1.
Ore
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An ore is a type of rock that contains sufficient minerals with important elements including metals that can be economically extracted from the rock. The ores are extracted from the earth through mining, they are refined to extract the valuable element. The grade or concentration of an ore mineral, or metal, as well as its form of occurrence, will directly affect the costs associated with mining the ore. The cost of extraction must thus be weighed against the value contained in the rock to determine what ore can be processed. Metal ores are generally oxides, sulfides, silicates, or native metals that are not commonly concentrated in the Earths crust, the ores must be processed to extract the metals of interest from the waste rock and from the ore minerals. Ore bodies are formed by a variety of geological processes, the process of ore formation is called ore genesis. An ore deposit is an accumulation of ore and this is distinct from a mineral resource as defined by the mineral resource classification criteria. An ore deposit is one occurrence of a particular ore type, Ore deposits are classified according to various criteria developed via the study of economic geology, or ore genesis. Stratiform arkose-hosted and shale-hosted copper, typified by the Zambian copperbelt and this identifies, early on, whether further investment in estimation and engineering studies is warranted and identifies key risks and areas for further work. This is because the distribution of ores is unequal and dislocated from locations of peak demand. Other, lesser, commodities do not have international clearing houses and benchmark prices and this generally makes determining the price of ores of this nature opaque and difficult. Such metals include lithium, niobium-tantalum, bismuth, antimony and rare earths, most of these commodities are also dominated by one or two major suppliers with >60% of the worlds reserves. The London Metal Exchange aims to add uranium to its list of metals on warrant, the World Bank reports that China was the top importer of ores and metals in 2005 followed by the USA and Japan. Economic geology Mineral resource classification Ore genesis Petrology Froth Flotation Extractive metallurgy DILL, the “chessboard” classification scheme of mineral deposits, Mineralogy and geology from aluminum to zirconium, Earth-Science Reviews, Volume 100, Issue 1-4, June 2010, Pages 1-420
2.
Geologists
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A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth as well as the processes that shape it. Geologists usually study geology, although backgrounds in physics, chemistry, biology, field work is an important component of geology, although many subdisciplines incorporate laboratory work. Some geologists work in the mining business searching for metals, oils and they are also in the forefront of natural hazards and disasters prevention and mitigation, studying natural hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic activity, tsunamis, weather storms. Their studies are used to warn the public of the occurrence of these events. Geologists are also important contributors to climate change discussions, james Hutton is often viewed as the first modern geologist. In 1785 he presented a paper entitled Theory of the Earth to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Hutton published a two-volume version of his ideas in 1795. The first geological map of the U. S. was produced in 1809 by William Maclure, in 1807, Maclure commenced the self-imposed task of making a geological survey of the United States. Almost every state in the Union was traversed and mapped by him and this antedates William Smiths geological map of England by six years, although it was constructed using a different classification of rocks. Sir Charles Lyell first published his famous book, Principles of Geology and this book, which influenced the thought of Charles Darwin, successfully promoted the doctrine of uniformitarianism. This theory states that slow geological processes have occurred throughout the Earths history and are still occurring today, in contrast, catastrophism is the theory that Earths features formed in single, catastrophic events and remained unchanged thereafter. Though Hutton believed in uniformitarianism, the idea was not widely accepted at the time, most geologists also need skills in GIS and other mapping techniques. Geology students often spend portions of the year, especially the summer though sometimes during a January term, geologists may concentrate their studies or research in one or more of the following disciplines, Dendrochronology, the study of dating based on tree ring patterns. Economic geology, the study of ore genesis, and the mechanisms of ore creation, geochemistry, the applied branch deals with the study of the chemical makeup and behaviour of rocks, and the study of the behaviour of their minerals. Geochronology, the study of isotope geology specifically toward determining the date within the past of rock formation, metamorphism, mineralization and geological events. Geomorphology, the study of landforms and the processes that create them Hydrogeology, igneous petrology, the study of igneous processes such as igneous differentiation, fractional crystallization, intrusive and volcanological phenomena. Isotope geology, the case of the composition of rocks to determine the processes of rock. Metamorphic petrology, the study of the effects of metamorphism on minerals, marine geology, the study of the seafloor, involves geophysical, geochemical, sedimentological and paleontological investigations of the ocean floor and coastal margins. Marine geology has strong ties to physical oceanography and plate tectonics, palaeoclimatology, the application of geological science to determine the climatic conditions present in the Earths atmosphere within the Earths history
3.
