Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid

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This article is about the chemical. For the medication, see Sodium calcium edetate.
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
Skeletal formula of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
EDTA di-sodium salt
Disodium EDTA
Names
Systematic IUPAC name
2,2′,2″,2‴-(Ethane-1,2-diyldinitrilo)tetraacetic acid[1]
Other names
  • N,N′-Ethane-1,2-diylbis[N-(carboxymethyl)glycine][1]
  • Diaminoethane-tetraacetic acid
  • Edetic acid (conjugate base edetate) (INN, USAN)
  • Ethylenedinitrilo-tetraacetic acid
  • Versene
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
Abbreviations EDTA, H4EDTA
1716295
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
DrugBank
ECHA InfoCard 100.000.409
EC Number 200-449-4
144943
KEGG
MeSH Edetic+Acid
RTECS number AH4025000
UNII
UN number 3077
Properties
C10H16N2O8
Molar mass 292.24 g·mol−1
Appearance Colourless crystals
Density 0.860 g cm−3 (at 20 °C)
log P −0.836
Acidity (pKa) 1.782
Basicity (pKb) 12.215
Thermochemistry
−1765.4 to −1758.0 kJ mol−1
−4461.7 to −4454.5 kJ mol−1
Pharmacology
S01XA05 (WHO) V03AB03 (WHO) (salt)
  • Intramuscular
  • Intravenous
Hazards
GHS pictograms The exclamation-mark pictogram in the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS)
GHS signal word WARNING
H319
P305+351+338
NFPA 704
Flammability code 0: Will not burn. E.g., waterHealth code 1: Exposure would cause irritation but only minor residual injury. E.g., turpentineReactivity code 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g., liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no codeNFPA 704 four-colored diamond
0
1
0
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
1000 mg/kg (oral, rat)[2]
Related compounds
Related alkanoic acids
Related compounds
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
No verify (what is YesYNo ?)
Infobox references

Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), also known by several other names, is a chemical originating in multiseasonal plants with dormancy stages as a lipidopreservative which helps to develop the stem , currently used for both industrial and medical purposes. It was synthetized for the first time in 1935 by Ferdinand Münz.[3]

It is an aminopolycarboxylic acid and a colorless, water-soluble solid, its conjugate base is ethylenediaminetetraacetate. It is widely used to dissolve limescale, its usefulness arises because of its role as a hexadentate ("six-toothed") ligand and chelating agent, i.e., its ability to sequester metal ions such as Ca2+ and Fe3+. After being bound by EDTA into a metal complex, metal ions remain in solution but exhibit diminished reactivity. EDTA is produced as several salts, notably disodium EDTA and calcium disodium EDTA.

Uses[edit]

Industry[edit]

In industry, EDTA is mainly used to sequester metal ions in aqueous solution. In the textile industry, it prevents metal ion impurities from modifying colors of dyed products. In the pulp and paper industry, EDTA inhibits the ability of metal ions, especially Mn2+, from catalyzing the disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide, which is used in chlorine-free bleaching. In a similar manner, EDTA is added to some food as a preservative or stabilizer to prevent catalytic oxidative decoloration, which is catalyzed by metal ions;[4] in soft drinks containing ascorbic acid and sodium benzoate, EDTA mitigates formation of benzene (a carcinogen).[5]

The reduction of water hardness in laundry applications and the dissolution of scale in boilers both rely on EDTA and related complexants to bind Ca2+, Mg2+, as well as other metal ions. Once bound to EDTA, these metal centers tend not to form precipitates or to interfere with the action of the soaps and detergents. For similar reasons, cleaning solutions often contain EDTA. In a similar manner EDTA is used in the cement industry for the determination of free lime and free magnesia in cement and clinkers.[6][page needed]

The solubilization of Fe3+ ions at or below near neutral pH can be accomplished using EDTA. This property is useful in agriculture including hydroponics. However, given the pH dependence of ligand formation, EDTA is not helpful for improving iron solubility in above neutral soils.[7] Otherwise, at near-neutral pH and above, iron(III) forms insoluble salts, which are less bioavailable to susceptible plant species. Aqueous [Fe(edta)]− is used for removing ("scrubbing") hydrogen sulfide from gas streams. This conversion is achieved by oxidizing the hydrogen sulfide to elemental sulfur, which is non-volatile:

