1.
Anabolic steroid
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They are anabolic and increase protein within cells, especially in skeletal muscles. The word anabolic, referring to anabolism, comes from the Greek ἀναβολή anabole and they are one of three types of sex hormone agonists, the others being estrogens like estradiol and progestogens like progesterone. Health risks can be produced by long-term use or excessive doses of AAS and these effects include harmful changes in cholesterol levels, acne, high blood pressure, liver damage, and dangerous changes in the structure of the left ventricle of the heart. Conditions pertaining to hormonal imbalances such as gynecomastia and testicular size reduction may also be caused by AAS and their use is referred to as doping and banned by most major sporting bodies. For many years, AAS have been by far the most detected doping substances in IOC-accredited laboratories, in countries where AAS are controlled substances, there is often a black market in which smuggled, clandestinely manufactured or even counterfeit drugs are sold to users. AAS have largely replaced in this setting by synthetic protein hormones that selectively stimulate growth of blood cell precursors. Growth stimulation, AAS can be used by pediatric endocrinologists to treat children with growth failure, however, the availability of synthetic growth hormone, which has fewer side effects, makes this a secondary treatment. Stimulation of appetite and preservation and increase of mass, AAS have been given to people with chronic wasting conditions such as cancer. Induction of male puberty, Androgens are given to many boys distressed about extreme delay of puberty, Testosterone is now nearly the only androgen used for this purpose and has been shown to increase height, weight, and fat-free mass in boys with delayed puberty. Male contraception, in the form of testosterone enanthate, potential for use in the near-future as a safe, reliable, stimulation of lean body mass and prevention of bone loss in elderly men, as some studies indicate. Hormone replacement for men with low levels of testosterone, also effective in improving libido for elderly males, most steroid users are not athletes. Between 1 million and 3 million people are thought to have misused AAS in the United States, another study found that non-medical use of AAS among college students was at or less than 1%. According to a recent survey,78, the same study found that individuals using AAS for non-medical purposes had a higher employment rate and a higher household income than the general population. AAS users tend to be disillusioned by the portrayal of AAS as deadly in the media, according to one study, AAS users also distrust their physicians and in the sample 56% had not disclosed their AAS use to their physicians. A recent study has shown that long term AAS users were more likely to have symptoms of muscle dysmorphia. A recent study in the Journal of Health Psychology showed that many believed that steroids used in moderation were safe. AAS have been used by men and women in different kinds of professional sports to attain a competitive edge or to assist in recovery from injury. These sports include bodybuilding, weightlifting, shot put and other track and field, cycling, baseball, wrestling, mixed martial arts, boxing, football, such use is prohibited by the rules of the governing bodies of most sports
2.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
3.
Intramuscular injection
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Intramuscular injection is the injection of a substance directly into a muscle. In medicine, it is one of alternative methods for the administration of medications. Muscles have larger and more vessels than subcutaneous tissue and injections here usually have faster rates of absorption than subcutaneous injections or intradermal injections. Depending on the site, an administration is limited to between 2 and 5 milliliters of fluid. Platelet-rich plasma injections can be administered intramuscularly, certain substances are injected intramuscularly for recreational purposes. Possible sites for IM injection include, deltoid, dorsogluteal, rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, sites that are bruised, tender, red, swollen, inflamed or scarred are avoided. The deltoid muscle site is recommended for use with injections of small volume, usually equal or less than 1 ml and this site is not recommended for repeated injections, due to its small area, it is difficult to rotate the injection site. To locate the site, palpate the lower edge of the acromion process, inject in the upside down triangle that forms with its base at the acromion process and its midpoint in line with the axilla. The ventrogluteal site is recommended for injections requiring a larger volume to be administered, greater than 1 ml and it is also given for narcotic, antibiotic, sedative and anti-emetic medications. To locate the site, place the palm of your hand over the greater trochanter. The right hand is used for the hip and left hand is used for the right hip. Place the index finger on the superior iliac spine and run the middle finger back along the iliac crest. The injection is given in the center of the triangle that is formed, the vastus lateralis site is the recommended site for infants less than 7 months old and those unable to walk, with loss of muscular tone. To locate the site, divide the front thigh into thirds vertically and horizontally to make nine squares and inject in the outer middle square. Use of this site is associated with skin and tissue trauma, muscle fibrosis and contracture, haematoma, nerve palsy and paralysis, as well as infectious processes such as abscess and gangrene. The injection site is located by dividing the buttock into four with a plus shaped cross, the selected site is cleansed with an antimicrobial and is allowed to dry. It is injected with the dominant hand using a quick, darting motion perpendicular to the body at an angle between 72 and 90 degrees, as a faster injection is less painful. The needle is then stabilized with the nondominant hand while the dominant hand slides to the plunger to slowly instill the medication, the CDC does not recommend the outdated practice of aspirating for blood to rule out injecting into a blood vessel
4.
