve overall health. A healthy diet provides the body with essential nutrition, fluid, adequate essential amino acids from protein, essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, the requirements for a healthy diet can be met from a variety of plant-based and animal-based foods. A healthy diet supports energy needs and provides for human nutrition without exposure to toxicity or excessive weight gain from consuming excessive amounts. Where lack of calories is not an issue, a balanced diet is also thought to be important for lowering health risks, such as obesity, heart disease, type 2 diabetes, hypertension. Various nutrition guides are published by medical and governmental institutions to educate the public on what they should be eating to promote health, Nutrition facts labels are also mandatory in some countries to allow consumers to choose between foods based on the components relevant to health. The idea of dietary therapy is quite old and thus has both modern forms and prescientific forms. For additional clarification, a five-word modifier helps, go easy on junk foods, although you may feel as though advice about nutrition is constantly changing, the basic ideas behind my four precepts have not changed in half a century. And they leave plenty of room for enjoying the pleasures of food, david L. Katz, who reviewed the most prevalent popular diets in 2014, noted, The weight of evidence strongly supports a theme of healthful eating while allowing for variations on that theme. Knowledge in this case is not, as of yet, power, limit intake of fats, and prefer unsaturated fats to saturated fats and trans fats. Increase consumption of plant foods, particularly fruits, vegetables, legumes, whole grains, a 2003 report recommends less than 10% of calorie intake from simple sugars. Limit salt / sodium consumption from all sources and ensure that salt is iodized, other recommendations include, Essential micronutrients such as vitamins and certain minerals. Avoiding directly poisonous and carcinogenic substances, avoiding foods contaminated by human pathogens. WHO recommends an intake of less than 5 grams of salt per day for the prevention of cardiovascular disease, the Dietary Guidelines for American by the United States Department of Agriculture recommends three healthy patterns of diet, summarized in table below, for a 2000 kcal diet. S. Food group amounts per day, unless noted per week and this healthy diet is full of a wide range of various non-starchy vegetables and fruits, that provide different colors including red, green, yellow, white, purple, and orange. They note that tomato cooked with oil, allium vegetables like garlic and this healthy diet is low in energy density, which may protect against weight gain and associated diseases. Finally, limiting consumption of drinks, limiting energy rich foods, including “fast foods” and red meat. Overall, researchers and medical policy conclude that this diet can reduce the risk of chronic disease. In children less than 25 gms of added sugar is recommended per day, other recommendations include no extra sugars in those under 2 years old and less than one soft drink per week
13.
Gastrointestinal tract
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Gastrointestinal is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the stomach and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs, the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines are part of the human alimentary canal. All bilaterians have a gastrointestinal tract, also called a gut or an alimentary canal and this is a tube that transfers food to the organs of digestion. In large bilaterians, the gastrointestinal tract generally also has an exit, some small bilaterians have no anus and dispose of solid wastes by other means. The gastrointestinal tract contains thousands of different bacteria in their gut flora, the human gastrointestinal tract consists of the esophagus, stomach, and intestines, and is divided into the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts. In contrast, the digestive system comprises the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion. The tract may also be divided into foregut, midgut, and hindgut, the whole human GI tract is about nine metres long at autopsy. The GI tract releases hormones from enzymes to help regulate the digestive process, the structure and function can be described both as gross anatomy and as microscopic anatomy or histology. The tract itself is divided into upper and lower tracts, the upper gastrointestinal tract consists of the buccal cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and duodenum. The exact demarcation between the upper and lower tracts is the muscle of the duodenum. Upon dissection, the duodenum may appear to be an organ, but it is divided into four segments based upon function, location. The four segments of the duodenum are as follows, bulb, descending, horizontal, the suspensory muscle attaches the superior border of the ascending duodenum to the diaphragm. The suspensory muscle is an important anatomical landmark which shows the division between the duodenum and the jejunum, the first and second parts of the small intestine. This is a muscle which is derived from the embryonic mesoderm. The lower gastrointestinal tract includes most of the intestine and all of the large intestine. In humans, the intestine is further subdivided into the duodenum, jejunum and ileum while the large intestine is subdivided into the cecum, colon, rectum. The small intestine begins at the duodenum, which receives food from the stomach and it is a tubular structure, usually between 6 and 7 m long. The area of the human, adult small intestinal mucosa is about 30 m2 and its main function is to absorb the products of digestion into the bloodstream
14.
