1.
Republic of Mahabad
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The Republic of Mahabad was a short-lived self-governing state in present-day Iran. The Republic of Mahabad arose alongside the Azerbaijan Peoples Government, a similarly short-lived state, the capital of Republic of Mahabad was the city of Mahabad, in northwestern Iran. The state encompassed a small territory, including Mahabad and the adjacent cities of Bukan, Piranshahr, the republics foundation and demise was a part of the Iran crisis during the opening stages of the Cold War. Iran was invaded by the Allies in late August 1941, with the Soviets controlling the north, in the absence of a central government, the Soviets attempted to attach northwestern Iran to the Soviet Union, and promoted Kurdish nationalism. From these factors resulted a Kurdish manifesto that above all sought autonomy, in the town of Mahabad, inhabited mostly by Kurds, a committee of middle-class people supported by tribal chiefs took over the local administration. A political party called the Society for the Revival of Kurdistan was formed, Qazi Muhammad, head of a family of religious jurists, was elected as chairman of the party. Although the republic was not declared until December 1945, Qazis committee administered the area for more than five years until the fall of the republic. In September 1945, Qazi Muhammad and other Kurdish leaders visited Tabriz to seek the backing of a Soviet consul to found a new republic, there, they learned that the Democratic Party of Azerbaijan was planning to take control of Iranian Azerbaijan. On December 10, the Democratic Party took control of East Azerbaijan Province from Iranian government forces, Qazi Muhammad decided to do likewise, and on December 15, the Kurdish Peoples Government was founded in Mahabad. On January 22,1946, Qazi Muhammad announced the formation of the Republic of Mahabad, some of the aims mentioned in the manifesto include, Autonomy for the Iranian Kurds within the Iranian state. The use of Kurdish as the medium of education and administration, the election of a provincial council for Kurdistan to supervise state and social matters. All state officials to be of local origin, unity and fraternity with the Azerbaijani people. The establishment of a law for both peasants and notables. The Republic of Mahabad depended on Soviet support, archibald Bulloch Roosevelt, Jr. grandson of the former U. S. However, its close relationship to the USSR alienated the republic from most Western powers, causing them to side with Iran. Qazi Muhammad did not deny that his republic was funded and supplied by the Soviets and he claimed that this was a lie fabricated by the Iranian military authorities, and added that his ideals were very different from the Soviets. Following the fall of Mahabad, the Soviets allowed for the passage of Mustafa Barzani. Both contemporary friends and foes tended to exaggerate the Soviet role in the Republic of Mahabad and this notion was also widespread amongst Kurdish tribal leaders, many of whom disagreed with Qazis leadership. The Soviets were however generally ambivalent towards the Kurdish administration and they did not maintain a garrison near Mahabad and also did not have any civil agent of sufficient standing to exercise any great influence
2.
Iraqi Kurdistan
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Iraqi Kurdistan, officially called the Kurdistan Region by the Iraqi constitution, is located in the north of Iraq and constitutes the countrys only autonomous region. The region is governed by the Kurdistan Regional Government, with the capital being Erbil. Kurdistan is a democracy with its own regional Parliament that consists of 111 seats. Masoud Barzani, who was elected as president in 2005, was re-elected in 2009. In August 2013 the parliament extended his presidency for two years. His presidency concluded on 19 August 2015 after the parties failed to reach an agreement over extending his term. The new Constitution of Iraq defines the Kurdistan Region as an entity of Iraq. The four governorates of Duhok, Hawler, Silemani, and Halabja comprise around 41,710 square kilometres and have a population of 5.5 million. In 2014, during the 2014 Iraq Crisis, Iraqi Kurdistans forces also took much of the disputed territories of Northern Iraq. The establishment of the Kurdistan Region dates back to the March 1970 autonomy agreement between the Kurdish opposition and the Iraqi government after years of heavy fighting, further, the 1980–88 Iran–Iraq War, especially the Iraqi Armys Al-Anfal Campaign, devastated the population and environment of Iraqi Kurdistan. As Kurds continued to fight government troops, Iraqi forces finally left Kurdistan in October 1991, in 1992, the major political parties in the region, the Kurdistan Democratic Party and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, established the semi-autonomous Kurdistan Regional Government. The 2003 invasion of Iraq and subsequent political changes led to the ratification of a new constitution in 2005, the name Kurdistan literally means Land of the Kurds. The suffix -stan is Iranian for place of or country, in English translations of the Constitution of Iraq, it is called Kurdistan, four times in the phrase region of Kurdistan and once in the phrase Kurdistan region. The regional government calls it the Kurdistan Region, the full name of the government is the Kurdistan Regional Government, abbreviated KRG. Kurds also refer to the region as Başûrê Kurdistanê or Başûrî Kurdistan, during the Baath Party administration in the 1970s and 1980s, the region was called the Kurdish Autonomous Region. The Kurdistan Region is largely mountainous, with the highest point being a 3,611 m point known locally as Cheekha Dar, the mountains are part of the larger Zagros mountain range which also extends into Iran. There are many rivers running through the region, which is distinguished by its fertile lands, plentiful water, the Great Zab and the Little Zab flow from the east to the west in the region. The Tigris river enters Iraqi Kurdistan from Turkish Kurdistan, the mountainous nature of Iraqi Kurdistan, the difference of temperatures in its various parts, and its wealth of waters make it a land of agriculture and tourism
3.
