1.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
2.
University of Zurich
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The University of Zurich, located in the city of Zürich, is the largest university in Switzerland, with over 26,000 students. It was founded in 1833 from the colleges of theology, law, medicine. Currently, the university has seven faculties, Philosophy, Human Medicine, Economic Sciences, Law, Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Theology, the university offers the widest range of subjects and courses of any Swiss higher education institution. It was the first university in Europe to be founded by the rather than a monarch or church. Eventually, the authorities offered Strauss a pension before he had a chance to start his duties, the university allowed women to attend philosophy lectures from 1847, and admitted the first female doctoral student in 1866. The Faculty of Veterinary Medicine was added in 1901, the second-oldest such faculty in the world, in 1914, the university moved to new premises designed by the architect Karl Moser on Rämistrasse 71. The university is scattered all over the city of Zurich, members of the university can use several libraries, including the ETH-library, and the Zurich Central Library, with over 5 million volumes. In 1962, the faculty of science proposed to establish the Irchelpark campus on the Strickhofareal, the first stage the construction of the university buildings was begun in 1973, and the campus was inaugurated in 1979. The construction of the stage lasted from 1978 to 1983. The campus also houses the anthropological museum Anthropologisches Museum, and the cantonal Staatsarchiv Zürich, the Institute and Museum for the History of Medicine is part of the university. The University of Zurich as a whole also ranks in the top ten of Europe, notably in the fields of bioscience and finance, there is a close-knit collaboration between the University of Zurich and the ETH. Their faculty of medicine is six years. Shanghai Jiao Tong University Ranking 54th globally and 15th in Europe, THES – QS World University Rankings 61st globally and 14th in Europe. QS World University Rankings 2014 57th globally, professional Ranking of World Universities 32nd globally and 10th in Europe. University Ranking by Academic Performance 2010 52nd globally and 1st in Switzerland, according to Handelsblatt, the Department of Economics was ranked first in the German-speaking area and in 2009 the faculty of Business Administration was ranked third in the German-speaking area. Bachelor courses are taught in Swiss Standard German, but use of English is increasing in many faculties, the only bachelors program taught entirely in English is the English Language and Literature program. All Master courses at the Faculty of Science are held in English, in some highly competitive and international programs, such as the Master of Science in Quantitative Finance, all lectures are held in English. Associated with the university are 12 Nobel Prize recipients, primarily in Physics, corpus Córporum, digital library created and maintained by the University’s Institute for Greek and Latin Philology
3.
Java (software platform)
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Java is used in a wide variety of computing platforms from embedded devices and mobile phones to enterprise servers and supercomputers. While they are less common than standalone Java applications, Java applets run in secure, sandboxed environments to provide many features of native applications, in addition, several languages have been designed to run natively on the JVM, including Scala, Clojure and Apache Groovy. Java syntax borrows heavily from C and C++, but object-oriented features are modeled after Smalltalk, Java eschews certain low-level constructs such as pointers and has a very simple memory model where every object is allocated on the heap and all variables of object types are references. Memory management is handled through integrated automatic garbage collection performed by the JVM, on November 13,2006, Sun Microsystems made the bulk of its implementation of Java available under the GNU General Public License. The latest version is Java 8, the only supported version as of 2016, Oracle has announced that using older versions of their JVM implementation presents serious risks due to unresolved security issues. The Java platform is a suite of programs that facilitate developing and running programs written in the Java programming language. A Java platform will include an engine, a compiler. Java ME, Specifies several different sets of libraries for devices with limited storage, display and it is often used to develop applications for mobile devices, PDAs, TV set-top boxes, and printers. Java SE, For general-purpose use on desktop PCs, servers, Java EE, Java SE plus various APIs which are useful for multi-tier client–server enterprise applications. The Java platform consists of programs, each of which provides a portion of its overall capabilities. For example, the Java compiler, which converts Java source code into Java bytecode, is provided as part of the Java Development Kit, the Java Runtime Environment, complementing the JVM with a just-in-time compiler, converts intermediate bytecode into native machine code on the fly. The Java platform also includes a set of libraries. The heart of the Java platform is the concept of a machine that executes Java bytecode programs. This bytecode is the same no matter what hardware or operating system the program is running under, there is a JIT compiler within the Java Virtual Machine, or JVM. The JIT compiler translates the Java bytecode into native processor instructions at run-time, the use of bytecode as an intermediate language permits Java programs to run on any platform that has a virtual machine available. Since JRE version 1.2, Suns JVM implementation has included a just-in-time compiler instead of an interpreter, although Java programs are cross-platform or platform independent, the code of the Java Virtual Machines that execute these programs is not. Every supported operating platform has its own JVM, in most modern operating systems, a large body of reusable code is provided to simplify the programmers job. This code is provided as a set of dynamically loadable libraries that applications can call at runtime
4.