Peristalsis
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Peristalsis is a radially symmetrical contraction and relaxation of muscles that propagates in a wave down a tube, in an anterograde direction. In much of a digestive tract such as the human gastrointestinal tract, smooth muscle contracts in sequence to produce a peristaltic wave. Earthworms use a mechanism to drive their locomotion, and some modern machinery imitates this design. The word comes from New Latin and is derived from the Greek peristellein, to wrap around, from peri-, around + stellein, draw in, bring together, after food is chewed into a bolus, it is swallowed and moved through the esophagus. Smooth muscles contract behind the bolus to prevent it from being squeezed back into the mouth, then rhythmic, unidirectional waves of contractions work to rapidly force the food into the stomach. The migrating motor complex helps trigger peristaltic waves and this process works in one direction only and its sole esophageal function is to move food from the mouth into the stomach. In the esophagus, two types of peristalsis occur, First, there is a primary peristaltic wave, which occurs when the bolus enters the esophagus during swallowing, the primary peristaltic wave forces the bolus down the esophagus and into the stomach in a wave lasting about 8–9 seconds. The wave travels down to the even if the bolus of food descends at a greater rate than the wave itself. The process of peristalsis is controlled by medulla oblongata, esophageal peristalsis is typically assessed by performing an esophageal motility study. During vomiting, the propulsion of food up the oesophagus and out the mouth comes from contraction of the abdominal muscles, once processed and digested by the stomach, the milky chyme is squeezed through the pyloric sphincter into the small intestine. Once past the stomach, a typical peristaltic wave only lasts for a few seconds and its primary purpose is to mix the chyme in the intestine rather than to move it forward in the intestine. Through this process of mixing and continued digestion and absorption of nutrients, in contrast to peristalsis, segmentation contractions result in that churning and mixing without pushing materials further down the digestive tract. Although the large intestine has peristalsis of the type that the small intestine uses, instead, general contractions called mass movements occur one to three times per day in the large intestine, propelling the chyme toward the rectum. Mass movements often tend to be triggered by meals, as the presence of chyme in the stomach, the human lymphatic system has no central pump. Instead, lymph circulates through peristalsis in the capillaries, as well as valves in the capillaries, compression during contraction of adjacent skeletal muscle. During ejaculation, the muscle in the walls of the vas deferens contracts reflexively in peristalsis. The earthworm is an annelid worm with a hydrostatic skeleton that moves by peristalsis. Its hydrostatic skeleton consists of a body cavity surrounded by an extensible body wall
15.
Feces
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Feces or faeces are the solid or semisolid metabolic waste from an animals digestive tract, discharged through the anus or cloaca during a process called defecation. Urine and feces together are called excreta, collected feces has various uses, namely as fertilizer or soil conditioner in agriculture, as a fuel source, or for medicinal purposes. After an animal has digested eaten material, the remains of material are discharged from its body as waste. Although it is lower in energy than the food from which it is derived, feces may retain a large amount of energy and this means that of all food eaten, a significant amount of energy remains for the decomposers of ecosystems. Many organisms feed on feces, from bacteria to fungi to insects such as dung beetles, some may specialize in feces, while others may eat other foods as well. Feces serve not only as a food, but also as a supplement to the usual diet of some animals. Feces and urine, which reflect light, are important to raptors such as kestrels. Seeds also may be found in feces, animals who eat fruit are known as frugivores. An advantage for a plant in having fruit is that animals will eat the fruit and this mode of seed dispersal is highly successful, as seeds dispersed around the base of a plant are unlikely to succeed and often are subject to heavy predation. Provided the seed can withstand the pathway through the system, it is not only likely to be far away from the parent plant. This cycling of matter is known as the biogeochemical cycle, the distinctive odor of feces is due to bacterial action. Gut flora produce compounds such as indole, skatole, and thiols and these are the same compounds that are responsible for the odor of flatulence. Consumption of foods prepared with spices may result in the spices being undigested, the perceived bad odor of feces has been hypothesized to be a deterrent for humans, as consuming or touching it may result in sickness or infection. Human perception of the odor may be contrasted by an animals perception of it, for example. In humans and depending on the individual and the circumstances, defecation may occur daily, extensive hardening of the feces may cause prolonged interruption in the routine and is called constipation. Human fecal matter varies significantly in appearance, depending on diet, normally it is semisolid, with a mucus coating. The brown coloration comes from a combination of bile and bilirubin, in newborn babies, initially fecal matter is yellow-green after the meconium. This coloration comes from the presence of bile alone, throughout the life of an ordinary human, one may experience many types of feces
16.