Flag of Kurdistan
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The flag of Kurdistan is used by Kurds as a symbol for the Kurds desire for independence. The flag is banned in Iran, Syria and Turkey because of its association with Kurdish nationalism and it is the official flag of the autonomous Kurdistan Region in Iraq. The main characteristic of the flag is the golden sun emblem at its center. The emblems sun disk has 21 rays, equal in size and shape, with the single odd ray at top, number 21 is a venerated number, standing for rebirth/renaissance in the ancient and native Kurdish religion of Yazdanism and its modern offshoots. The flag appeared then again in 1932 and in the media one of its creators described it as red, white. A similar flag was used by the Soviet-backed Kurdish Republic known as the Republic of Mahabad in 1946. A document dealing with the adaptation to international standards of the National Flag of Kurdistan was prepared by Mehrdad Izady. It was instantly adopted by the international Flag Institute, in 1999, the Parliament of the Kurdish Regional Government adopted the standardized flag to be the official and standard presentation of the Kurdish National Flag in all its aspects. Kurdish flag day High Resolution Kurdistan Flag For Print
4.
Iraqi Kurdistan independence referendum, 2017
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An independence referendum for Iraqi Kurdistan was planned to be held in 2014 amidst controversy and dispute between the Kurdistan Regional Government and the federal government of Iraq. The Kurdistan Regional Government had criticized Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, the Peshmerga stepped into this vacuum, taking control of the city of Kirkuk and other northern areas long claimed by the Kurdistan Regional Government but until then outside its formal control. On 1 July, Kurdish president Masoud Barzani announced his intention to call a referendum on independence sometime in 2014 on the grounds that the country had been effectively partitioned already. In September 2014, after Maliki was replaced as minister by Haider al-Abadi. On 23 March, Barzani stated, in an interview with Al-Monitor media website, however in late October, Iraqi Kurdistan Prime Minister Nechervan Barzani confirmed that the referendum would not be held until after Mosul had been liberated. In August 2016, Haider Al-Abadi said that he saw self-determination as an undisputed right. In early April 2017, as the liberation of Mosul was progressing, the political parties of Iraqi Kurdistan. Iraqi Kurdistan independence referendum,2005 Kirkuk status referendum
5.
Kirkuk status referendum
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The referendum was initially planned for 15 November 2007, but was delayed first to 31 December, and then by a further six months. The Kurdish Alliance emphasized that the delay was for technical and not for political reasons, as the election was not called by early December 2008, it was postponed again as part of the deal to facilitate the regional elections on 31 January 2009. As of 2017, no date has been set. Thousands of Kurds returned to Kirkuk following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the referendum will decide whether enough have returned for the area to be considered Kurdish. Since Article 140 specified that the referendum had to occur by the end of 2007, some argue that the article has expired, the Kurds took control of the city of Kirkuk and much of the surrounding area in 2014 during the war against ISIS. N. Special Representative for Iraq negotiated an extension of the deadline for six months, however, the federal parliament decided to refer the matter to the Constitutional Court to rule whether the article was now expired or how it should be implemented. We shall accept a solution for Kirkuk worked out by the parties inside the city, the government of Nouri al-Maliki appointed a Commission on the Normalisation of the Status of Kirkuk to implement the de-arabization program. The Justice Minister, Hashim Abderrahman al-Shibli, a secular Sunni Arab from the secular Iraqi National List coalition was appointed the head, a program of normalisation was to be followed by a census by July 2007 and a referendum in November 2007. In April 2007, Turkish intelligence sources claimed that Kurdistan President Barzani had offered bribes to various Iraqi officials involved in the Commission, turkey claimed that Iraqi Kurdistan was planning to annex Kirkuk illegally, and that the rights of Iraqi Turkmen would be violated if Kirkuk joined Iraqi Kurdistan. Shibli resigned as head of the Commission in March 2007, citing disagreements with his own coalition on Kirkuk, raed Fahmy Jahid, another Sunni Arab from the INL was appointed his replacement in August 2007. In February 2007, the Commission adopted a plan, which gave Sunni Arabs $15,000 to relocate back to their towns of origin. In September 2007, it was reported that the program had been bogged down in technical difficulties. The Kurdish parties were reported to have agreed a delay to the timetable for the census, shiite Arab parties The Sadrist Movement called for the referendum to be postponed in June 2007. Supreme Islamic Iraqi Council, In July 2007 they were reported to have supported a delay, Kurdish parties Massoud Barzani, Kurdistan Democratic Party head has said that a delay of three to four months would be acceptable. In September 2007, a news reported that the Kurdish parties had agreed a postponement to May 2008. However, Barzani said that failure to implement the law would result in civil war. Sunni Arab parties The Iraqi National Dialogue Front called for a delay in June, turkey The Turkish government strongly opposed holding of the upcoming referendum in 2007, calling for it to be postponed. Iraqi Deputy Prime Minister Barham Salih said in a statement posted on the internet on 9 December 2006, consequently, this constitutional question will be resolved by the Iraqis themselves
6.