Jmol
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Jmol is computer software for molecular modelling chemical structures in 3-dimensions. Jmol returns a 3D representation of a molecule that may be used as a teaching tool and it is written in the programming language Java, so it can run on the operating systems Windows, macOS, Linux, and Unix, if Java is installed. It is free and open-source software released under a GNU Lesser General Public License version 2.0, a standalone application and a software development kit exist that can be integrated into other Java applications, such as Bioclipse and Taverna. A popular feature is an applet that can be integrated into web pages to display molecules in a variety of ways, for example, molecules can be displayed as ball-and-stick models, space-filling models, ribbon diagrams, etc. Jmol supports a range of chemical file formats, including Protein Data Bank, Crystallographic Information File, MDL Molfile. There is also a JavaScript-only version, JSmol, that can be used on computers with no Java, the Jmol applet, among other abilities, offers an alternative to the Chime plug-in, which is no longer under active development. While Jmol has many features that Chime lacks, it does not claim to reproduce all Chime functions, most notably, Chime requires plug-in installation and Internet Explorer 6.0 or Firefox 2.0 on Microsoft Windows, or Netscape Communicator 4.8 on Mac OS9. Jmol requires Java installation and operates on a variety of platforms. For example, Jmol is fully functional in Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera, Google Chrome, fast and Scriptable Molecular Graphics in Web Browsers without Java3D
5.
Estrogen receptor
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Estrogen receptors are a group of proteins found inside and on cells. They are receptors that are activated by the hormone estrogen and this article refers to the former. Once activated by estrogen, the ER is able to translocate into the nucleus, however, it also has additional functions independent of DNA binding. As hormone receptors for sex steroids, ERs, androgen receptors, there are two different forms of the estrogen receptor, usually referred to as α and β, each encoded by a separate gene. Hormone-activated estrogen receptors form dimers, and, since the two forms are coexpressed in many types, the receptors may form ERα or ERβ homodimers or ERαβ heterodimers. Estrogen receptor alpha and beta show significant overall sequence homology, the N-terminal A/B domain is able to transactivate gene transcription in the absence of bound ligand. While this region is able to activate gene transcription without ligand, the C domain, also known as the DNA-binding domain, binds to estrogen response elements in DNA. The D domain is a region that connects the C and E domains. The E domain contains the binding cavity as well as binding sites for coactivator and corepressor proteins. The E-domain in the presence of ligand is able to activate gene transcription. The C-terminal F domain function is not entirely clear and is variable in length, due to alternative RNA splicing, several ER isoforms are known to exist. At least three ERα and five ERβ isoforms have been identified, the ERβ isoforms receptor subtypes can transactivate transcription only when a heterodimer with the functional ERß1 receptor of 59 kDa is formed. The ERß3 receptor was detected at levels in the testis. The two other ERα isoforms are 36 and 46kDa, only in fish, but not in humans, an ERγ receptor has been described. In humans, the two forms of the receptor are encoded by different genes, ESR1 and ESR2 on the sixth and fourteenth chromosome. In males, ERα protein is found in the epithelium of the efferent ducts, the expression of the ERβ protein has been documented in ovarian granulosa cells, kidney, brain, bone, heart, lungs, intestinal mucosa, prostate, and endothelial cells. The ERα primary transcript gives rise to several alternatively spliced variants of unknown function, the ERs helix 12 domain plays a crucial role in determining interactions with coactivators and corepressors and, therefore, the respective agonist or antagonist effect of the ligand. In addition, the different estrogen receptor combinations may respond differently to various ligands, the ratio of α- to β- subtype concentration has been proposed to play a role in certain diseases
6.