Castile soap
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Castile soap is a name used in English-speaking countries for olive oil based soap made in a style similar to that originating in the Castile region of Spain. Traditionally made with oil, in many parts of the world it still is. It can be either bar soap made with sodium hydroxide or liquid soap made with potassium hydroxide, the origins of Castile soap go back to the Levant, where Aleppo soap-makers have made hard soaps based on olive and laurel oil for millennia. Following the Crusades, production of this extended to the whole Mediterranean area. Its ties to Catholicism caused a public-relations campaign to be established, the sale of a monopoly in Protestant England to a Catholic company caused great uproar, ending with the Castile soap company eventually being stripped of the monopoly. Early soap-makers in Europe did not have access to laurel oil and therefore dropped it from their formulations. Importations of Castile soap through Antwerp appear in the London port books of 1567–1568, in his article A short history of soap, John Hunt maintains that barilla was boiled with locally available olive oil, instead of with tallow. Adding brine to the liquor made the soap float to the surface. While Aleppo soap tends to be green, this produced what was probably the first white hard soap, apothecaries knew the product by the Latin names of sapo hispaniensis or of sapo castilliensis. Aleppo soap Emanuel Bronner, noted for manufacturing liquid Castile soap with eccentric packaging Marseille soap Nabulsi soap Vegan soap Garzena, Patrizia & Tadiello, soap Naturally, ingredients, methods and recipes for natural handmade soap, 1st ed. Programmer Publishing
17.
Soap
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In chemistry, a soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Household uses for soaps include washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping, in industry they are also used in textile spinning and are important components of some lubricants. Metal soaps are also included in modern artists oil paints formulations as a rheology modifier, soaps for cleaning are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide in an aqueous solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides, three molecules of fatty acids attach to a molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is often called lye, induces saponification, the glycerin, a useful byproduct, can remain in the soap product as a softening agent, or be isolated for other uses. Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases, which are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap, many other metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium, and mixtures of them. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils, in ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to olive oil. When used for cleaning, soap allows insoluble particles to become soluble in water, for example, oil/fat is insoluble in water, but when a couple of drops of dish soap are added to the mixture, the oil/fat solubilizes into the water. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water, the type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide, are firm, whereas potassium soaps, historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard—these are used exclusively in greases, soaps are derivatives of fatty acids. Traditionally they have made from triglycerides. Triglyceride is the name for the triesters of fatty acids. Tallow, i. e. rendered beef fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals and its saponified product is called sodium tallowate. Typical vegetable oils used in soap making are palm oil, coconut oil, olive oil, each species offers quite different fatty acid content and hence, results in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps, Soap made from pure olive oil is sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap, and is reputed for being extra mild. The term Castile is also applied to soaps from a mixture of oils. The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon, a formula for soap consisting of water, alkali, and cassia oil was written on a Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC
18.