Java applet
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A Java applet is a small application which is written in Java or another programming language that compiles to Java bytecode and delivered to users in the form of that bytecode. The user launches the Java applet from a web page, a Java applet can appear in a frame of the web page, a new application window, Suns AppletViewer, or a stand-alone tool for testing applets. Java applets were introduced in the first version of the Java language, Java applets are usually written in Java, but other languages such as Jython, JRuby, Pascal, Scala, or Eiffel may be used as well. Java applets run at very fast speeds and, until 2011, unlike JavaScript, Java applets had access to 3D hardware acceleration, making them well-suited for non-trivial, computation-intensive visualizations. As browsers have gained support for hardware-accelerated graphics thanks to the technology, as well as just-in-time compiled JavaScript. Since Javas bytecode is cross-platform, Java applets can be executed by browsers for many platforms, including Microsoft Windows, FreeBSD, Unix, macOS, Java applet technology has been marked for deprecation. The Applets are used to provide features to web applications that cannot be provided by HTML alone. They can capture mouse input. In response to actions, an applet can change the provided graphic content. This makes applets well-suited for demonstration, visualization, and teaching, there are online applet collections for studying various subjects, from physics to heart physiology. An applet can also be an area only, providing, for instance. If needed, an applet can leave the area and run as a separate window. Applets can also play media in formats that are not natively supported by the browser, pages coded in HTML may embed parameters within them that are passed to the applet. Because of this, the same applet may have a different appearance depending on the parameters that were passed, as applets were available before CSS and DHTML were standard, they were also widely used for trivial effects such as rollover navigation buttons. Heavily criticized, this usage is now declining, Java applets are executed in a sandbox by most web browsers, preventing them from accessing local data like the clipboard or file system. The code of the applet is downloaded from a web server, after which the browser either embeds the applet into a web page or opens a new window showing the user interface. A Java applet extends the class java. applet. Applet, or in the case of a Swing applet, the class which must override methods from the applet class to set up a user interface inside itself is a descendant of Panel which is a descendant of Container. As applet inherits from container, it has largely the same user interface possibilities as an ordinary Java application, the first implementations involved downloading an applet class by class. While classes are small files, there are many of them
5.
Kent Beck
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Beck was one of the 17 original signatories of the Agile Manifesto, the founding document for agile software development. Extreme and Agile methods are closely associated with Test Driven Development, Beck pioneered software design patterns as well as the commercial application of Smalltalk. He wrote the SUnit unit testing framework for Smalltalk, which spawned the series of frameworks, notably JUnit for Java. Beck popularized CRC cards with Ward Cunningham, the inventor of the wiki and he lives near Medford, Oregon and works at Facebook. Beck attended the University of Oregon between 1979 and 1987, receiving B. S. and M. S. degrees in computer, in 1996 Beck was hired to work on the Chrysler Comprehensive Compensation System. Beck in turn brought in Ron Jeffries, in March 1996 the development team estimated the system would be ready to go into production around one year later. In 1997 the development team adopted a way of working which is now formalized as extreme programming, the one-year delivery target was nearly achieved, with actual delivery being only a couple of months late. Kent Becks Guide to Better Smalltalk, A Sorted Collection, winner of the Jolt Productivity Award. Winner of the Jolt Productivity Award, contributing to Eclipse, Principles, Patterns, and Plugins. Extreme Programming Explained, Embrace Change, 2nd Edition, using Pattern Languages for Object-Oriented Programs. A Laboratory For Teaching Object-Oriented Thinking, SUnit framework, origin of xUnit frameworks
6.