Kurdistan Regional Government
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The Kurdistan Regional Government is the official ruling body of the predominantly Kurdish region of Northern Iraq referred to as Iraqi Kurdistan or Southern Kurdistan. The cabinet is selected by the majority party or list who also select the prime minister of the Iraqi Kurdistan region, the president is directly elected by the electorate of the region and is the head of the cabinet and chief of state who delegates executive powers to the cabinet. The prime minister is traditionally the head of the legislative body, the president of Iraqi Kurdistan is also the commander-in-chief of the Peshmerga Armed Forces. Parliament creates and passes laws by a majority vote, and the president has the power to any bill. Since 1992, the bodies have been primarily based in Arbil. The KRG parliament, or the Iraqi Kurdistan Parliament, is elected by popular vote, voters are given one vote and may choose a single party from the list. The cabinet is selected by the majority party or parties, the majority party or coalition appoints and negotiates terms for the prime minister of the Kurdistan region. The president of the Kurdistan region is directly elected by its citizens, currently, the cabinet is composed of the largest two governing parties, the KDP and the PUK and their allies. Due to the 7% threshold the only parties which had a chance of winning seats in parliament were the KDP and the PUK. The election resulted in a victory for the KDP, which with 45% of the vote gained 51 seats while the PUK with 44% of the vote gained 49 seats. However, due to allegations of election fraud they divided the seats 50-50, the government however collapsed and resulted in a civil war breaking out in 1994. The last parliamentary meeting was held in 1996 and it resulted in the creation of two Kurdish states, a PUK-controlled state based in Silemani and a KDP-controlled state based in Hewler, both proclaiming themselves as legitimate rulers of Kurdistan. Previously, the region was divided up by administrative provinces that were under control of either the KDP or the PUK, in 2004, the two parties created one unified list or coalition called the Democratic Patriotic Alliance of Kurdistan, which included several smaller parties as well. Not surprisingly, the received the majority of votes allowing the KDP. The coalition achieved 104 of the 111 seats in parliament, in June 2012, the IKP held its first official meeting with Massoud Barzani as the elected president. After six long months, the IKP finally agreed on administration positions, in 2006, the government was selected with Nechervan Idris Barzani as prime minister. The parties also negotiated terms for the prime minister, Nechervan Barzani, who is a member of the KDP, was expected to serve two years and would be replaced with a PUK candidate in 2008. Governorate elections were held in Iraq, in 2005, including in the three Kurdish provinces, the elections resulted in a KDP victory in Hewler and Duhok with PUK a victory in Silemani
7.
President of Iraqi Kurdistan
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The President of the Kurdistan Regional Government heads the Kurdistan Autonomous Region in northern Iraq. He is part of the Kurdistan Presidency Council, the unity government soon collapsed and in 1994 a civil war broke out, which lasted until 1998. This resulted in the establishment of two Kurdistan Regional Governments in 1996, a KDP-controlled one in Erbil and a PUK-controlled one in Sulaymaniyah, in 2009 the system was changed to elect the president and on 25 July 2009 presidential elections were held resulting in Barzanis re-election. President of Kurdistan Regional Government, Politics of Iraqi Kurdistan Prime Minister of Iraqi Kurdistan
8.
Masoud Barzani
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Masoud Barzani is an Iraqi Kurdish politician who has been President of the Iraqi Kurdistan Region since 2005, as well as leader of the Kurdistan Democratic Party since 1979. Masoud Barzani succeeded his father, the Kurdish nationalist leader Mustafa Barzani, working closely with his brother Idris Barzani until Idriss death, Barzani and various other Kurdish groups fought the forces of the Iraqi government in Baghdad during the Iran–Iraq War. For much of time, the Kurdish leadership was exiled to Iran. Just a few months after the creation of the autonomous zone, the two main Kurdish parties, namely Barzanis KDP and the Jalal Talabani-led Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, split the vote, and subsequently split the government ministries evenly. In May 1994, however, fighting broke out between the Peshmerga of the PUK and of KDP, on August 31,1996 Barzani called on the assistance of Saddam Husseins regime to help him combat the PUK, which was receiving Iranian assistance. With the aid of the Iraqi army, the KDP drove the PUK from Iraqi Kurdistans major cities, the PUK eventually regrouped and retook Suleimani and parts of Hawler province. An end to the war was brokered in 1998 in the Washington Peace Accords. After the invasion of Iraq in 2003, the KDP and PUK have gradually established a regional government. Barzani became a member of the Iraqi Governing Council and was the president of the council in April 2004 and he was elected as the President of Iraqi Kurdistan by the Parliament of Iraqi Kurdistan in June 2005. In his presidency Barzani has established institutions in the Kurdistan Region to develop its emerging democracy, strengthen alliances. During the same visit Pope Benedict XVI received Barzani and paid tribute to the President for his role in providing refuge, the Atlantic Award is annually conferred to prominent international figures for their role in promoting peace, stability and religious tolerance in their regions. As President of the Kurdistan Region, Barzani has made visits to several countries including, meeting with US President George W. In July 2009, in the first direct elections for the presidency of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, Masoud Barzani was reelected as president by a popular ballot, the elections were closely monitored by international observers and the Iraqi Electoral Commission. In August 2013, after the expiration of his 8-year term, insufficient financial transparency in the region serves to both exacerbate the accusations and hamper efforts to find any evidence of malfeasance. In July 2010 the opposition paper Rozhnama accused the Barzani-led KDP of pocketing large sums from illegal oil-smuggling, in May 2010 the journalist Sardasht Osman was killed after criticising the Barzani family. In December 2005, Kamal Qadir, a Kurdish legal scholar with Austrian citizenship, was arrested in Iraqi Kurdistan for a series of articles criticizing Barzanis government and he was charged with defamation and sentenced to thirty years imprisonment. He was released in 2006 following international pressure from Amnesty International, Reporters Without Borders, Barzani was born in Mahabad, Iran, during the rule of the Republic of Mahabad. He has five sons and three daughters, sirwan Barzani is a nephew of his
9.