Glycerol
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Glycerol /ˈɡlɪsərɒl/ is a simple polyol compound. It is a colorless, odorless, viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting, the glycerol backbone is found in all lipids known as triglycerides. It is widely used in the industry as a sweetener and humectant. Glycerol has three groups that are responsible for its solubility in water and its hygroscopic nature. Although achiral, glycerol is prochiral with respect to reactions of one of the two primary alcohols, thus, in substituted derivatives, the stereospecific numbering labels each carbon as either sn-1, sn-2, or sn-3. Glycerol is generally obtained from plant and animal sources where it occurs as triglycerides, triglycerides are esters of glycerol with long-chain carboxylic acids. Approximately 950,000 tons per year are produced in the United States and it was projected in 2006 that by the year 2020, production would be six times more than demand. Glycerol from triglycerides is produced on a scale, but the crude product is of variable quality. It can be purified, but the process is expensive, some glycerol is burned for energy, but its heat value is low. High purity glycerol is obtained by distillation, vacuum is helpful due to the high boiling point of glycerol. Although usually not cost-effective, glycerol can be produced by various routes from propylene and this epichlorohydrin is then hydrolyzed to give glycerol. Chlorine-free processes from propylene include the synthesis of glycerol from acrolein, because of the large-scale production of biodiesel from fats, where glycerol is a waste product, the market for glycerol is depressed. Thus, synthetic processes are not economical, owing to oversupply, efforts are being made to convert glycerol to synthetic precursors, such as acrolein and epichlorohydrin. In food and beverages, glycerol serves as a humectant, solvent, and sweetener and it is also used as filler in commercially prepared low-fat foods, and as a thickening agent in liqueurs. Glycerol and water are used to preserve certain types of plant leaves, as a sugar substitute, it has approximately 27 kilocalories per teaspoon and is 60% as sweet as sucrose. It does not feed the bacteria that form plaques and cause dental cavities, as a food additive, glycerol is labeled as E number E422. It is added to icing to prevent it from setting too hard, as used in foods, glycerol is categorized by the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics as a carbohydrate. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration carbohydrate designation includes all caloric macronutrients excluding protein, glycerol is used in medical, pharmaceutical and personal care preparations, mainly as a means of improving smoothness, providing lubrication, and as a humectant
19.
Buffer solution
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For an individual weak acid or weak base component, see Buffering agent. For uses not related to chemistry, see Buffer. A buffer solution is an aqueous solution consisting of a mixture of an acid and its conjugate base. Its pH changes very little when a small amount of acid or base is added to it. Buffer solutions are used as a means of keeping pH at a constant value in a wide variety of chemical applications. In nature, there are systems that use buffering for pH regulation. For example, the buffering system is used to regulate the pH of blood. Buffer solutions achieve their resistance to pH change because of the presence of an equilibrium between the acid HA and its conjugate base A−. HA ⇌ H+ + A− When some strong acid is added to a mixture of the weak acid and its conjugate base. Because of this, the ion concentration increases by less than the amount expected for the quantity of strong acid added. Similarly, if strong alkali is added to the mixture the hydrogen ion concentration decreases by less than the amount expected for the quantity of alkali added, the effect is illustrated by the simulated titration of a weak acid with pKa =4.7. The relative concentration of undissociated acid is shown in blue and of its base in red. The pH changes relatively slowly in the region, pH = pKa ±1. OH− + H+ → H2O Once the acid is more than 95% deprotonated the pH rises rapidly because most of the alkali is consumed in the neutralization reaction. Buffer capacity, β, is a measure of the resistance of a buffer solution to pH change on addition of hydroxide ions. It can be defined as follows, β = d n d where dn is an infinitesimal amount of added base and d is the resulting infinitesimal change in the cologarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. With this definition the buffer capacity of an acid, with a dissociation constant Ka. This equation shows that there are three regions of raised buffer capacity, at very low p the term in the denominator predominates and buffer capacity rises exponentially with decreasing pH
20.