2 [Fe(edta)]− + H2S → 2 [Fe(edta)]2− + S + 2 H+

In this application, the iron(III) center is reduced to its iron(II) derivative, which can then be reoxidized by air. In similar manner, nitrogen oxides are removed from gas streams using [Fe(edta)]2−. The oxidizing properties of [Fe(edta)]− are also exploited in photography, where it is used to solubilize silver particles.[8]

EDTA was used in separation of the lanthanide metals by ion-exchange chromatography. Perfected by F. H. Spedding et al. in 1954,[citation needed] the method relies on the steady increase in stability constant of the lanthanide EDTA complexes with atomic number. Using sulfonated polystyrene beads and Cu2+ as a retaining ion, EDTA causes the lanthanides to migrate down the column of resin while separating into bands of pure lanthanides. The lanthanides elute in order of decreasing atomic number. Due to the expense of this method, relative to countercurrent solvent extraction, ion exchange is now used only to obtain the highest purities of lanthanides (typically greater than 99.99%).[citation needed]

Medicine[edit]

Main article: Sodium calcium edetate

A specific salt of EDTA, known as sodium calcium edetate, is used to bind metal ions in the practice of chelation therapy, such as for treating mercury and lead poisoning.[9] It is used in a similar manner to remove excess iron from the body. This therapy is used to treat the complication of repeated blood transfusions, as would be applied to treat thalassaemia.

Dentists and endodontists use EDTA solutions to remove inorganic debris (smear layer) and lubricate the root canals in endodontics. This procedure helps prepare root canals for obturation. Furthermore, EDTA solutions with the addition of a surfactant loosen up calcifications inside a root canal and allow instrumentation (canal shaping) and facilitate apical advancement of a file in a tight or calcified root canal towards the apex.

It serves as a preservative (usually to enhance the action of another preservative such as benzalkonium chloride or thiomersal) in ocular preparations and eyedrops.

In evaluating kidney function, the chromium(III) complex [Cr(edta)]− (as radioactive chromium-51 (51Cr)) is administered intravenously and its filtration into the urine is monitored. This method is useful for evaluating glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in nuclear medicine.[10]

EDTA is used extensively in the analysis of blood. It is an anticoagulant for blood samples for CBC/FBEs.[citation needed]

EDTA is a slime dispersant, and has been found to be highly effective in reducing bacterial growth during implantation of intraocular lenses (IOLs).[11]

Alternative medicine[edit]

Some alternative practitioners believe EDTA acts as an antioxidant, preventing free radicals from injuring blood vessel walls, therefore reducing atherosclerosis.[9] These ideas are unsupported by scientific studies, and seem to contradict some currently accepted principles,[12] the U.S. FDA has not approved it for the treatment of atherosclerosis.[13]

Cosmetics[edit]

In shampoos, cleaners, and other personal care products, EDTA salts are used as a sequestering agent to improve their stability in air.[14]

Laboratory applications[edit]

In the laboratory, EDTA is widely used for scavenging metal ions: In biochemistry and molecular biology, ion depletion is commonly used to deactivate metal-dependent enzymes, either as an assay for their reactivity or to suppress damage to DNA, proteins, and polysaccharides.[15] In analytical chemistry, EDTA is used in complexometric titrations and analysis of water hardness or as a masking agent to sequester metal ions that would interfere with the analyses.

EDTA finds many specialized uses in the biomedical laboratories, such as in veterinary ophthalmology as an anticollagenase to prevent the worsening of corneal ulcers in animals. In tissue culture EDTA is used as a chelating agent that binds to calcium and prevents joining of cadherins between cells, preventing clumping of cells grown in liquid suspension, or detaching adherent cells for passaging. In histopathology, EDTA can be used as a decalcifying agent making it possible to cut sections using a microtome once the tissue sample is demineralised. EDTA is also known to inhibit a range of metallopeptidases, the method of inhibition occurs via the chelation of the metal ion required for catalytic activity.[16] EDTA can also be used to test for bioavailability of heavy metals in sediments. However, EDTA may influence the bioavailability of metals in solution, which may pose concerns regarding its effects in the environment, especially given its widespread uses and applications.

Side effects[edit]

EDTA exhibits low acute toxicity with LD50 (rat) of 2.0 g/kg to 2.2 g/kg.[8] It has been found to be both cytotoxic and weakly genotoxic in laboratory animals. Oral exposures have been noted to cause reproductive and developmental effects,[14] the same study[14] also found that both dermal exposure to EDTA in most cosmetic formulations and inhalation exposure to EDTA in aerosolized cosmetic formulations would produce exposure levels below those seen to be toxic in oral dosing studies.