Injection (medicine)
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An injection follows a parenteral route of administration, that is, administration via a route other than through the digestive tract. Since the process involves a small puncture wound to the body. Rodents used for research are often administered intracerebral, intracerebroventricular, or intraportal injections as well, long-acting forms of subcutaneous/intramuscular injections are available for various drugs, and are called depot injections. Injections are among the most common health care procedures, with at least 16 billion administered in developing, 95% of injections are administered in curative care, 3% are for immunization, and the rest for other purposes, such as blood transfusions. In some instances the term injection is used synonymously with inoculation even by different workers in the same hospital and this should not cause confusion, the focus is on what is being injected/inoculated, not the terminology of the procedure. In an intramuscular injection, the medication is delivered directly into a muscle, many vaccines are administered intramuscularly, as are codeine, metoclopramide, and many other medications. Many drugs injected intramuscularly are absorbed into the muscle fairly quickly, injections to the buttocks are known to reach the bloodstream quickly due to the large amount of muscular tissue and corresponding blood supply. Such injection allows the compound to be released in a consistent way over a long period. Depot injections are usually either solid or oil-based, depot injections may be available as certain forms of a drug, such as decanoate salts or esters. Examples of depot injections include Depo Provera and haloperidol decanoate, prostate cancer patients receiving hormone therapy usually get depot injections as a treatment or therapy. Zoladex is an example of a medication delivered by depot for prostate cancer treatment or therapy, naltrexone may be administered in a monthly depot injection to control opiod abuse, in this case, the depot injection improves compliance by replacing daily pill administration. The advantages of using a long-acting depot injection include increased medication compliance due to reduction in the frequency of dosing, a significant disadvantage is that the drug is not immediately reversible, since it is slowly released. In psychiatric nursing, a short acting depot, zuclopenthixol acetate, the pharmaceutical injection type of infiltration involves loading a volume of tissue with the drug, filling the interstitial space. Local anesthetics are often infiltrated into the dermis and hypodermis, various animals, and some plants, have been injecting for various reasons long before humans began doing so in a process commonly called stinging. Some examples include, Snakes, wasps, scorpions, venom, to kill prey, some bees, venom, to defend themselves and their nests. Stinging nettles, venom, to try to avoid being eaten, stingrays, venom, defense mechanism when provoked. The pain of an injection may be lessened by prior application of ice or topical anesthetic, recent studies suggest that forced coughing during an injection stimulates a transient rise in blood pressure which inhibits the perception of pain. Sometimes, as with an amniocentesis, an anesthetic is given
7.
Methyltestosterone
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Testosterone is a medication and naturally occurring steroid hormone. It is an androgen and anabolic steroid and is used to treat male hypogonadism and it may also be used to increase athletic ability in the form of doping. It is unclear if the use of testosterone for low levels due to aging is beneficial or harmful. Testosterone can be used as a gel or patch that is applied to the skin, injection into a muscle, tablet that is placed in the cheek, common side effects from testosterone medication include acne, swelling, and breast enlargement in males. Serious side effects may include liver toxicity, heart disease, women and children who are exposed may develop virilization. It is recommended that individuals with prostate cancer not use the medication and it can cause harm to the baby if used during pregnancy or breastfeeding. Testosterone was first isolated in 1935, rates of use have increased three times in the United States between 2001 and 2011. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines and it is available as a generic medication. The price depends on the dose and form of the product, the primary use of testosterone is the treatment of males with too little or no natural testosterone production, also termed hypogonadism or hypoandrogenism. This treatment is referred to as hormone replacement therapy, or alternatively and it is used to maintain serum testosterone levels in the normal male range. Decline of testosterone production with age has led to interest in testosterone supplementation, Testosterone deficiency is an abnormally low testosterone production. It may occur because of testicular dysfunction or hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction and may be congenital or acquired, Testosterone levels may decline gradually with age. The United States Food and Drug Administration stated in 2015 that neither the nor the safety of testosterone supplement have been established for low testosterone levels due to aging. The FDA has required that labels on testosterone include warnings about increased risk of heart attacks, Testosterone supplementation is effective in the short term for hypoactive sexual desire disorder. However, its long term safety is unclear, treating low androgen levels with testosterone is not generally recommended in women when it is due to hypopituitarism, adrenal insufficiency, or following surgical removal of the ovaries. It is also not usually recommended for improving cognition, the risk of heart disease, Testosterone is used as a form of doping among athletes in order to improve performance. Testosterone is classified as an agent and is on the World Anti-Doping Agency List of Prohibited Substances. Anabolic-androgenic steroids, including testosterone and its esters, have also taken to enhance muscle development, strength
8.