Sodium phosphates
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Sodium phosphate is a generic term for a variety of salts of sodium and phosphate. Phosphate also forms families or condensed anions including di-, tri-, tetra-, most of these salts are known in both anhydrous and hydrated forms. The hydrates are more common than the anhydrous forms, Sodium phosphates have many applications in food and for water treatment. For example, sodium phosphates are often used as emulsifiers, thickening agents and they are also used to control pH of processed foods. They are also used in medicine for constipation and to prepare the bowel for medical procedures, moreover, they are used in detergents for softening water, and as an efficient anti rust solution. Sodium phosphates are popular in commerce in part because they are inexpensive, oral sodium phosphates when taken at high doses for bowel preparation for colonoscopy may in some individuals carry a risk of kidney injury under the form of phosphate nephropathy. There are several oral phosphate formulations which are prepared extemporaneously, oral phosphate prep drugs have been withdrawn in the United States, although evidence of causality is equivocal. Since safe and effective replacements for phosphate purgatives are available, several medical authorities have recommended general disuse of oral phosphates, three families of sodium monophosphates are common, those derived from orthophosphate, hydrogen phosphate, and dihydrogenphosphate. Some of the most well known salts are shown in the table, in addition to these phosphates, sodium forms a number of useful salts with pyrophosphates, triphosphates and high polymers. Of these salts, those of the diphosphates are particularly common commercially, beyond the diphosphates, sodium salts are known triphosphates, e. g. sodium triphosphate and tetraphospates. The cyclic polyphosphates, called metaphosphates, include the trimer sodium trimetaphosphate, polymeric sodium phosphates are formed upon heating mixtures of NaH2PO4 and Na2HPO4, which induces a condensation reaction. The specific polyphosphate generated depends on the details of the heating and annealling, one derivative is the glassy Grahams salt. Crystalline high molecular weight polyphosphates include Kurrols salt and Maddrells salt and these species have the formula n2 where n can be as great as 2000. In terms of their structures, these polymers consist of PO3− monomers, bell, Russel N, Sodium Aluminum Phosphate Cheese Emulsifying Agent, US Patent 3726960 Lien, YH, Is bowel preparation before colonoscopy a risky business for the kidney. Nature Clinical Practice Nephrology,4, 606–14, doi,10. 1038/ncpneph0939, PMID18797448
21.
Tonicity
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Tonicity is a measure of the effective osmotic pressure gradient, as defined by the water potential of two solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane. In other words, tonicity is the concentration of solutes dissolved in solution which determine the direction. It is commonly used when describing the response of cells immersed in an external solution, unlike osmotic pressure, tonicity is influenced only by solutes that cannot cross the membrane, as only these exert an effective osmotic pressure. Solutes able to cross the membrane do not affect tonicity because they will always be in equal concentrations on both sides of the membrane. It is also a factor affecting imbibition, there are three classifications of tonicity that one solution can have relative to another, hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic. A hypertonic solution has a concentration of solutes than another solution. The cytosol is conversely categorized as hypotonic, opposite of the outer solution, when plant cells are in a hypertonic solution, the flexible cell membrane pulls away from the rigid cell wall, but remains joined to the cell wall at points called plasmodesmata. The cells often take on the appearance of a pincushion, and the plasmodesmata almost cease to function because they become constricted, a condition known as plasmolysis. In plant cells the terms isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic cannot strictly be used accurately because the pressure exerted by the wall significantly affects the osmotic equilibrium point. Some organisms have evolved methods of circumventing hypertonicity. For example, saltwater is hypertonic to the fish live in it. Because the fish need a surface area in their gills in contact with seawater for gas exchange. They respond to the loss by drinking large amounts of saltwater, a hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes than another solution. In biology, a solution outside of a cell is called if it has a lower concentration of solutes relative to the cytosol. Due to osmotic pressure, water diffuses into the cell, for cells without a cell wall such as animal cells, if the gradient is large enough, the uptake of excess water can produce enough pressure to induce cytolysis, or rupturing of the cell. When plant cells are in a solution, the central vacuole takes on extra water. Due to the rigidity of the wall, it pushes back. A solution is said to be isotonic when its effective concentration is the same as that of another solution
22.