Office 365
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Office 365 is the brand name Microsoft uses for a group of software and services subscriptions, which together provide productivity software and related services to subscribers. For consumers, the allows the use of Microsoft Office apps on Windows and macOS, provides storage space on Microsofts cloud storage service OneDrive. After a beta test that began in October 2010, Microsoft launched Office 365 on June 28,2011, as a successor to Microsoft Business Productivity Online Suite, originally aimed at corporate users. Following the official launch of the service, Business Productivity Online Suite customers were given 12 months to plan, with the release of Office 2013, an updated version of the Office 365 platform was launched on February 27,2013. The server components were updated to their respective 2013 versions, and Microsoft expanded the Office 365 service with new plans, such as Small Business Premium, Midsize Premium, the plan is aimed at mainstream consumers, especially those who want to install Office on multiple computers. A University plan was introduced, targeted towards users going to post-secondary education. The ability to provide a link to a Yammer network from an Office 365 portal was introduced in June 2013, with heavier integration to be introduced in July 2013. On July 8,2013, Microsoft unveiled Power BI, a suite of intelligence and self-serve data mining tools for Office 365. Users will also be able to access and publish reports, in March 2014, Microsoft announced that it would rename the Home Premium plan to Home, and add a new Personal plan for single users, these new options officially launched on April 15,2014. In June 2014, the amount of OneDrive storage offered to Office 365 subscribers was increased to 1 terabyte from 20 GB, on October 27,2014, Microsoft announced that Office 365 subscribers would receive unlimited OneDrive storage. Due to abuse and a reduction in storage options implemented by Microsoft. In June 2016, Microsoft made Planner available for general release and it is considered to be a competitor to Trello and to other agile team collaboration cloud services. The Office 365 service consists of a number of products and services, the email service, task management, calendar application, and contacts manager included with business and enterprise Office 365 subscriptions are under the Outlook on the web brand. It includes Outlook Mail, Outlook Calendar, Outlook People, Microsoft introduced an email feature called Clutter with Office 365. Clutter remembers users preferences as it comes to the relevance and importance of emails and it analyses users pattern of behavior about email topics, if user keeps ignoring emails about a certain topic, Clutter moves those emails to a folder with the same name in Outlook. Users can enable and disable this feature by logging on to Office 365 portal, through SharePoints OneDrive for Business functionality, each user also receives 15 GB of online storage. Some plans for Office 365 also include access to the current versions of the Office desktop applications for both Windows and OS X for the period of the subscription, updates to the software are installed automatically, covering both security updates and major new versions of Office. If an Office 365 subscription lapses, the applications enter a read-only mode where editing functionality is disabled, full functionality is restored once a new subscription is purchased and activated
7.
Android software development
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Android software development is the process by which new applications are created for the Android operating system. Applications are usually developed in Java programming language using the Android software development kit, the Android software development kit includes a comprehensive set of development tools. These include a debugger, libraries, an emulator based on QEMU, documentation, sample code. Currently supported development platforms include computers running Linux, Mac OS X10.5.8 or later, as of March 2015, the SDK is not available on Android itself, but software development is possible by using specialized Android applications. Additionally, developers may use any text editor to edit Java and XML files, then use command line tools to create, build, enhancements to Androids SDK go hand in hand with the overall Android platform development. The SDK also supports older versions of the Android platform in case developers wish to target their applications at older devices, Development tools are downloadable components, so after one has downloaded the latest version and platform, older platforms and tools can also be downloaded for compatibility testing. Android applications are packaged in. apk format and stored under /data/app folder on the Android OS, APK package contains. dex files, resource files, etc. The Android Debug Bridge is an included in the Android SDK package. It consists of both client and server-side programs that communicate with one another, the ADB is typically accessed through the command-line interface, although numerous graphical user interfaces exist to control ADB. If there is only one attached device or running emulator, these options are not necessary, for example, Android applications can be saved by the command backup to a file, whose name is backup. ab by default. In a security issue reported in March 2011, ADB was targeted as a vector to attempt to install a rootkit on connected phones using a resource exhaustion attack. Fastboot is a diagnostic protocol included with the SDK package used primarily to modify the flash filesystem via a USB connection from host computer. It requires that the device be started in a loader or Secondary Program Loader mode. After enabling the protocol on the device itself, it will accept a set of commands sent to it via USB using a command line. These native libraries can be called from Java code running under the Dalvik VM using the System. loadLibrary call, complete applications can be compiled and installed using traditional development tools. The ADB debugger gives a root shell under the Android Emulator which allows ARM, native code can be compiled using GCC or the Intel C++ Compiler on a standard PC. Running native code is complicated by Androids use of a non-standard C library, the graphics library that Android uses to arbitrate and control access to this device is called the Skia Graphics Library, and it has been released under an open source licence. Skia has backends for both Win32 and Unix, allowing the development of applications, and it is the graphics engine underlying the Google Chrome web browser
8.