Metallurgical assay
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A metallurgical assay is a compositional analysis of an ore, metal, or alloy. Some assay methods are suitable for raw materials, others are more appropriate for finished goods, raw precious metals are assayed by an assay office. Silver is assayed by titration, gold by cupellation and platinum by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry, precious metal items of art or jewelry are frequently hallmarked. Where required to be hallmarked, semi-finished precious metal items of art or jewelry pass through the official testing channels where they are analyzed or assayed for precious metal content, in the past the assay was conducted by using the touchstone method but currently it is done using X-ray fluorescence. XRF is used because this method is more exacting than the touchstone test, the most exact method of assay is known as fire assay or cupellation. This method is suited for the assay of bullion and gold stocks rather than works of art or jewelry because it is a completely destructive method. The age-old touchstone method is suited to the testing of very valuable pieces, for which sampling by destructive means. A rubbing of the item is made on a stone, treated with acids. Red radiolarian chert or black siliceous slate were used to view the resultant treated streak of the sample, differences in precious metal content as small as 10 to 20 parts per thousand can often be established with confidence by the test. It is not indicated for use with white gold, for example, the modern X-ray fluorescence is also a non-destructive technique that is suitable for normal assaying requirements. It typically has an accuracy of 2 to 5 parts per thousand and is well-suited to relatively flat and it is a quick technique taking about three minutes, and the results can be automatically printed out by computer. It also measures the content of the alloying metals present. It is not indicated, however, for articles with chemical treatment or electroplating. The process for X-ray fluorescence assay involves melting the material in a furnace, following this, a sample is taken from the centre of the molten sample. Samples are typically using a vacuum pin tube. The sample is tested by X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy. Metallurgical assay is typically completed in this way to ensure that an accurate assay is performed, X-ray Fluorescence assay is not as accurate as fire-assay but dependent on the spectrometer used, can achieve results of within 1 percent. The most elaborately accurate, but totally destructive, precious metal assay is fire-assay, if performed on bullion to international standards, the method can be accurate on gold metal to 1 part in 10,000
4.
Petrology
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Petrology is the branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of rocks. In the petroleum industry, lithology, or more specifically mud logging, is the representation of geological formations being drilled through. As the cuttings are circulated out of the borehole they are sampled, examined and tested chemically when needed, Petrology utilizes the fields of mineralogy, petrography, optical mineralogy, and chemical analysis to describe the composition and texture of rocks. Igneous rocks include volcanic and plutonic rocks, sedimentary petrology focuses on the composition and texture of sedimentary rocks. Experiments are particularly useful for investigating rocks of the lower crust and they are also one of the prime sources of information about completely inaccessible rocks such as those in the Earths lower mantle and in the mantles of the other terrestrial planets and the Moon. The work of experimental petrologists has laid a foundation on which modern understanding of igneous, important publications in petrology Ore Soil Best, Myron G. Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. ISBN 1-4051-0588-7 Blatt, Harvey, Tracy, Robert J. Owens, Brent, Petrology, igneous, sedimentary, ISBN 978-0-7167-3743-8 Dietrich, Richard Vincent, Skinner, Brian J. Gems, Granites, and Gravels, knowing and using rocks and minerals. ISBN 978-0-521-10722-8 Fei, Yingwei, Bertka, Constance M. Mysen, mantle Petrology, field observations and high-pressure experimentation. ISBN 0-941809-05-6 Philpotts, Anthony, Ague, Jay, Principles of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology
5.