Saline (medicine)
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Saline, also known as saline solution, is a mixture of sodium chloride in water and has a number of uses in medicine. Applied to the area it is used to clean wounds, help remove contact lenses. By injection into a vein it is used to treat such as from gastroenteritis. It is also used to other medications to be given by injection. Large amounts may result in fluid overload, swelling, acidosis, in those with long standing low blood sodium excessive use may result in osmotic demyelination syndrome. Saline is in the family of medications. It is most commonly used as a sterile 9 g of salt per litre solution, higher and lower concentrations may also occasionally be used. The medical use of saline began around 1831 and it is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in the world is about 0.60 to 4.20 USD per liter of normal saline. Concentrations vary from low to normal to high, high concentrations are used rarely in medicine but frequently in molecular biology. Normal saline is the commonly used phrase for a solution of 0. 90% w/v of NaCl,308 mOsm/L or 9.0 g per litre. NS is used frequently in intravenous drips for patients who cannot take fluids orally and have developed or are in danger of developing dehydration or hypovolemia, NS is also used for aseptic purpose. However, it is now known that rapid infusion of NS can cause metabolic acidosis, the solution is 9 grams of sodium chloride dissolved in water, to a total volume of 1000 ml. The mass of 1 millilitre of normal saline is 1.0046 gram at 22 °C, the molecular weight of sodium chloride is approximately 58.5 grams per mole, so 58.5 grams of sodium chloride equals 1 mole. Since normal saline contains 9 grams of NaCl, the concentration is 9 grams per litre divided by 58.5 grams per mole, since NaCl dissociates into two ions – sodium and chloride –1 molar NaCl is 2 osmolar. Thus, NS contains 154 mEq/L of Na+ and Cl− and it has a slightly higher degree of osmolarity than blood Nonetheless, the osmolarity of normal saline is a close approximation to the osmolarity of NaCl in blood. One litre of 0. 9% Saline contains,154 mEq of sodium ion =154 mmol 154 mEq of chloride ion =154 mmol For medical purposes, saline is used to flush wounds. Normal saline will not burn or sting when applied, Saline is also used in I. V. therapy, intravenously supplying extra water to rehydrate patients or supplying the daily water and salt needs of a patient who is unable to take them by mouth
23.
Electrolyte
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An electrolyte is a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved in a polar solvent, such as water. The dissolved electrolyte separates into cations and anions, which disperse uniformly through the solvent, electrically, such a solution is neutral. The movement of anions and cations in opposite directions within the solution amounts to a current and this includes most soluble salts, acids, and bases. Some gases, such as chloride, under conditions of high temperature or low pressure can also function as electrolytes. Electrolyte solutions can also result from the dissolution of some biological and synthetic polymers, termed polyelectrolytes, a substance that dissociates into ions in solution acquires the capacity to conduct electricity. Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate are examples of electrolytes, in medicine, electrolyte replacement is needed when a patient has prolonged vomiting or diarrhea, and as a response to strenuous athletic activity. Commercial electrolyte solutions are available, particularly for children and athletes. Electrolyte monitoring is important in the treatment of anorexia and bulimia, the word electrolyte derives from the Greek lytós, meaning able to be untied or loosened. Arrheniuss explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt dissociates into charged particles, faradays belief had been that ions were produced in the process of electrolysis. Arrhenius proposed that, even in the absence of an electric current and he thus proposed that chemical reactions in solution were reactions between ions. For example, carbon dioxide gas dissolves in water to produce a solution that contains hydronium, carbonate, molten salts can also be electrolytes as, for example, when sodium chloride is molten, the liquid conducts electricity. An electrolyte in a solution may be described as concentrated if it has a concentration of ions. If a high proportion of the solute dissociates to form ions, the electrolyte is strong, if most of the solute does not dissociate. The properties of electrolytes may be exploited using electrolysis to extract constituent elements, in physiology, the primary ions of electrolytes are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, hydrogen phosphate, and hydrogen carbonate. The electric charge symbols of plus and minus indicate that the substance is ionic in nature and has a distribution of electrons. Sodium is the main electrolyte found in extracellular fluid and potassium is the main intracellular electrolyte, all known higher lifeforms require a subtle and complex electrolyte balance between the intracellular and extracellular environments. In particular, the maintenance of precise osmotic gradients of electrolytes is important, such gradients affect and regulate the hydration of the body as well as blood pH, and are critical for nerve and muscle function. Various mechanisms exist in living species that keep the concentrations of different electrolytes under tight control, both muscle tissue and neurons are considered electric tissues of the body
24.
