1.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
2.
University of Zurich
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The University of Zurich, located in the city of Zürich, is the largest university in Switzerland, with over 26,000 students. It was founded in 1833 from the colleges of theology, law, medicine. Currently, the university has seven faculties, Philosophy, Human Medicine, Economic Sciences, Law, Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Theology, the university offers the widest range of subjects and courses of any Swiss higher education institution. It was the first university in Europe to be founded by the rather than a monarch or church. Eventually, the authorities offered Strauss a pension before he had a chance to start his duties, the university allowed women to attend philosophy lectures from 1847, and admitted the first female doctoral student in 1866. The Faculty of Veterinary Medicine was added in 1901, the second-oldest such faculty in the world, in 1914, the university moved to new premises designed by the architect Karl Moser on Rämistrasse 71. The university is scattered all over the city of Zurich, members of the university can use several libraries, including the ETH-library, and the Zurich Central Library, with over 5 million volumes. In 1962, the faculty of science proposed to establish the Irchelpark campus on the Strickhofareal, the first stage the construction of the university buildings was begun in 1973, and the campus was inaugurated in 1979. The construction of the stage lasted from 1978 to 1983. The campus also houses the anthropological museum Anthropologisches Museum, and the cantonal Staatsarchiv Zürich, the Institute and Museum for the History of Medicine is part of the university. The University of Zurich as a whole also ranks in the top ten of Europe, notably in the fields of bioscience and finance, there is a close-knit collaboration between the University of Zurich and the ETH. Their faculty of medicine is six years. Shanghai Jiao Tong University Ranking 54th globally and 15th in Europe, THES – QS World University Rankings 61st globally and 14th in Europe. QS World University Rankings 2014 57th globally, professional Ranking of World Universities 32nd globally and 10th in Europe. University Ranking by Academic Performance 2010 52nd globally and 1st in Switzerland, according to Handelsblatt, the Department of Economics was ranked first in the German-speaking area and in 2009 the faculty of Business Administration was ranked third in the German-speaking area. Bachelor courses are taught in Swiss Standard German, but use of English is increasing in many faculties, the only bachelors program taught entirely in English is the English Language and Literature program. All Master courses at the Faculty of Science are held in English, in some highly competitive and international programs, such as the Master of Science in Quantitative Finance, all lectures are held in English. Associated with the university are 12 Nobel Prize recipients, primarily in Physics, corpus Córporum, digital library created and maintained by the University’s Institute for Greek and Latin Philology
3.
Design Patterns
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Design Patterns, Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software is a software engineering book describing software design patterns. The books authors are Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, the book includes examples in C++ and Smalltalk. It has been influential to the field of engineering and is regarded as an important source for object-oriented design theory. More than 500,000 copies have sold in English. The authors are often referred to as the Gang of Four, the book started at a birds of a feather session at OOPSLA90, Towards an Architecture Handbook, run by Bruce Anderson, where Erich Gamma and Richard Helm met and discovered their common interest. They were later joined by Ralph Johnson and John Vlissides, the original publication date of the book was October 21,1994 with a 1995 copyright, hence it is often cited with a 1995-year, despite being published in 1994. The book was first made available to the public at the OOPSLA meeting held in Portland, Oregon, in 2005 the ACM SIGPLAN awarded that years Programming Languages Achievement Award to the authors, in recognition of the impact of their work on programming practice and programming language design. As of March 2012, the book was in its 40th printing, Composition over inheritance, Favor object composition over class inheritance. The authors refer to inheritance as white-box reuse, with white-box referring to visibility, in contrast, the authors refer to object composition as black-box reuse because no internal details of composed objects need be visible in the code using them. The authors discuss the tension between inheritance and encapsulation at length and state that in their experience, designers overuse inheritance, the danger is stated as follows, Because inheritance exposes a subclass to details of its parents implementation, its often said that inheritance breaks encapsulation. They warn that the implementation of a subclass can become so bound up with the implementation of its parent class that any change in the implementation will force the subclass to change. Furthermore, they claim that a way to avoid this is to inherit only from abstract classes—but then, using inheritance is recommended mainly when adding to the functionality of existing components, reusing most of the old code and adding relatively small amounts of new code. To the authors, delegation is a form of object composition that can always be used to replace inheritance. Delegation involves two objects, a sender passes itself to a delegate to let the delegate refer to the sender, thus the link between two parts of a system are established only at runtime, not at compile-time. The Callback article has information about delegation. The authors also discuss so-called parameterized types, which are known as generics or templates. These allow any type to be defined without specifying all the types it uses—the unspecified types are supplied as parameters at the point of use. The authors admit that delegation and parameterization are very powerful but add a warning, Dynamic, highly parameterized software is harder to understand and build than more static software
4.