Structural
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Structure is an arrangement and organization of interrelated elements in a material object or system, or the object or system so organized. Material structures include man-made objects such as buildings and machines and natural objects such as biological organisms, abstract structures include data structures in computer science and musical form. Types of structure include a hierarchy, a network featuring many-to-many links, buildings, aircraft, skeletons, anthills, beaver dams and salt domes are all examples of load-bearing structures. The results of construction are divided into buildings and non-building structures, the effects of loads on physical structures are determined through structural analysis, which is one of the tasks of structural engineering. The structural elements can be classified as one-dimensional, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional, the latter was the main option available to early structures such as Chichen Itza. Two-dimensional elements with a third dimension have little of either. The structure elements are combined in structural systems, the majority of everyday load-bearing structures are section-active structures like frames, which are primarily composed of one-dimensional structures. In biology, structures exist at all levels of organization, ranging hierarchically from the atomic and molecular to the cellular, tissue, organ, organismic, population, usually, a higher-level structure is composed of multiple copies of a lower-level structure. Structural biology is concerned with the structure of macromolecules, particularly proteins. The function of molecules is determined by their shape as well as their composition. Protein structure has a four-level hierarchy, the primary structure is the sequence of amino acids that make it up. It has a backbone made up of a repeated sequence of a nitrogen. The secondary structure consists of repeated patterns determined by hydrogen bonding, the two basic types are the α-helix and the β-pleated sheet. The tertiary structure is a back and forth bending of the chain. Chemical structure refers to both molecular geometry and electronic structure, the structure can be represented by a variety of diagrams called structural formulas. Lewis structures use a dot notation to represent the valence electrons for an atom, bonds between atoms can be represented by lines with one line for each pair of electrons that is shared. In a simplified version of such a diagram, called a skeletal formula, only carbon-carbon bonds, atoms in a crystal have a structure that involves repetition of a basic unit called a unit cell. The atoms can be modeled as points on a lattice, and one can explore the effect of symmetry operations that include rotations about a point, reflections about a symmetry planes, and translations
6.
Mineralogy
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Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, the German Renaissance specialist Georgius Agricola wrote works such as De re metallica and De Natura Fossilium which began the scientific approach to the subject. Systematic scientific studies of minerals and rocks developed in post-Renaissance Europe, the modern study of mineralogy was founded on the principles of crystallography and to the microscopic study of rock sections with the invention of the microscope in the 17th century. Nicholas Steno first observed the law of constancy of interfacial angles in quartz crystals in 1669 and this was later generalized and established experimentally by Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de lIslee in 1783. In 1814, Jöns Jacob Berzelius introduced a classification of minerals based on their chemistry rather than their crystal structure, james D. Dana published his first edition of A System of Mineralogy in 1837, and in a later edition introduced a chemical classification that is still the standard. It, however, retains a focus on the structures commonly encountered in rock-forming minerals. An initial step in identifying a mineral is to examine its physical properties and these can be classified into density, measures of mechanical cohesion, macroscopic visual properties, magnetic and electric properties, radioactivity and solubility in hydrogen chloride. If the mineral is crystallized, it will also have a distinctive crystal habit that reflects the crystal structure or internal arrangement of atoms. It is also affected by crystal defects and twinning. Many crystals are polymorphic, having more than one crystal structure depending on factors such as pressure and temperature. ”Examples of polymorphs are calcite and aragonite - two minerals with identical chemical composition, distinguished by their crystallography, calcite is rhombohedral and aragonite is orthorhombic. The crystal structure is the arrangement of atoms in a crystal and it is represented by a lattice of points which repeats a basic pattern, called a unit cell, in three dimensions. The lattice can be characterized by its symmetries and by the dimensions of the unit cell and these dimensions are represented by three Miller indices. The lattice remains unchanged by certain symmetry operations about any point in the lattice, reflection, rotation, inversion, and rotary inversion. Together, they make up an object called a crystallographic point group or crystal class. There are 32 possible crystal classes, in addition, there are operations that displace all the points, translation, screw axis, and glide plane. In combination with the point symmetries, they form 230 possible space groups, most geology departments have X-ray powder diffraction equipment to analyze the crystal structures of minerals. X-rays have wavelengths that are the order of magnitude as the distances between atoms. In a sample that is ground to a powder, the X-rays sample a random distribution of all crystal orientations, powder diffraction can distinguish between minerals that may appear the same in a hand sample, for example quartz and its polymorphs tridymite and cristobalite
7.