Synthesis[edit]

The compound was first described in 1935 by Ferdinand Münz, who prepared the compound from ethylenediamine and chloroacetic acid.[17] Today, EDTA is mainly synthesised from ethylenediamine (1,2-diaminoethane), formaldehyde, and sodium cyanide,[18] this route yields the sodium salt, which can be converted in a subsequent step into the acid forms:

H2NCH2CH2NH2 + 4 CH2O + 4 NaCN + 4 H2O → (NaO2CCH2)2NCH2CH2N(CH2CO2Na)2 + 4 NH3
(NaO2CCH2)2NCH2CH2N(CH2CO2Na)2 + 4 HCl → (HO2CCH2)2NCH2CH2N(CH2CO2H)2 + 4 NaCl

This process is used to produce about 80,000 tonnes of EDTA each year. Impurities cogenerated by this route include glycine and nitrilotriacetic acid; they arise from reactions of the ammonia coproduct.[8]

Nomenclature[edit]

To describe EDTA and its various protonated forms, chemists distinguish between EDTA4−, the conjugate base that is the ligand, and H4EDTA, the precursor to that ligand. At very low pH (very acidic conditions) the fully protonated H6EDTA2+ form predominates, whereas at very high pH or very basic condition, the fully deprotonated EDTA4− form is prevalent. In this article, the term EDTA is used to mean H4−xEDTAx−, whereas in its complexes EDTA4− stands for the tetraanion ligand.

Coordination chemistry principles[edit]

Metal–EDTA chelate as found in Co(III) complexes.
Structure of [Fe(EDTA)(H2O)]−, showing that the EDTA4− ligand does not fully encapsulate Fe(III), which is seven-coordinate.[19]

In coordination chemistry, EDTA4− is a member of the aminopolycarboxylic acid family of ligands. EDTA4− usually binds to a metal cation through its two amines and four carboxylates. Many of the resulting coordination compounds adopt octahedral geometry. Although of little consequence for its applications, these octahedral complexes are chiral. The cobalt(III) anion [Co(EDTA)]− has been resolved into enantiomers.[20] Many complexes of EDTA4− adopt more complex structures due to either the formation of an additional bond to water, i.e. seven-coordinate complexes, or the displacement of one carboxylate arm by water. The iron(III) complex of EDTA is seven-coordinate.[21] Early work on the development of EDTA was undertaken by Gerold Schwarzenbach in the 1940s.[22] EDTA forms especially strong complexes with Mn(II), Cu(II), Fe(III), Pb(II) and Co(III).[23][page needed]

Several features of EDTA's complexes are relevant to its applications. First, because of its high denticity, this ligand has a high affinity for metal cations:

[Fe(H2O)6]3+ + H4EDTA ⇌ [Fe(EDTA)]− + 6 H2O + 4 H+  Keq = 1025.1

Written in this way, the equilibrium quotient shows that metal ions compete with protons for binding to EDTA. Because metal ions are extensively enveloped by EDTA, their catalytic properties are often suppressed. Finally, since complexes of EDTA4− are anionic, they tend to be highly soluble in water. For this reason, EDTA is able to dissolve deposits of metal oxides and carbonates.

Environmental fate[edit]

Abiotic degradation[edit]

EDTA is in such widespread use that questions have been raised whether it is a persistent organic pollutant. While EDTA serves many positive functions in different industrial, pharmaceutical and other avenues, the longevity of EDTA can pose serious issues in the environment. The degradation of EDTA is slow. It mainly occurs abiotically in the presence of sunlight.[24]

The most important process for the elimination of EDTA from surface waters is direct photolysis at wavelengths below 400 nm.[25] Depending on the light conditions, the photolysis half-lives of iron(III) EDTA in surface waters can range as low as 11.3 minutes up to more than 100 hours.[26] Degradation of FeEDTA, but not EDTA itself, produces iron complexes of the triacetate (ED3A), diacetate (EDDA), and monoacetate (EDMA) – 92% of EDDA and EDMA biodegrades in 20 hours while ED3A displays significantly higher resistance. Many environmentally-abundant EDTA species (such as Mg2+ and Ca2+) are more persistent.