Design Patterns
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Design Patterns, Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software is a software engineering book describing software design patterns. The books authors are Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, the book includes examples in C++ and Smalltalk. It has been influential to the field of engineering and is regarded as an important source for object-oriented design theory. More than 500,000 copies have sold in English. The authors are often referred to as the Gang of Four, the book started at a birds of a feather session at OOPSLA90, Towards an Architecture Handbook, run by Bruce Anderson, where Erich Gamma and Richard Helm met and discovered their common interest. They were later joined by Ralph Johnson and John Vlissides, the original publication date of the book was October 21,1994 with a 1995 copyright, hence it is often cited with a 1995-year, despite being published in 1994. The book was first made available to the public at the OOPSLA meeting held in Portland, Oregon, in 2005 the ACM SIGPLAN awarded that years Programming Languages Achievement Award to the authors, in recognition of the impact of their work on programming practice and programming language design. As of March 2012, the book was in its 40th printing, Composition over inheritance, Favor object composition over class inheritance. The authors refer to inheritance as white-box reuse, with white-box referring to visibility, in contrast, the authors refer to object composition as black-box reuse because no internal details of composed objects need be visible in the code using them. The authors discuss the tension between inheritance and encapsulation at length and state that in their experience, designers overuse inheritance, the danger is stated as follows, Because inheritance exposes a subclass to details of its parents implementation, its often said that inheritance breaks encapsulation. They warn that the implementation of a subclass can become so bound up with the implementation of its parent class that any change in the implementation will force the subclass to change. Furthermore, they claim that a way to avoid this is to inherit only from abstract classes—but then, using inheritance is recommended mainly when adding to the functionality of existing components, reusing most of the old code and adding relatively small amounts of new code. To the authors, delegation is a form of object composition that can always be used to replace inheritance. Delegation involves two objects, a sender passes itself to a delegate to let the delegate refer to the sender, thus the link between two parts of a system are established only at runtime, not at compile-time. The Callback article has information about delegation. The authors also discuss so-called parameterized types, which are known as generics or templates. These allow any type to be defined without specifying all the types it uses—the unspecified types are supplied as parameters at the point of use. The authors admit that delegation and parameterization are very powerful but add a warning, Dynamic, highly parameterized software is harder to understand and build than more static software
9.