Diamond
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Diamond is a metastable allotrope of carbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the face-centered cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice. Diamond is less stable than graphite, but the rate from diamond to graphite is negligible at standard conditions. Diamond is renowned as a material with superlative physical qualities, most of which originate from the covalent bonding between its atoms. In particular, diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any bulk material and those properties determine the major industrial application of diamond in cutting and polishing tools and the scientific applications in diamond knives and diamond anvil cells. Because of its extremely rigid lattice, it can be contaminated by very few types of impurities, such as boron, small amounts of defects or impurities color diamond blue, yellow, brown, green, purple, pink, orange or red. Diamond also has relatively high optical dispersion, most natural diamonds are formed at high temperature and pressure at depths of 140 to 190 kilometers in the Earths mantle. Carbon-containing minerals provide the source, and the growth occurs over periods from 1 billion to 3.3 billion years. Diamonds are brought close to the Earths surface through deep volcanic eruptions by magma, Diamonds can also be produced synthetically in a HPHT method which approximately simulates the conditions in the Earths mantle. An alternative, and completely different growth technique is chemical vapor deposition, several non-diamond materials, which include cubic zirconia and silicon carbide and are often called diamond simulants, resemble diamond in appearance and many properties. Special gemological techniques have developed to distinguish natural diamonds, synthetic diamonds. The word is from the ancient Greek ἀδάμας – adámas unbreakable, the name diamond is derived from the ancient Greek αδάμας, proper, unalterable, unbreakable, untamed, from ἀ-, un- + δαμάω, I overpower, I tame. Diamonds have been known in India for at least 3,000 years, Diamonds have been treasured as gemstones since their use as religious icons in ancient India. Their usage in engraving tools also dates to early human history, later in 1797, the English chemist Smithson Tennant repeated and expanded that experiment. By demonstrating that burning diamond and graphite releases the same amount of gas, the most familiar uses of diamonds today are as gemstones used for adornment, a use which dates back into antiquity, and as industrial abrasives for cutting hard materials. The dispersion of light into spectral colors is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds. In the 20th century, experts in gemology developed methods of grading diamonds, four characteristics, known informally as the four Cs, are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds, these are carat, cut, color, and clarity. A large, flawless diamond is known as a paragon and these conditions are met in two places on Earth, in the lithospheric mantle below relatively stable continental plates, and at the site of a meteorite strike. The conditions for diamond formation to happen in the mantle occur at considerable depth corresponding to the requirements of temperature and pressure
8.
Drilling rig
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A drilling rig is a machine that creates holes in the earth sub-surface. Drilling rigs can be mobile equipment mounted on trucks, tracks or trailers, the term rig therefore generally refers to the complex of equipment that is used to penetrate the surface of the Earths crust. Small to medium-sized drilling rigs are mobile, such as used in mineral exploration drilling, blast-hole, water wells. Hoists in the rig can lift hundreds of tons of pipe, other equipment can force acid or sand into reservoirs to facilitate extraction of the oil or natural gas, and in remote locations there can be permanent living accommodation and catering for crews. Marine rigs may operate thousands of miles distant from the base with infrequent crew rotation or cycle. Oil and natural gas drilling rigs are used not only to identify geologic reservoirs and this frees up the drilling rig to drill another hole and streamlines the operation as well as allowing for specialization of certain services, i. e. completions vs. drilling. New portable drillcat technology uses smaller portable trailer mounted rigs with shorter 3-metre drill pipe, the shorter drill pipe also allows a much smaller mast. Portable trailer mounted drilling rigs have drill ratings from 90 to 200 metres depending on mud pump flow and pressure ratings, other, heavier, truck rigs are more complicated, thus requiring more skill to run. Theyre also more difficult to handle due to the longer 6-to-9-metre drill pipe. Large truck rigs also require a much higher overhead clearance to operate, large truck drills can use over 570 litres of fuel per day, while the smaller Deeprock Style portable drills use a mere 20 to 75 litres of fuel per day. This makes smaller, more portable rigs preferable in remote or hard-to-reach places, Drilling rigs used for rock blasting for surface mines vary in size dependent on the size of the hole desired, and is typically classified into smaller pre-split and larger production holes. Underground mining uses a variety of drill rigs dependent on the purpose, such as production, bolting, cabling. Until internal combustion engines were developed in the late 19th century, the drilling of wells for the manufacture of salt began by the Song Dynasty in China. The well had a small mouth, as small as a small bowl. Archaeological evidence of the tools used in deep-well dwelling are kept. According to Salt, A World History, a Qing Dynasty well, also located in Zigong, diamond drilling has remained essentially unchanged since its inception. In early oil exploration, drilling rigs were semi-permanent in nature, in more recent times drilling rigs are expensive custom-built machines that can be moved from well to well. Some light duty drilling rigs are like a crane and are more usually used to drill water wells
9.