Prime Minister of Iraqi Kurdistan
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The Prime Minister of Iraqi Kurdistan heads the Kurdistan Regional Government, the government of Kurdistan Autonomous Region in northern Iraq. The government is elected as part of the Kurdistan National Assembly, the unity government soon collapsed and in 1994 a civil war broke out, which lasted until 1998. This resulted in the establishment of two Kurdistan Regional Governments in 1996, a KDP-controlled one in Erbil and a PUK-controlled one in Sulaymaniyah, barham Salih held the post of Prime Minister until 17 January 2012 after which he relinquished his position to Nechervan Idris Barzani. Prime Ministers of Kurdistan Regional Government, Politics of Iraqi Kurdistan President of Iraqi Kurdistan
10.
Nechirvan Barzani
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Nechervan Idris Barzani is a Kurdish politician who has been Prime Minister of the Kurdistan Regional Government of Iraqi Kurdistan since March 2012. He also previously served as Prime Minister from March 2006 to August 2009, Barzani was born in 1966 in the Barzan region of Iraqi Kurdistan. The word Nêçîr means hunt in the Kurdish language, and Nêçîrvan means the hunter, also, the word Naxçir means hunt in Persian and Naxçirban means hunter. This is a used for ethnic Kurdish males. Barzani as a surname reflects the origin from Barzan. In 1975, his family was forced into exile in Iran and he often accompanied his father, Idris, on official visits to Middle Eastern and European countries, a foreshadowing of his future political career. Following the sudden death of his father, he took up a role in Kurdish politics. He is the grandson of PDK founder Mustafa Barzani as well as nephew of the current president of the Iraqi Kurdistan Region, Massoud Barzani. Barzani was elected to the KDP central committee at its 10th Congress in 1989 and re-elected at the 11th Congress in 1993, after the 1991 Gulf War, he participated in the negotiations with the Iraqi government. In 1996, he was appointed deputy minister of the Kurdistan Democratic Partys controlled region in Iraqi Kurdistan. Following the unification process in 2005 between the main Kurdish parties and the formation of the Kurdistan Regional Government, elections were held, in 2006, Barzani was selected as the Prime Minister of the KRG. His term was expected to end in 2008 but after an agreement by the majority coalition in power, from September 2009 to January 2012, a Kurdish politician from the ruling KDP-PUK coalition, Barham Salih, replaced Barzani as prime minister. Barzani was reappointed as minister in 2012 as part of a political agreement by the ruling coalition. Many of Barzanis supporters believe that he played an important role in developing the Kurdistan Region, during his first term as prime minister, his supporters nicknamed his cabinet as The Development Cabinet praising his work in the development of the Kurdistan region. Washington & Jefferson College presented Barzani with honorary degree and the ceremony was held on May 17,2008
11.
Iraqi Kurdistan Parliament
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The Kurdistan Parliament, also called the Iraqi Kurdistan Parliament, is the parliament of Iraqi Kurdistan. Prior to the Kurdistan Election Law passed in March 2009, the body was referred to as the Kurdistan National Assembly, the IKP is a 111-member unicameral body in which 11 seats are reserved for non-Kurdish minority communities of the Iraqi Kurdistan region. The IKP building is located in Erbil, the capital of the Iraqi Kurdistan region. The IKP holds two sessions per year, each covering a span of four out of the year. The IKP works by committees that focus on areas such as legal affairs, education and higher education, finance and economy, or relations. Since its formation, the IKP has passed several important laws relating to administration, political parties, the press, the economy, culture, Iraqi Kurdistan Parliament is the Kurdistan Region’s democratically elected parliament. The KNA consists of one elected chamber, the three main functions of the IKP are to examine proposals for new law, to scrutinise government policy and administration, and to debate the major issues of the day. The founding principles of the IKP are liberty, pluralism, accountability, openness, to protect civilians from attacks by Iraqi military forces following the 1991 Gulf War, the US, UK and France initiated a no-fly zone above the 36th line of latitude which cuts across Kurdistan. On the ground, a security zone was established by military forces from eleven countries and these no-fly and security zones strongly supported and encouraged refugees, including those who had left in the 1970s, to return to their homes. Later in 1991, Saddam Hussein withdrew his forces and his administration, including the national flag, faced with the administrative vacuum and double embargo, the Kurdistan Front, an alliance of diverse political groups in Iraqi Kurdistan, decided to hold a general election. Their goal was to establish an administration to provide for public services. The population also expressed a desire to choose its representatives. The election, held on 19 May 1992, was the first free, voter turnout was very high and the elections were deemed to be free, fair, and democratic by international observers. After decades of dictatorship, the people in Kurdistan were able to vote for their representatives and this regional election led to the formation of the first Kurdistan National Assembly and the establishment of the Kurdistan Regional Government. The leadership and the people of the Iraqi Kurdistan region decided to part of Iraq. By 15 July 1992, the Kurdistan National Assembly had convened,1, the first law passed by the assembly, established it as the Region’s legislature. The first election for the Kurdistan National Assembly was held in 1992, no elections were then held for the next 13 years until the 2005 elections which coincided with the election of the Iraqi Interim Government and election of governorate councils. Under Article 8 of the Kurdistan Electoral Law, elections must be held four years
12.