Androgen receptor
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The androgen receptor is most closely related to the progesterone receptor, and progestins in higher dosages can block the androgen receptor. The main function of the receptor is as a DNA-binding transcription factor that regulates gene expression, however. Androgen regulated genes are critical for the development and maintenance of the male sexual phenotype, hence, testosterone is responsible primarily for the development of male primary sexual characteristics, whereas dihydrotestosterone is responsible for secondary male characteristics. Androgens cause slow epiphysis, or maturation of the bones, steroid users of teen age may find that their growth had been stunted by androgen and/or estrogen excess. People with too little sex hormones can be short during puberty, via the Androgen receptor, androgens play a key role in the maintenance of male skeletal integrity. The regulation of this integrity by androgen receptor signaling can be attributed to both osteoblasts and osteocytes, the primary mechanism of action for androgen receptors is direct regulation of gene transcription. The androgen receptor dimer binds to a sequence of DNA known as a hormone response element. Androgen receptors interact with proteins in the nucleus, resulting in up- or down-regulation of specific gene transcription. Up-regulation or activation of transcription results in increased synthesis of messenger RNA, one of the known target genes of androgen receptor activation is the insulin-like growth factor I receptor. Thus, changes in levels of proteins in cells is one way that androgen receptors control cell behavior. One function of receptor that is independent of direct binding to its target DNA sequence, is facilitated by recruitment via other DNA-binding proteins. One example is serum response factor, a protein that activates several genes that cause muscle growth, AR acetylation is induced by androgens and determines recruitment into chromatin. The AR acetylation site is a key target of NAD-dependent and TSA-dependent histone deacetylases, more recently, androgen receptors have been shown to have a second mode of action. As has been found for other steroid hormone receptors such as estrogen receptors. Androgen receptors interact with certain signal transduction proteins in the cytoplasm, Androgen binding to cytoplasmic androgen receptors can cause rapid changes in cell function independent of changes in gene transcription, such as changes in ion transport. In humans, the receptor is encoded by the AR gene located on the X chromosome at Xq11-12. The androgen insensitivity syndrome, formerly known as testicular feminization, is caused by a mutation of the receptor gene located on the X chromosome. The androgen receptor seems to affect neuron physiology and is defective in Kennedys disease, in addition, point mutations and trinucleotide repeat polymorphisms has been linked to a number of additional disorders
9.
Ether
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Ethers are a class of organic compounds that contain an ether group—an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups. They have the general formula R–O–R′, where R and R′ represent the alkyl or aryl groups, a typical example of the first group is the solvent and anesthetic diethyl ether, commonly referred to simply as ether. Ethers are common in chemistry and pervasive in biochemistry, as they are common linkages in carbohydrates. Ethers feature C–O–C linkage defined by an angle of about 110°. The barrier to rotation about the C–O bonds is low, the bonding of oxygen in ethers, alcohols, and water is similar. In the language of valence bond theory, the hybridization at oxygen is sp3, oxygen is more electronegative than carbon, thus the hydrogens alpha to ethers are more acidic than in simple hydrocarbons. They are far less acidic than hydrogens alpha to carbonyl groups, depending on the groups at R and R′, ethers are classified into two types, Simple ethers or symmetrical ethers, e. g. diethyl ether, dimethyl ether, etc. Mixed ethers or unsymmetrical ethers, e. g. methyl ethyl ether, methyl phenyl ether, in the IUPAC nomenclature system, ethers are named using the general formula alkoxyalkane, for example CH3–CH2–O–CH3 is methoxyethane. If the ether is part of a complex molecule, it is described as an alkoxy substituent. The simpler alkyl radical is written in front, so CH3–O–CH2CH3 would be given as methoxyethane, IUPAC rules are often not followed for simple ethers. The trivial names for simple ethers are a composite of the two followed by ether. For example, ethyl ether, diphenylether. As for other compounds, very common ethers acquired names before rules for nomenclature were formalized. Diethyl ether is called ether, but was once called sweet oil of vitriol. Methyl phenyl ether is anisole, because it was found in aniseed. Acetals are another class of ethers with characteristic properties, polyethers are compounds with more than one ether group. The crown ethers are examples of small polyethers, some toxins produced by dinoflagellates such as brevetoxin and ciguatoxin are extremely large and are known as cyclic or ladder polyethers. Polyether generally refers to polymers which contain the functional group in their main chain