Rotary drill
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A hammer drill, also known as a rotary hammer, roto-drill or hammering drill, is a rotary drill with a hammering action. The hammering action provides a short, rapid hammer thrust to pulverize relatively brittle material and these tools are usually electrically powered, and increasingly powered by batteries. The same technology is used in electric demolition hammers, also known as chipping guns or breakers. With cam-action drills, the chuck has a mechanism whereby the entire chuck and bit move forward and backwards on the axis of rotation, the motion is tied to the rotation of the chuck. This type of drill is used with and without the hammer action. These units are smaller and are commonly powered by cordless technology. They are not typically used for production construction drilling, but rather for occasional drilling of concrete or masonry, an EP hammer has two pistons—a drive piston, and a flying piston. An electric motor turns a crank, which moves the piston back. The flying piston is at the end of the same cylinder. The pistons do not actually touch, but the air pressure in the EP cylinder allows for a more efficient transfer of hammering energy than springs in the cam-action style tools. The majority of modern rotary hammers as well as all electric-powered chipping guns or jack-hammers all utilize this EP technology, modern units allow the hammer and rotation functions to be used separately or in combination, i. e. hammer mode, drill mode, or both. When used in the mode, the tool provides a drilling function similar to a jackhammer. Hammer drills of both working principles are well suited for drilling holes in masonry or stone and they are also both used to drill holes in concrete footings to pin concrete wall forms and to drill holes in concrete floors to pin wall framing. Larger rotary hammers can also be used for doweling, and through-holes in concrete, the hammering action helps to break up the masonry so that it can be removed by the drill bits flutes. A hammer drill has a specially designed clutch that allows it to not only spin the drill bit, the actual distance the bit travels in and out and the force of its blow are both very small, and the hammering action is very rapid—thousands of BPM or IPM. For this reason, a hammer drill drills much faster than a drill through concrete or brick. Holes in hard materials are needed for anchor bolts, concrete screws, hammer drills almost always have a lever or switch that locks off the special hammer clutch, turning the tool into a conventional drill for wood or metal work. Hammer drills are more expensive and more bulky than regular drills, for example, an electrician would use a hammer drill for attaching items to either wood studs or masonry walls
10.