Iraqi Kurdistan parliamentary election, 2009
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The Iraqi Kurdistan legislative elections of 2009 took place on 25 July 2009. A total of 2.5 million citizens of Iraqi Kurdistan were eligible to vote for the parliamentary, people currently living outside Iraqi Kurdistan were not allowed to vote. The elections followed the Iraqi Kurdistan elections of 2005, the parliamentary elections coincided with the direct election of the President of Kurdistan. Unlike the Iraqi Kurdistan elections of 2005, the president of Kurdistan was to be chosen directly through popular votes, a referendum to approve the constitution of Iraqi Kurdistan originally planned for the same day was put back to 1 August. Campaigning for the elections started on 22 June 2009 and was to be stopped 48 hours before voting started. The elections were held with 84 registration centers and 5,403 polling stations in Kurdistan and 5 polling stations in Baghdad, the elections for the Kurdistan National Assembly were administered by the Independent High Electoral Commission. In addition, international observers monitored the elections, including from the European Commission, the elections were originally scheduled to take place on 19 May, but were delayed until 25 July. Eleven of the 111 seats are reserved for minorities, five are reserved for Assyrians, five for Turkmen, and one for Armenians. The Assyrian seats will be contested by four lists, the Turkmen seats by four as well, the voting system to be used is the closed list system, as was used for the Iraqi Kurdistan legislative election,2005. At least 30% of the candidates on each list must be female, there were 509 candidates running in the elections, from 25 parties or lists. Five of these entities were electoral alliances and others were political parties, the Kurdistan Islamic Union and Islamic Group in Kurdistan formed a coalition with two secular parties called the Service and Reform List. The Change List has accused the parties of sacking regional government employees who had links to their party. They also claimed that a colonel in the regional army had been arrested for supporting them. A Kurdistani List candidate responded by saying No party allows its members to vote for another list, the Progress List also accused regional intelligence agents of threatening to kill their supporters. Supporters of the change List were shot at in Kifri, supporters of the Kurdistani and Change Lists clashed in Sulaimaniyah and were separated by police wielding taser guns. Worker-communist Party of Kurdistan boycotted the elections because conditions and principles for a fair elections were not met, initial reports gave the Kurdistani List 60 percent of the vote, equating to around 55 seats. The Change List claimed it had won around 28 seats, turnout was put at 78. 5%, an indication of the enthusiasm the contest has generated among Kurds. The following tables show the results of the parliamentary and presidential votes by party, seats in yellow indicate reserved minority seats
13.
Iraqi Kurdistan presidential election, 2009
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The Iraqi Kurdistan presidential elections of 2009 took place on 25 July 2009, coinciding with the Iraqi Kurdistan parliamentary elections of 2009. A total of 2.5 million citizens of Iraqi Kurdistan were eligible to vote in the parliamentary and it is the first time that the President of Iraqi Kurdistan was chosen directly through popular votes. People currently living outside Iraqi Kurdistan were not allowed to vote, like the parliamentary elections, campaigning for the elections officially started on 22 June 2009 and was to be stopped 48 hours before voting starts. The elections were held with 84 registration centers and 5,403 polling stations in Kurdistan and 5 polling stations in Baghdad, below are the candidates listed with their lot number. Ahmed Mohammed Rasul 11 Massoud Barzani 12 Hussein Garmiyani 13 Halow Ibrahim Ahmed 14 Kamal Mirawdeli 15 Halow Ibrahim Ahmed was seen as the challenger to the incumbent. A total of 1,819,652 people, approximately 80% of the registered voters, Iraqi Kurdistan legislative election,2009 Kurdistan National Assembly Iraqi Kurdistan
14.
Iraqi Kurdistan parliamentary election, 2013
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The Iraqi Kurdistan legislative elections of 2013 took place on 21 September 2013. It was the legislative election in Iraqi Kurdistan since 1992. The candidates were competing for a total of 111 seats out of which 11 seats were reserved for minorities, according to the Iraqi High Electoral Commission, there were 366 female and 736 male candidates for the elections. A total of 2,653,743 people were eligible to vote throughout the three provinces of Erbil, Sulaymaniyah and Dohuk of which 74% cast their ballots, the legislative elections together with presidential and provincial were originally planned for September 21. However, in the leading to the elections the parliament extended Massoud Barzani’s term for another two years. Meanwhile, IHEC delayed the elections until November 21. Under Iraqi Kurdistan Election law political parties were allowed to campaign from August 28 until September 17th, the Peshmerga and police voted on September 19, in order for them to be able to guard the voting polls on September 21. The election marked the first time the Kurdistan Democratic Party and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan were running as individual parties since 1992, the Kurdistan Democratic Party was expected to win the most votes. The party has had a backing in the provinces of Duhok and Erbil. The Patriotic Union of Kurdistan meanwhile was facing competition from the Movement for Change, the Movement for Change had in the previous elections secured a surprising 25 seats in Sulaymaniyah, which had until then been a stronghold for the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan. The Patriotic Union of Kurdistan also faced uncertainty due to internal conflicts, on 5 September, a gunman opened fire on a campaign rally by the Movement for Change in the city of Sulaymaniyah, wounding one person. In the same week, clashes broke out between the opposition Movement for Change and PUK and KDP supporters that led to 12 people, mostly policemen, no party won enough votes to form a government outright. The Kurdistan Democratic Party won the most votes in Erbil and Duhok, the province of Sulaymaniyah was heavily divided. The Movement for Change won the second most votes which made it the prime partner for the Kurdistan Democratic Party to form a coalition with, the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, unexpectedly, lost more than a third of its seats. The Patriotic Union of Kurdistan announced that it respected the results, soon after the announcement high-ranking member of the party resigned accepting responsibility for the bad results. Both Islamists and socialists made gains, a total of 77 men and 34 women were elected
15.