Biodegradation[edit]

In many industrial wastewater treatment plants, EDTA elimination can be achieved at about 80% using microorganisms.[27] Resulting byproducts are ED3A and iminodiacetic acid (IDA) – suggesting that both the backbone and acetyl groups were attacked, some microorganisms have even been discovered to form nitrates out of EDTA but degrade optimally at moderately alkaline conditions of pH 9.0–9.5.[28]

Several bacterial strains isolated from sewage treatment plants efficiently degrade EDTA. Specific strains include Agrobacterium radiobacter ATCC 55002[29] and the sub-branches of Proteobacteria like BNC1, BNC2,[30] and strain DSM 9103.[31] The three strains share similar properties of aerobic respiration and are classified as gram-negative bacteria. Unlike photolysis, the chelated species is not exclusive to iron(III) in order to be degraded. Rather, each strain uniquely consumes varying metal–EDTA complexes through several enzymatic pathways. Agrobacterium radiobacter only degrades Fe(III) EDTA[30] while BNC1 and DSM 9103 are not capable of degrading iron(III) EDTA and are more suited for calcium, barium, magnesium and manganese(II) complexes.[32] EDTA complexes require dissociation before degradation .

Alternatives[edit]

Interest in environmental safety has brought up concerns about biodegradability in aminopolycarboxylates such as EDTA, for example, under the 28-day ISO 7827 test Austrian paper and pulp industries must use chelating agents that have biodegradation levels over 70% or 80% (after 28 days).[33] An increased interest in safety has led to the development and research of alternative chelating ligands which can still bind strongly to metal ions but also have a higher biodegradability and a lower content of nitrogen.[33]

Iminodisuccinic acid (IDS)[edit]

Commercially used since 1998, iminodisuccinic acid (IDS) biodegrades by about 80% after only 7 days. IDS binds to calcium exceptionally well and forms stable compounds with other heavy metal ions; in addition to having a lower toxicity after chelation, the production of IDS is environment-friendly.[33] Specifically, IDS is degraded through the use of IDS epimerase and C−N lyase found in Agrobacterium tumefaciens (BY6), which can be harvested on a large scale. Additionally, the reactions catalyzed by both enzymes do not require any cofactors and can thus be applied directly.[34]

Polyaspartic acid[edit]

Polyaspartic acid, like IDS, binds to calcium and other heavy metal ions. It has a higher value of 7.2 meq/g than does EDTA, which only has 6.0 meq/g.[clarification needed][33] While it has a higher theoretical capacity, in practical applications it exhibits low efficiency in lower ion concentration solutions, it has many practical applications including corrosion inhibitors, wastewater additives, and agricultural polymers. A Polyaspartic acid-based laundry detergent was the first laundry detergent in the world to receive the EU flower ecolabel.[33]

Ethylenediamine-N,N′-disuccinic acid (EDDS)[edit]

As a structural isomer of EDTA, ethylenediamine-N,N′-disuccinic acid (EDDS) can exist as three isomers: (S,S), (R,S)/(S,R) and (R,R), but only the S,S-isomer is readily biodegradable. EDDS exhibits a surprisingly high rate biodegradation at 83% in 20 days. Biodegradation rates also varies the different metal ions chelated, for example, the complexes of lead and zinc with EDDS have relatively the same stability but the lead complex is biodegrades more efficiently than the zinc complex.[33] As of 2002, EDDS has been commercially prominent in Europe on a large scale with an estimated demand rate increase of about 15% each year.[33]

Methylglycinediacetic acid (MGDA)[edit]

Methylglycinediacetic acid (MGDA) is produced from glycine.[33] MGDA has a high rate of biodegradation at over 68%, but unlike many other chelating agents can degrade without the assistance of adapted bacteria. Additionally, unlike EDDS or IDS, MGDA can withstand higher temperatures while maintaining a high stability as well as the entire pH range, as a result, the chelating strength of MGDA is stronger than many commercial chelating agents.[33]

L-Glutamic acid N,N-diacetic acid, tetrasodium salt (GLDA)[edit]

Aminopolycarboxylate-based chelates control metal ions in water-based systems.