Drill bit
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Drill bits are cutting tools used to remove material to create holes, almost always of circular cross-section. Drill bits come in sizes and shape and can create different kinds of holes in many different materials. In order to create holes drill bits are attached to a drill, the drill will grasp the upper end of a bit called the shank in the chuck. Drill bits come in sizes, described in the drill bit sizes article. A comprehensive drill bit and tap size chart lists metric and imperial sized drill bits alongside the required screw tap sizes, there are also certain specialized drill bits that can create holes with a non-circular cross-section. While the term drill may refer to either a machine or a drill bit for use in a drilling machine. In this article, for clarity, drill bit or bit is used throughout to refer to a bit for use in a drilling machine, Drill bit geometry has several characteristics, The spiral in the drill bit controls the rate of chip removal. A fast spiral drill bit is used in high feed rate applications under low spindle speeds, the point angle, or the angle formed at the tip of the bit, is determined by the material the bit will be operating in. Harder materials require a larger point angle, and softer materials require a sharper angle, the correct point angle for the hardness of the material influences wandering, chatter, hole shape, and wear rate. The lip angle determines the amount of support provided to the cutting edge, a greater lip angle will cause the bit to cut more aggressively under the same amount of point pressure as a bit with a smaller lip angle. Both conditions can cause binding, wear, and eventual failure of the tool. The proper amount of lip clearance is determined by the point angle, the length of a bit determines how deep a hole can be drilled, and also determines the stiffness of the bit and accuracy of the resultant hole. While longer bits can drill deeper holes, they are flexible meaning that the holes they drill may have an inaccurate location or wander from the intended axis. Twist drill bits are available in lengths, referred to as Stub-length or Screw-Machine-length, the extremely common Jobber-length. Most drill bits for use have straight shanks. For heavy duty drilling in industry, bits with tapered shanks are sometimes used, other types shanks used include hex-shaped, and various proprietary quick release systems. The diameter-to-length ratio of the bit is usually between 1,1 and 1,10. Much higher ratios are possible, but the higher the ratio, the best geometry to use depends upon the properties of the material being drilled
11.
San Andreas Fault
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The San Andreas Fault is a continental transform fault that extends roughly 800 miles through California. It forms the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, and its motion is right-lateral strike-slip. The fault was first identified in 1895 by Professor Andrew Lawson of UC Berkeley and it is often described as having been named after San Andreas Lake, a small body of water that was formed in a valley between the two plates. However, according to some of his reports from 1895 and 1908, following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Lawson concluded that the fault extended all the way into southern California. In 1953, geologist Thomas Dibblee astounded the scientific establishment with his conclusion that hundreds of miles of lateral movement could occur along the fault. A project called the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth near Parkfield, Monterey County, is drilling into the fault to improve prediction and this is the approximate location of the epicenter of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. The fault returns onshore at Bolinas Lagoon just north of Stinson Beach in Marin County, from Fort Ross the northern segment continues overland, forming in part a linear valley through which the Gualala River flows. It goes back offshore at Point Arena, after that, it runs underwater along the coast until it nears Cape Mendocino, where it begins to bend to the west, terminating at the Mendocino Triple Junction. The central segment of the San Andreas fault runs in a direction from Parkfield to Hollister. The southern segment begins near Bombay Beach, California, box Canyon, near the Salton Sea, contains upturned strata associated with that section of the fault. The fault then runs along the base of the San Bernardino Mountains, crosses through the Cajon Pass. These mountains are a result of movement along the San Andreas Fault and are called the Transverse Range. In Palmdale, a portion of the fault is easily examined at a roadcut for the Antelope Valley Freeway, the fault continues northwest alongside the Elizabeth Lake Road to the town of Elizabeth Lake. As it passes the towns of Gorman, Tejon Pass and Frazier Park and this restraining bend is thought to be where the fault locks up in Southern California, with an earthquake-recurrence interval of roughly 140–160 years. Northwest of Frazier Park, the runs through the Carrizo Plain. The Elkhorn Scarp defines the fault trace along much of its length within the plain, the southern segment, which stretches from Parkfield in Monterey County all the way to the Salton Sea, is capable of an 8. 1-magnitude earthquake. At its closest, this fault passes about 35 miles to the northeast of Los Angeles. Such a large earthquake on this segment would kill thousands of people in Los Angeles, San Bernardino, Riverside, and surrounding areas
12.