Iraqi Kurdistan general election, 2018
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The Iraqi Kurdistan presidential elections of 2015 were to take place on 20 August 2015, and have since been postponed. Presidential elections were due to coincide with elections in 2013. However, in the leading to the elections the parliament extended Massoud Barzani’s term for another two years. Others have expressed concern that an extension of Barzanis term could lead to a President for Life scenario. In July 2016, Barzani announced that he would not seek another term as president
16.
Kurdistan Democratic Party
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The Kurdistan Democratic Party, usually abbreviated as KDP or PDK, is one of the main Kurdish parties in Iraqi Kurdistan. It was founded in 1946 in Mahabad in Iranian Kurdistan, the KDP has been described as being controlled by Barzani tribe. In 1946, the leader of the Soviet-backed Republic of Mahabad, Qazi Muhammad, announced the formation of a Kurdish Democratic Party based in Iran, or Eastern Kurdistan. The Soviet Union, then supporting the Kurdish national struggle against the monarchies of Iran and Iraq and it was well-known in nationalist circles that the relations between the two men were not easy. Barzani attempted to create a special dispensation for the Barzanis in Iran, but Qazi rebuffed them stating There is to be one party. In the meantime, Barzani was negotiating with Baghdad to allow his return to Iraq, the new KDP of Iraq held its first congress in Baghdad on August 16,1946. The 32 delegates elected a committee with Hamza Abd Allah as secretary-general, Shaykh Latif and Kaka Ziyad Agha as vice-presidents. The party demanded autonomy for Iraqi Kurdistan, stating that the political, the party programme was not specific about any social or economic content for fear of alienating the highly conservative tribal chiefs and landlords who had agreed to support it. After the collapse of the Mahabad republic in early 1947, Ibrahim Ahmad, previously the Sulaymaniyah representative of the Iranian KDP, joined the Iraqi KDP. Throughout the late 1940s and early 1950s, the KDP and the Kurdish members of the Iraqi Communist Party steadily increased their working relationship – in many cases fielding joint candidates. By 1954 the KDP was advocating the replacement of the Iraqi monarchy with a democratic republic – much to the consternation of many of their tribal supporters. On July 14,1958, Brigadier Abd al-Karim Qasim and his fellow Free Officers staged a coup that promised a brighter future for the Kurds of Iraq. Although the KDP and ICP were excluded from the new United National Front government, Qasim formed a three-man Sovereignty Council of a Sunni, a Shii, and a Kurd. The KDP immediately pledged its support for the new regime, in its newspaper hailing a new era of freedom and equality for the Kurdish, Ibrahim Ahmad attempted to pressure Qasim into including Kurdish autonomy in the Provisional Constitution. However, Qasim was under greater pressure from his deputy Abdul Salam Arif. They objected to Qasims apparently pro-Kurdish attitude and his friendliness towards Mustafa Barzani in particular, Qasim had officially named him Chairman of the KDP, gave him one of Nuri as-Saids old residences in Baghdad, an automobile, and a handsome monthly stipend. While the Communists and Kurds settled scores, Qasim used the revolt as a pretext to purge Nationalists and Baathists from the Iraqi armed forces and government. Qasim used an almost identical event that July, but this time in Kirkuk, as a pretext to act against the KDPs closest allies, the Communists
17.
Patriotic Union of Kurdistan
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The Patriotic Union of Kurdistan is a social democratic Kurdish political party in Iraqi Kurdistan. The Patriotic Union of Kurdistan was founded on May 22,1975, by coordination between Jalal Talabani, Nawshirwan Mustafa, Ali Askari, Fuad Masum, Adel Murad, and Abdul Razaq Faily. Talabani, a student leader, lawyer, journalist and resistance leader, has been the Secretary General of the PUK since its founding. The PUK describes its goals as self-determination, human rights, and democracy and peace for the Kurdish people of Kurdistan, the current Deputy Secretary Generals are Kosrat Rasul Ali and Barham Salih. Fuad Masum, co-founder of the PUK, is the current President of Iraq, the PUK traces its political heritage to Sulaymaniyah native Ibrahim Ahmad. It was well-known in nationalist circles that the relations between the two men Mustafa and Qazi were not easy, Ibrahim Ahmad was soon joined by up-and-coming intellectual and socialist Jalal Talabani. Barzani and Ahmad were known to each other. But while each wanted to reduce the influence in the KDP. When the first Baath Party government was deposed in a coup led by Abdul Salam Arif, Mulla Mustafa signed an agreement with Arif in his personal capacity, rather than as president of the KDP. Arif threatened force against any Kurdish opponent of Mustafa, while Mustafa declared that any resistance to Baghdad would constitute a declaration of war against himself, Ibrahim Ahmad and Jalal Talabani decried this complicity, and as they saw it, submission, to Baghdad. Mulla Mustafa rallied the conservatives and tribal leaders to his side, furious debates and campaigning followed, but Ahmads and Talabanis arguments could not dislodge Mulla Mustafas position as the popular figurehead of the Kurdish people. At the 6th Party Congress of the KDP in July 1964, a few days later Mulla Mustafa sent his son, Idris Barzani with a large force to drive Ahmad, Talabani, and their 4,000 or so followers into exile in Iran. With that, Mulla Mustafa had finally achieved undisputed control of the KDP. After the defeat of the Kurds in the 1974–1975 Revolt, on May 22,1975, Talabani met in a shop called Gligla, in Aum Rmana, Damascus, with Fuad Mausm, Adel Murad. On 22, May 1975 the PUK announced its formation via Syrian, the day after, Talabani visited West Germany Berlin and met three other co-founders Nawshirwan Mustafa, Omar Shekhmus, and Kamal Fwad, and some other activist. On June 1,1975 the PUK was announced again in Berlin, the PUK served as an umbrella organization unifying various trends within the Kurdish political movement in Iraq. In 1992, the constituent groups within the PUK merged into a political movement that affirmed its social-democratic identity. Their communique ascribed the collapse of the revolt to the inability of the feudalist, tribalist, the PUK received grass roots support from the urban intellectual classes of Iraqi Kurdistan upon its establishment, partly due to 5 of its 7 founding members being PhD holders and academics
18.