Methods of detection and analysis[edit]

The most sensitive method of detecting and measuring EDTA in biological samples is selected reaction monitoring capillary electrophoresis mass spectrometry (SRM-CE/MS), which has a detection limit of 7.3 ng/mL in human plasma and a quantitation limit of 15 ng/mL.[35] This method works with sample volumes as small as 7–8 nL.[35]

EDTA has also been measured in non-alcoholic beverages using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) at a level of 2.0 μg/mL.[36][37]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry : IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013 (Blue Book). Cambridge: The Royal Society of Chemistry. 2014. pp. 79, 123, 586, 754. doi:10.1039/9781849733069-FP001. ISBN 978-0-85404-182-4. 
  2. ^ Substance Name: Sodium calcium edetate. NIH.gov
  3. ^ Paolieri, Matteo (December 2017). "Ferdinand Münz: EDTA and 40 years of inventions". Bulletin for the History of Chemistry. ACS. 42 (2): 133–140. 
  4. ^ Furia, T. (1964). "EDTA in Foods – A technical review". Food Technology. 18 (12): 1874–1882. 
  5. ^ US Food and Drug Administration: Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition Questions and Answers on the Occurrence of Benzene in Soft Drinks and Other Beverages
  6. ^ Taylor, H. F. W. (1990). Cement Chemistry. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-683900-X. 
  7. ^ Norvell, W. A.; Lindsay, W. L. (1969). "Reactions of EDTA Complexes of Fe, Zn, Mn, and Cu with Soils". Soil Science Society of America Journal. 33: 86. doi:10.2136/sssaj1969.03615995003300010024x. 
  8. ^ a b c Hart, J. Roger (2005), "Ethylenediaminetetraacetic Acid and Related Chelating Agents", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, doi:10.1002/14356007.a10_095 
  9. ^ a b DeBusk, Ruth; et al. (2002). "Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)". University of Maryland Medical Center. 
  10. ^ Soveri, Inga; Berg, Ulla B.; Björk, Jonas; Elinder, Carl-Gustaf; Grubb, Anders; Mejare, Ingegerd; Sterner, Gunnar; Bäck, Sten-Erik (September 2014). "Measuring GFR: A Systematic Review". American Journal of Kidney Diseases. 64 (3): 411–424. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2014.04.010. 
  11. ^ Kadry, A. A.; Fouda, S. I.; Shibl, A. M.; Abu El-Asrar, A. A. (2009). "Impact of slime dispersants and anti-adhesives on in vitro biofilm formation of Staphylococcus epidermidis on intraocular lenses and on antibiotic activities". Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 63 (3): 480. doi:10.1093/jac/dkn533. PMID 19147522. 
  12. ^ Green, Saul; Sampson, Wallace (December 14, 2002). "EDTA Chelation Therapy for Atherosclerosis And Degenerative Diseases: Implausibility and Paradoxical Oxidant Effects". Quackwatch. Retrieved 16 December 2009. 
  13. ^ "Postmarket Drug Safety Information for Patients and Providers – Questions and Answers on Edetate Disodium (marketed as Endrate and generic products)". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 
  14. ^ a b c Lanigan, R. S.; Yamarik, T. A. (2002). "Final report on the safety assessment of EDTA, calcium disodium EDTA, diammonium EDTA, dipotassium EDTA, disodium EDTA, TEA-EDTA, tetrasodium EDTA, tripotassium EDTA, trisodium EDTA, HEDTA, and trisodium HEDTA". International Journal of Toxicology. 21 Suppl. 2 (5): 95–142. doi:10.1080/10915810290096522. PMID 12396676. 
  15. ^ Domínguez, K.; Ward, W. S. (December 2009). "A novel nuclease activity that is activated by Ca2+ chelated to EGTA". Systems Biology in Reproductive Medicine. 55 (5–6): 193–199. doi:10.3109/19396360903234052. PMC 2865586 Freely accessible. 
  16. ^ Auld, D. S. (1995). "Removal and replacement of metal ions in metallopeptidases". Methods in Enzymology. 248: 228–242. doi:10.1016/0076-6879(95)48016-1. PMID 7674923. 
  17. ^ US 2130505, Münz, F., "Polyamino carboxylic acids", published 1938, assigned to I. G. Farbenindustrie . Also DE 718981, Münz, F., assigned to I. G. Farbenindustrie 
  18. ^ "Industrial Synthesis of EDTA". University of Bristol. 
  19. ^ Solans, X.; Font Altaba, M.; García Oricain, J. (1984). "Crystal Structures of Ethylenediaminetetraacetato Metal Complexes. V. Structures Containing the [Fe(C10H12N2O8)(H2O)]− Anion". Acta Crystallographica Section C. 40: 635–638. doi:10.1107/S0108270184005151. 