Tempe, Arizona
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Tempe, also known as Haydens Ferry during the territorial times of Arizona, is a city in Maricopa County, Arizona, United States, with the Census Bureau reporting a 2010 population of 161,719. The city is named after the Vale of Tempe in Greece, Tempe is located in the East Valley section of metropolitan Phoenix, it is bordered by Phoenix and Guadalupe on the west, Scottsdale on the north, Chandler on the south, and Mesa on the east. Tempe is also the location of Arizona State University, the Hohokam lived in this area and built canals to support their agriculture. They abandoned their settlements during the 15th century, with a few individuals, fort McDowell was established approximately 25 mi northeast of present downtown Tempe on the upper Salt River in 1865 allowing for new towns to be built farther down the Salt River. The two settlements were Haydens Ferry, named after a service operated by Charles T. Hayden, and San Pablo. The ferry became the key river crossing in the area, the Tempe Irrigating Canal Company was soon established by William Kirkland and James McKinney to provide water for alfalfa, wheat, barley, oats, and cotton. Pioneer Darrell Duppa is credited with suggesting Tempes name, adopted in 1879, after comparing the Salt River valley near a 300-foot -tall butte, to the Vale of Tempe near Mount Olympus in Greece. The Maricopa and Phoenix Railroad, built in 1887, crossed the Salt River at Tempe, the Tempe Land and Improvement Company was formed to sell lots in the booming town. Tempe became a hub for the surrounding agricultural area. The completion of Roosevelt Dam in 1911 guaranteed enough water to meet the needs of Valley farmers. Less than a later, Arizona was admitted as the 48th state. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Tempe has expanded as a suburb of Phoenix, Tempe is the headquarters and executive office of one Fortune 500 company, Insight Enterprises. Limelight Networks, LifeLock, First Solar, the Salt River Project, Circle K, Fulton Homes, cold Stone Creamery was originally headquartered in Tempe and location #0001 is still in operation today at 3330 S McClintock Drive in Tempe. Tempe is also home to the first and largest campus of Arizona State University and it was the longtime host of the Fiesta Bowl, although the BCS game moved to University of Phoenix Stadium, located in Glendale, in 2007. It then began hosting the Insight Bowl which is now known as the Cactus Bowl, edward Jones Investments has a regional headquarters in Tempe. China Airlines operates the Phoenix office in Tempe, Tempe houses several great performance venues including Gammage Auditorium and the Tempe Center for the Arts. On New Years Eve, the city hosts the Fiesta Bowl Block Party, the event typically has a national band heading a concert, along with several other local and national bands. Gammage Auditorium was also the site of one of the three Presidential debates in 2004, and Super Bowl XXX was played at Sun Devil Stadium, additionally, Tempe is the spring training host city of the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim
13.
North Bay, Ontario
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North Bay is a city in Northeastern Ontario, Canada. It is the seat of Nipissing District, and takes its name from its position on the shore of Lake Nipissing, the site of North Bay was on the main canoe route west from Montreal. Apart from First Nations tribes, voyageurs and surveyors, there was activity in the Lake Nipissing area until the arrival of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1882. The CPR started its expansion from Callander Station, Ontario. That was the point where the Canada Central Railway extension ended, the CCR was owned by Duncan McIntyre who amalgamated it with the CPR and became one of the handful of officers of the newly formed CPR. The CCR started in Brockville and extended to Pembroke and it then followed a westward route along the Ottawa River passing through places like Cobden, Deux-Rivières, and eventually to Mattawa at the confluence of the Mattawa and Ottawa Rivers. It then proceeded cross-country towards its destination, Bonfield. Duncan McIntyre and his contractor James Worthington piloted the CCR expansion, Worthington continued on as the construction superintendent for the CPR past Bonfield. He remained with the CPR for about a year until he left the company, McIntyre was uncle to John Ferguson who staked out future North Bay after getting assurance from his uncle and Worthington that it would be the divisional and a location of some importance. In 1882, John Ferguson decided that the bay of Lake Nipissing was a promising spot for settlement. North Bay was incorporated as a town in 1891, the first mayor was John Bourke. More importantly, Bourke developed the western portion of North Bay after purchasing the interest of the Murray Brothers from Pembroke, the land west of Klock Avenue was known as the Murray block. Bourke Street is named after John Bourke, Murray Street is named after the Murrays. During construction of the T&NO, silver was discovered at Cobalt, the Canadian Northern Railway was subsequently built to North Bay in 1913. The Georgian Bay Canal was a transportation system that proposed to connect the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean. The entire passageway from the Ottawa River to Lake Nipissing and down the French River to Georgian Bay was surveyed in the first decade of the 20th century. Financing was an obstacle and, as time passed, transportation patterns changed and interfered with the earlier practicality of the giant venture. Despite this, there were groups who hoped it would happen as late as 1930
14.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