Gorran Movement
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According to the BBC Gorran had already shaken the political landscape in Kurdish areas in March 2010. Support for the Movement for Change stems from the fact that it is the new, dynamic, fresh option in Kurdistan. One of Gorrans main objectives is to uproot rampant corruption, the party is particularly popular with the youth of Kurdistan and campaigns against patronage. It consists of a mix of PUK/KDP members, Peshmerga, Gorran supporters have often faced violent intimidation. Gorran have stated in The Economist that the KDP and PUK have done a job of promoting the Kurds’ interests at the federal parliament in Baghdad. The party in the 2009 and 2010 elections won in the city, the movements platform for the 2009 election was to de-politicise the regional government, strengthen the judiciary, limit political interference in the economy and make the budget more transparent. Supporting federalism for Iraqi Kurdistan, it said disputes with the government could be solved through dialogue based on the Iraqi Constitution. The party viewed the results as a huge victory. Considered to be the opposition to Kurdistan List, particularly in areas dominated by the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan. The campaign focused on addressing what it sees as corruption undertaken by the Kurdistan Democratic Party and it managed to win eight seats. In 2011 the party called for the resignation of the Cabinet and this was accompanied by protests against the Kurdistan Regional Government and the Kurdistan Democratic Party. Some have criticized the party for causing unnecessary unrest, arguing there is no need for the Kurdish government to step down. Amnesty International and the Human Rights Watch have urged protests to be allowed, since there were shootings which led to deaths, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch called for an independent investigation into the killings
19.
Kurdistan Islamic Union
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Kurdistan Islamic Union, colloquially referred to as Yekgirtû, is an Islamist party in Iraqi Kurdistan is in principle independent and is directly responsible for policy matters. Salaheddine Bahaaeddin was elected Secretary General at its 1st general conference in 1994, other leaders include Hadi Ali, the second man of the party after secretary general. Ali was elected as the Director of the partys Political Bureau after their convention in 2008. This Council includes all the leaders of the party and they are about 40-50 people, ‘Ali Muhammad Ahmad, Dendaar Najmen al-Doski, and Umar ‘Abd al-Aziz. 730 is the numerical designation for the political alliance led by Iraqs two largest Kurdish parties, the Kurdistan Democratic Party and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan. KIU professes non-violence, and supports the Islamic Kurdish League, which provides services to the poor, represented on the Iraqi Governing Council. In November 2005, this KIU decided to run separate from the other Kurdish groups in the December 15,2005 election for the Iraqi Council of Representatives, in the January 2005 elections, KIU was part of a broad coalition of Kurdistan parties. This time it is running independently with an agenda of reform and it declared that pluraslim in Kurdistan is not practised, and that voters should be given a choice. On the Kurdish national causes, the KIU says it will be defending the rights, the party won in the December 2005 elections 1. 3% and 5 out of 275 seats. In 2015, the party joined the Muslim Brotherhood, in 2016, the party elected Salaheddine Bahaaeddin again, succeeding Mohammed Faraj as the partys Secretary-General. On December 2, after Friday prayers, unknown persons rampaged through the city of Zakho attacking liquor stores, beauty salons, a Chinese massage parlor, the sale of alcohol in Iraq is often the preserve of Christians and Yezidis, who were disproportionate victims of the arson attacks. The violence quickly spread throughout the Bahdinan area of Iraqi Kurdistan, to nearby Dohuk, at least 30 people were injured. Government spokesmen for the Kurdistan Democratic Party blamed the violence on an associated with the Kurdistan Islamic Union. But KIU and cleric himself has refuted these allegations, the KIU has a strong support base in the region - although not as strong as the KDP. Subsequent to the attacks, the KDP supporters set fire to more than four KIU political and media offices throughout the Bahdinan area of Kurdistan Region
20.
Dohuk Governorate
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Dohuk Governorate is a governorate in kurdistan. Its capital is the city of Dohuk and it includes the city of Zakho, which has at various times served as a checkpoint for the border with Turkey. Prior to 1976 it was part of Nineveh Governorate, which was called Mosul Governorate, Dohuk Governorate is mainly inhabited by Kurds and Assyrians, with a small number of Yazidis and Armenians. The estimated population in 2015 was 1,423,114
21.