Mineral oil
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A mineral oil or paraffin oil is any of various colorless, odorless, light mixtures of higher alkanes from a mineral source, particularly a distillate of petroleum. The name mineral oil by itself is imprecise, having used for many specific oils over the past few centuries. Other names, similarly imprecise, include oil, liquid paraffin, paraffinum liquidum. Baby oil is a mineral oil. Most often, mineral oil is a liquid by-product of refining crude oil to make gasoline and this type of mineral oil is a transparent, colorless oil composed mainly of alkanes and cycloalkanes, related to petroleum jelly. It has a density of around 0.8 g/cm3, mineral oil is a substance of relatively low value, and it is produced in very large quantities. Mineral oil is available in light and heavy grades, and can often be found in drug stores. Some of the imprecision in the definition of the names reflects usage by buyers and sellers who did not know, and usually did not need to care about, the precise chemical makeup. Prior to the late 19th century, the science to determine such makeup was unavailable in any case. A similar lexical situation occurred with the white metal. Mineral oil, sold widely and cheaply in the USA, is not sold as such in Britain, instead British pharmacologists use the terms Paraffinum perliquidum for light mineral oil and Paraffinum liquidum or Paraffinum subliquidum for somewhat thicker varieties. The term Paraffinum Liquidum is often seen on the ingredient lists of baby oil, British aromatherapists commonly use the term white mineral oil. The FSA did not identify any specific safety concerns due to inks. People can be exposed to oil mist in the workplace by breathing it in, skin contact. In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set the limit for mineral oil mist exposure in the workplace as 5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended limit of 5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday and 10 mg/m3 short-term exposure. At levels of 2500 mg/m3, mineral oil mist is immediately dangerous to life, mineral oil of special purity is often used as an overlay covering microdrops of culture medium in petri dishes, during the culture of oocytes and embryos in IVF and related procedures. Over the counter veterinarian use mineral oil is intended as a laxative for pets
25.
Barium sulfate
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Barium sulfate is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula BaSO4. It is a crystalline solid that is odorless and insoluble in water. It occurs as the mineral barite, which is the commercial source of barium. The white opaque appearance and its high density are exploited in its main applications, about 80% of the worlds barium sulfate production, mostly purified mineral, is consumed as a component of oil well drilling fluid. It increases the density of the fluid, increasing the pressure in the well. Barium sulfate in suspension is used medically as a radiocontrast agent for X-ray imaging. It is most often used in imaging of the GI tract during what is known as a barium meal. It is administered orally, or by enema, as a suspension of particles in a thick milk like solution. Although barium is a metal, and its water-soluble compounds are often highly toxic. Barium sulfate is also removed from the body, unlike Thorotrast. Due to the high atomic number of barium, its compounds absorb X-rays more strongly than compounds derived from lighter nuclei. The majority of synthetic barium sulfate is used as a component of white pigment for paints, in oil paint, barium sulfate is almost transparent, and is used as a filler or to modify consistency. One major manufacturer of oil paint sells permanent white that contains a mixture of titanium white pigment. The combination of barium sulfate and zinc sulfide is the pigment called lithopone. In photography it is used as a coating for certain photographic papers, the light-sensitive silver halide emulsion is then coated over the baryta layer. The baryta coating limits the penetration of the emulsion into the fibers of the paper and makes the emulsion more even, more recently, baryta has been used to brighten papers intended for ink-jet printing. Barium sulfate is used as a filler for plastics to increase the density of the polymer in vibrational mass damping applications. In polypropylene and polystyrene plastics, it is used as a filler in proportions up to 70% and it has an effect of increasing acid and alkali resistance and opacity
26.
X-ray
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X-radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz, X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. Spelling of X-ray in the English language includes the variants x-ray, xray, X-rays with high photon energies are called hard X-rays, while those with lower energy are called soft X-rays. Due to their ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects, e. g. in medical radiography. The term X-ray is metonymically used to refer to an image produced using this method. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms they are useful for determining crystal structures by X-ray crystallography. By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air, the length of 600 eV X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer. There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and gamma rays, one common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source, X-rays are emitted by electrons, while gamma rays are emitted by the atomic nucleus. This definition has problems, other processes also can generate these high-energy photons. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10−11 m and this criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to precedent, based on measurement technique. Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for radiotherapy, in the ranges of 6–20 MeV. X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds and this makes it a type of ionizing radiation, and therefore harmful to living tissue. A very high radiation dose over a period of time causes radiation sickness. In medical imaging this increased risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy. It is also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy, hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much absorbed or scattered. For this reason, X-rays are widely used to image the inside of visually opaque objects, the most often seen applications are in medical radiography and airport security scanners, but similar techniques are also important in industry and research
27.