Software engineering
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Software engineering is the application of engineering to the development of software in a systematic method. Practitioners quickly realized that this design was not flexible and came up with the stored program architecture or von Neumann architecture, thus the division between hardware and software began with abstraction being used to deal with the complexity of computing. Programming languages started to appear in the early 1950s and this was another major step in abstraction. Major languages such as Fortran, ALGOL, and COBOL were released in the late 1950s to deal with scientific, algorithmic, the conference was attended by international experts on software who agreed on defining best practices for software grounded in the application of engineering. The result of the conference is a report that defines how software should be developed, the original report is publicly available. Engineering already addresses all issues, hence the same principles used in engineering can be applied to software. The widespread lack of best practices for software at the time was perceived as a software crisis, barry W. Boehm documented several key advances to the field in his 1981 book, Software Engineering Economics. These include his Constructive Cost Model, which relates software development effort for a program, in man-years T, T = k ∗ The book analyzes sixty-three software projects and concludes the cost of fixing errors escalates as the project moves toward field use. The book also asserts that the key driver of software cost is the capability of the development team. Watts Humphrey founded the SEI Software Process Program, aimed at understanding and managing the software engineering process and his 1989 book, Managing the Software Process, asserts that the Software Development Process can and should be controlled, measured, and improved. Modern, generally accepted best-practices for software engineering have been collected by the ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC7 subcommittee, Software engineering can be divided into 15 sub-disciplines. They are, Software requirements, The elicitation, analysis, specification, Software design, The process of defining the architecture, components, interfaces, and other characteristics of a system or component. It is also defined as the result of that process, Software construction, The detailed creation of working, meaningful software through a combination of coding, verification, unit testing, integration testing, and debugging. Software testing, An empirical, technical investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the quality of the product or service under test, Software maintenance, The totality of activities required to provide cost-effective support to software. Software development process, The definition, implementation, assessment, measurement, management, change, many software engineers enter the profession by obtaining a university degree or training at a vocational school. One standard international curriculum for undergraduate software engineering degrees was defined by the CCSE, in addition to university education, many companies sponsor internships for students wishing to pursue careers in information technology. These internships can introduce the student to interesting real-world tasks that typical software engineers encounter every day, similar experience can be gained through military service in software engineering. Legal requirements for the licensing or certification of professional software engineers vary around the World, in Canada, there is a legal requirement to have P. Eng when one wants to use the title engineer or practice software engineering
10.
Open Library
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Open Library is an online project intended to create one web page for every book ever published. It provides access to public domain and out-of-print books, which can be read online. Its book information is collected from the Library of Congress, other libraries, if books are available in digital form, a button labelled Read appears next to its catalog listing. Links to where books can be purchased or borrowed are also provided, tens of thousands of modern books were made available from four and then 150 libraries and publishers for ebook digital lending. Open Library began in 2006 with Aaron Swartz as the engineer and leader of Open Librarys technical team. The project was led by George Oates from April 2009 to December 2011, Oates was responsible for a complete site redesign during her tenure. In 2015, the project was continued by Giovanni Damiola and then Brenton Cheng, the site was redesigned and relaunched in May 2010. The site uses Infobase, its own database framework based on PostgreSQL, the source code to the site is published under the GNU Affero General Public License. The website was relaunched adding ADA compliance and offering over 1 million modern, under certain provisions of United States copyright law, libraries are sometimes able to reproduce copyrighted works in formats accessible to users with disabilities
11.
GNU Classpath
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Not to be confused with the GPL linking exception. GNU Classpath is a project aiming to create a software implementation of the standard class library for the Java programming language. Despite the large size of the library to be created, the majority of the task is already done, including Swing, CORBA, the Classpath developers have implemented almost all of the classes from J2SE1.4 and 5.0. Classpath can thus be used to run popular Java-based software such as Vuze, GNU Classpath has been one of the high priority directions of the GNU Project. While the source code of the implementation from Sun Microsystems was available. This was an obstacle for many projects that could not progress without altering this code. The GNU Classpath development community includes institutions focused on research of Java virtual machines, GNU Classpath is a part of the Free Software Foundation. It was originally developed in parallel with libgcj due to license incompatibilities, GNU Classpath is licensed under the GNU General Public License with a linking exception. This is a software license. All code is owned by the Free Software Foundation. GNU Classpath is used by many free Java runtimes because every full-featured Java virtual machine must provide an implementation of the class libraries. Some other uses include, The GNU Compiler for Java, which is capable of compiling Java code into native standalone executables, gCJAppletViewer for launching Java applets from command line if they are not supported by the browser in use. IKVM. NET, which integrates Java with the. NET Framework JNode and this system is written in Java and assembler only. Specialised virtual machines such as Jaos for integration with the Oberon programming language, virtual machines for distributed computing with clusters, having up to 128 processors on Myrinet. The IcedTea project used GNU Classpath as a replacement for proprietary elements of OpenJDK, GNU Classpath development started in 1998 with five developers. During the history, it merged several times with other projects having similar goals, in the past, GNU Classpath supplied its own virtual machine. As Classpath was becoming a library, shared with a lot of different projects. After implementing the majority of the official Java 1.4 API, on October 24,2006, the implementation of the last missing 1.4 class, HTMLWriter, was committed
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