Eclipse (software)
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Eclipse is an integrated development environment used in computer programming, and is the most widely used Java IDE. It contains a base workspace and an extensible plug-in system for customizing the environment and it can also be used to develop documents with LaTeX and packages for the software Mathematica. Development environments include the Eclipse Java development tools for Java and Scala, Eclipse CDT for C/C++, the initial codebase originated from IBM VisualAge. The Eclipse software development kit, which includes the Java development tools, is meant for Java developers and it was one of the first IDEs to run under GNU Classpath and it runs without problems under IcedTea. Eclipse was inspired by the Smalltalk-based VisualAge family of integrated development environment products, although fairly successful, a major drawback of the VisualAge products was that developed code was not in a component-based software engineering model. Instead, all code for a project was held in a compressed lump, individual classes could not be easily accessed, certainly not outside the tool. A team primarily at the IBM Cary NC lab developed the new product as a Java-based replacement, in November 2001, a consortium was formed with a board of stewards to further the development of Eclipse as open-source software. It is estimated that IBM had already invested nearly $40 million by that time, the original members were Borland, IBM, Merant, QNX Software Systems, Rational Software, Red Hat, SuSE, TogetherSoft, and WebGain. The number of stewards increased to over 80 by the end of 2003, in January 2004, the Eclipse Foundation was created. Eclipse 3.0 selected the OSGi Service Platform specifications as the runtime architecture, the Association for Computing Machinery recognized Eclipse with the 2011 ACM Software Systems Award on 26 April 2012. The Eclipse Public License is the license under which Eclipse projects are released. Some projects require dual licensing, for which the Eclipse Distribution License is available, Eclipse was originally released under the Common Public License, but was later re-licensed under the Eclipse Public License. The Free Software Foundation has said that both licenses are free software licenses, but are incompatible with the GNU General Public License, different versions of Eclipse have been given different science-related names. The versions named after Callisto, Europa, and Ganymede, which are moons of Jupiter, were followed by a named after Galileo the discoverer of those moons. These were followed by two sun-themed names, Helios of Greek mythology, and Indigo, one of the seven colors of a rainbow, the version after that, Juno, has a triple meaning, a Roman mythological figure, an asteroid, and a spacecraft to Jupiter. Kepler, Luna, and Mars continued the theme, and then a new theme of chemical elements began with Neon. Since 2006 the Foundation has coordinated an annual Simultaneous Release, each release includes the Eclipse Platform and several other Eclipse projects. As of 2008, each Simultaneous Release has occurred on the 4th Wednesday of June, Eclipse uses plug-ins to provide all the functionality within and on top of the runtime system
5.
Software engineering
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Software engineering is the application of engineering to the development of software in a systematic method. Practitioners quickly realized that this design was not flexible and came up with the stored program architecture or von Neumann architecture, thus the division between hardware and software began with abstraction being used to deal with the complexity of computing. Programming languages started to appear in the early 1950s and this was another major step in abstraction. Major languages such as Fortran, ALGOL, and COBOL were released in the late 1950s to deal with scientific, algorithmic, the conference was attended by international experts on software who agreed on defining best practices for software grounded in the application of engineering. The result of the conference is a report that defines how software should be developed, the original report is publicly available. Engineering already addresses all issues, hence the same principles used in engineering can be applied to software. The widespread lack of best practices for software at the time was perceived as a software crisis, barry W. Boehm documented several key advances to the field in his 1981 book, Software Engineering Economics. These include his Constructive Cost Model, which relates software development effort for a program, in man-years T, T = k ∗ The book analyzes sixty-three software projects and concludes the cost of fixing errors escalates as the project moves toward field use. The book also asserts that the key driver of software cost is the capability of the development team. Watts Humphrey founded the SEI Software Process Program, aimed at understanding and managing the software engineering process and his 1989 book, Managing the Software Process, asserts that the Software Development Process can and should be controlled, measured, and improved. Modern, generally accepted best-practices for software engineering have been collected by the ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC7 subcommittee, Software engineering can be divided into 15 sub-disciplines. They are, Software requirements, The elicitation, analysis, specification, Software design, The process of defining the architecture, components, interfaces, and other characteristics of a system or component. It is also defined as the result of that process, Software construction, The detailed creation of working, meaningful software through a combination of coding, verification, unit testing, integration testing, and debugging. Software testing, An empirical, technical investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the quality of the product or service under test, Software maintenance, The totality of activities required to provide cost-effective support to software. Software development process, The definition, implementation, assessment, measurement, management, change, many software engineers enter the profession by obtaining a university degree or training at a vocational school. One standard international curriculum for undergraduate software engineering degrees was defined by the CCSE, in addition to university education, many companies sponsor internships for students wishing to pursue careers in information technology. These internships can introduce the student to interesting real-world tasks that typical software engineers encounter every day, similar experience can be gained through military service in software engineering. Legal requirements for the licensing or certification of professional software engineers vary around the World, in Canada, there is a legal requirement to have P. Eng when one wants to use the title engineer or practice software engineering
6.
Kent Beck
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Beck was one of the 17 original signatories of the Agile Manifesto, the founding document for agile software development. Extreme and Agile methods are closely associated with Test Driven Development, Beck pioneered software design patterns as well as the commercial application of Smalltalk. He wrote the SUnit unit testing framework for Smalltalk, which spawned the series of frameworks, notably JUnit for Java. Beck popularized CRC cards with Ward Cunningham, the inventor of the wiki and he lives near Medford, Oregon and works at Facebook. Beck attended the University of Oregon between 1979 and 1987, receiving B. S. and M. S. degrees in computer, in 1996 Beck was hired to work on the Chrysler Comprehensive Compensation System. Beck in turn brought in Ron Jeffries, in March 1996 the development team estimated the system would be ready to go into production around one year later. In 1997 the development team adopted a way of working which is now formalized as extreme programming, the one-year delivery target was nearly achieved, with actual delivery being only a couple of months late. Kent Becks Guide to Better Smalltalk, A Sorted Collection, winner of the Jolt Productivity Award. Winner of the Jolt Productivity Award, contributing to Eclipse, Principles, Patterns, and Plugins. Extreme Programming Explained, Embrace Change, 2nd Edition, using Pattern Languages for Object-Oriented Programs. A Laboratory For Teaching Object-Oriented Thinking, SUnit framework, origin of xUnit frameworks
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