Corticosteroid
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Corticosteroids are a class of steroid hormones that are produced in the adrenal cortex of vertebrates, as well as the synthetic analogues of these hormones. Some common naturally occurring steroid hormones are cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone and aldosterone, the main corticosteroids produced by the adrenal cortex are cortisol and aldosterone. Glucocorticoids such as cortisol affect carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism, and have anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, anti-proliferative, anti-inflammatory effects are mediated by blocking the action of inflammatory mediators and inducing anti-inflammatory mediators. Immunosuppressive effects are mediated by suppressing delayed hypersensitivity reactions by direct action on T-lymphocytes, anti-proliferative effects are mediated by inhibition of DNA synthesis and epidermal cell turnover. Vasoconstrictive effects are mediated by inhibiting the action of inflammatory mediators such as histidine, synthetic pharmaceutical drugs with corticosteroid-like effects are used in a variety of conditions, ranging from brain tumors to skin diseases. Dexamethasone and its derivatives are almost pure glucocorticoids, while prednisone, hydrocortisone is typically used for replacement therapy, e. g. for adrenal insufficiency and congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Corticosteroids are also used supportively to prevent nausea, often in combination with 5-HT3 antagonists, typical undesired effects of glucocorticoids present quite uniformly as drug-induced Cushings syndrome. Typical mineralocorticoid side-effects are hypertension, hypokalemia, hypernatremia without causing peripheral edema, metabolic alkalosis, there may also be impaired wound healing or ulcer formation because of the immunosuppressive effects. Clinical and experimental evidence indicates that corticosteroids can cause permanent eye damage by inducing central serous retinopathy, a variety of steroid medications, from anti-allergy nasal sprays to topical skin creams, to eye drops, to prednisone have been implicated in the development of CSR. Corticosteroids have been used in treating people with traumatic brain injury. A systematic review identified 20 randomised controlled trials and included 12,303 participants, the authors recommended people with traumatic head injury should not be routinely treated with corticosteroids. There is some basis for genetic variation in response to inhaled corticosteroids. Two genes of interest are CHRH1 and TBX21, both genes display some degree of polymorphic variation in humans, which may explain how some patients respond better to inhaled corticosteroid therapy than others. Use of corticosteroids has numerous side-effects, some of which may be severe, Neuropsychiatric, steroid psychosis, therapeutic doses may cause a feeling of artificial well-being. The neuropsychiatric effects are mediated by sensitization of the body to the actions of adrenaline. Therapeutically, the bulk of corticosteroid dose is given in the morning to mimic the bodys diurnal rhythm, if given at night, an extensive review is provided by Flores and Gumina. Cardiovascular, Corticosteroids can cause sodium retention through an action on the kidney. This can result in retention and hypertension
28.
Sobriety
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Sobriety is the condition of not having any measurable levels or effects from alcohol. Lexicon and drug terms published by the World Health Organization</ref> Sobriety is also considered to be the state of a human being given at a birth. A person in a state of sobriety is considered sober, in a treatment setting, sobriety is the achieved goal of independence from consuming alcohol. As such, sustained abstinence is a prerequisite for sobriety, early in abstinence, residual effects of alcohol consumption can preclude sobriety. These effects are labeled PAWS, or post acute withdrawal syndrome, someone who abstains, but has a latent desire to resume use, is not considered truly sober. An abstainer may be motivated to resume alcohol consumption. Sobriety has more specific meanings within specific contexts, such as the culture of substance use recovery programs, law enforcement. In some cases, sobriety implies achieving life balance, Sobriety may refer to being clear of immediate or residual effects of any mind-altering substances. Colloquially, it may refer to a substance that is the concern of a particular recovery support program. Clean and sober is a commonly used phrase, which refers to someone having a period without drugs or alcohol in their body. Field sobriety tests and breathalyzer testing are two law enforcement officers often test for sobriety in a suspected drunk driver. These standardized field sobriety tests are at the officers discretion, there are many factors that can lead to inaccuracies in sobriety testing including orthopedic or neurologic conditions, and fatigue
. PMID 20766702.
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