  20. ^ Kirchner, S.; Gyarfas, Eleonora C. (1957). "Barium (Ethylenediaminetetracetato) Cobalt(III) 4-Hydrate". Inorganic Syntheses. 5: 186–188. doi:10.1002/9780470132364.ch52. ISBN 9780470132364. 
  21. ^ López Alcalá, J. M.; Puerta Vizcaíno, M. C.; González Vílchez, F.; Duesler, E. N.; Tapscott, R. E. (1984). "A redetermination of sodium aqua[ethylenediaminetetraacetato(4−)]ferrate(III) dihydrate, Na[Fe(C10H12N2O8)(H2O)]·2H2O". Acta Crystallogr C. 40 (6): 939–941. doi:10.1107/S0108270184006338. 
  22. ^ Sinex, Scott A. "EDTA – A Molecule with a Complex Story". University of Bristol. 
  23. ^ Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. (2001). Inorganic Chemistry. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-352651-5. 
  24. ^ Bucheli-Witschel, M.; Egli, T. (2001), "DAB: Environmental Fate and Microbial Degradation of Aminopolycarboxylic Acids", FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 25 (1): 69–106, doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00572.x, PMID 11152941 
  25. ^ Kari, F. G. (1994). Umweltverhalten von Ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) under spezieller Berucksuchtigung des photochemischen Ab-baus (PhD). Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. 
  26. ^ Frank, R.; Rau, H. (1989). "Photochemical transformation in aqueous solution and possible environmental fate of Ethylenediaminetetraacetatic acid (EDTA)". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 19 (1): 55–63. doi:10.1016/0147-6513(90)90078-j. PMID 2107071. 
  27. ^ Kaluza, U.; Klingelhofer, P.; K., Taeger (1998). "Microbial degradation of EDTA in an industrial wastewater treatment plant". Water Research. 32 (9): 2843–2845. doi:10.1016/S0043-1354(98)00048-7. 
  28. ^ VanGinkel, C. G.; Vandenbroucke, K. L.; C. A., Troo (1997). "Biological removal of EDTA in conventional activated-sludge plants operated under alkaline conditions". Bioresource Technology. 32 (2–3): 2843–2845. doi:10.1016/S0960-8524(96)00158-7. 
  29. ^ Lauff, J. J.; Steele, D. B.; Coogan, L. A.; Breitfeller, J. M. (1990). "Degradation of the ferric chelate of EDTA by a pure culture of an Agrobacterium sp". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 56 (11): 3346–3353. PMC 184952 Freely accessible. PMID 16348340. 
  30. ^ a b Nortemannl, B (1992). "Total degradation of EDTA by mixed culturesand a bacterial isolate" (PDF). Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 58 (2): 671–676. PMC 195300 Freely accessible. PMID 16348653. 
  31. ^ Witschel, M.; Weilemann, H.-U.; Egli, T. (1995). Degradation of EDTA by a bacterial isolate. Poster presented at the 45th Annual Meeting of the Swiss Society for Microbiology (Speech). Lugano, Switzerland. 
  32. ^ Hennekenl, L.; Nortemann, B.; Hempel, D. C. (1995). "Influence of physiological conditions on EDTA degradation". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 44: 190–197. doi:10.1007/bf00164501. 
  33. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Chelating Agents of a New Generation as an Alternative to Conventional Chelators for Heavy Metal Ions Removal from Different Waste Waters" (PDF). InTech. Retrieved 2013-12-12. 
  34. ^ Cokesa, Z.; Knackmuss, H.; Rieger, P. (2004), "Biodegradation of All Stereoisomers of the EDTA Substitute Iminodisuccinate by Agrobacterium Tumefaciens BY6 Requires an Epimerase and a Stereoselective C−N Lyase", Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 70 (7): 3941–3947, doi:10.1128/aem.70.7.3941-3947.2004, PMC 444814 Freely accessible, PMID 15240267 
  35. ^ a b Sheppard, R. L.; Henion, J. (1997). "Peer Reviewed: Determining EDTA in Blood". Analytical Chemistry. 69 (15): 477A. doi:10.1021/ac971726p. PMID 9253241. 
  36. ^ Loyaux-Lawniczak, S.; Douch, J.; Behra, P. (1999). "Optimisation of the analytical detection of EDTA by HPLC in natural waters". Fresenius' Journal of Analytical Chemistry. 364 (8): 727. doi:10.1007/s002160051422. 
  37. ^ Cagnasso, C. E.; López, L. B.; Rodríguez, V. G.; Valencia, M. E. (2007). "Development and validation of a method for the determination of EDTA in non-alcoholic drinks by HPLC". Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 20 (3–4): 248. doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2006.05.008. 

External links[edit]

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