Erbil Governorate
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Erbil Governorate, sometimes referred to by the alternative spelling Arbil Governorate, is a governorate in Iraqi Kurdistan. It derives its name from the city of Erbil, which is its capital, Erbil Governorate covers an area of 15,074 km2 in the north of Iraq, with a population of 2,009,367 people. It is largely populated by Kurds but has minority populations of Assyrians, Turkmen, University of Kurdistan Hewlêr, Public English-medium university Ishik University, Private university that belongs to Fezalar Educational Institutions in Erbil
22.
Disputed territories of Northern Iraq
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The disputed territories of Northern Iraq are regions defined by article 140 of the Constitution of Iraq as being Arabised during the Baath Party rule in Iraq. Most of these regions had previously inhabited by non-Arabs, most notably ethnic Assyrians and some Kurds. The disputed areas have been a concern for Arabs and Kurds, especially since the US invasion. Kurds gained territory to the south of Iraqi Kurdistan after the US-led invasion in 2003 to regain what land they considered historically theirs, however, during the 2014 ISIL offensive, Iraqi Kurdistans forces also took over much of the disputed territories. Tensions between Iraqi Kurdistan and the central Iraqi government mounted through 2011–2012 on the issues of power sharing, oil production and territorial control. In April 2012, Masoud Barzani, president of the semi-autonomous Iraqi Kurdistan, on 16 November 2012, a military clash between the Iraqi forces and the Peshmerga resulted in one person killed. CNN reported that 2 people were killed and 10 wounded in clashes at the Tuz Khurmato town. On the night of November 19, clashes between security forces of the central Iraqi government and the KRG forces in Tigrit left 12 Iraqi soldiers and one civilian dead, according to Doğan news agency. The clash erupted when Iraqi soldiers attempted to enter northern Iraq, the Committee for implementing article 140 defines the disputed territories as those areas Arabised and whose border modified between 17 July 1968 and 9 April 2003. Those areas include parts of four governorates of pre-1968 borders, one of the major problems in trying to implement Article 140 was a discrepancy in the definition of disputed area. The article only refers to regions that would go through this process as Kirkuk. In 2003, Kurdish negotiator Mahmud Othman suggested that Kurdish majority areas below the Green line be attached to the KRG immediately, sunnis felt as if Kurds should gain no additional land as a result of the US invasion. Reattaching Kirkuk districts to reflect the 1975 boundaries posed many problems to Iraqis, sinjar District and northern parts of Tel Afar District and Nineveh plains is currently under the control of Iraqi Kurdistan, as are Aqra, Al-Hamdaniya, Al-Shikhan and Tel Kaif Districts. The disputed territories include the Makhmur District which has separated from the rest of the governorate since 1991. Makhmur District is currently under the control of Iraqi Kurdistan, Kirkuk Governorate is defined by its pre-1968 borders, including Chamchamal and Kalar districts of Sulaymaniyah Governorate and Tooz District of Salah ad Din and Kifri District of Diyala. Kirkuk province borders were altered, the Kurdish dominated districts were added to Erbil, the Arab districts were added to Kirkuk province. Turkmen villages were added to Diyala and Salahuddin provinces, on 12 June 2014, all of Kirkuk Governorate was taken by Kurdish forces when Iraqi army fled following the success of the ISIL2014 Northern Iraq offensive. Kirkuk Governorate is currently under the control of Iraqi Kurdistan, many but not all of these districts are currently under the control of Iraqi Kurdistan
23.
Nineveh Governorate
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Nineveh Governorate is a governorate in northern Iraq that contains the ancient Assyrian city of Nineveh. It was a part of Assyria from the 25th century BC to the 7th century AD, It has an area of 37,323 km2. Its chief city and provincial capital is Mosul, which lies across the Tigris river from the ruins of ancient Nineveh, Tal Afar is the second-biggest city. Before 1976, it was called Mosul Province and included the present-day Dohuk Governorate, a massive offensive to retake the city, dubbed Operation We Are Coming, Nineveh, began in October 2016. Its two cities endured the 2003 Invasion of Iraq and emerged unscathed, in 2004, Mosul and Tal Afar were fierce between US-led Iraqi insurgency. The insurgents moved to Nineveh after the Battle of Fallujah in 2004, after the invasion, the military of the province was led by David Petraeus of the 101st Airborne Division and later by Carter Ham as the multi-national brigade for Iraq. During the American civil head of the office of the Coalition Provisional Authority was a US Foreign Service Officer and former Kurdish refugee to the States. Mustafa administered her nominees on the council and through members of the Kashmoula family. In June 2004, Osama Kashmoula became the governor of the province. He was succeeded as interim Governor by Duraid Kashmoula, who was elected governor in January 2005, in April 2009, Atheel al-Nujaifi, a hardline Arab nationalist and member of Al-Hadba, became governor. While the Kurdish list proposed Hassan al-Allaf, an Arab affiliated with the Islamic Party, an offensive to retake Mosul from ISIL control began in October 2016, with Iraqi and Kurdish soldiers supported by a U. S. -led coalition of 60 nations. Neighboring Iraqi regions are Dohuk Governorate to the north, Erbil Governorate to the east, Saladin Governorate to the south-east, in the west it shares a border with Syria, mostly Al-Hasakah Governorate, and also Deir ez-Zor Governorate in the south. Now Makhmur District is part of Erbil Governorate, aqrah District and the northern part of Al-Shikhan District are parts of Dohuk Governorate. There are significant numbers of Arabs, Assyrians, Kurds, Turkmens as well as Yazidis both in towns and cities, and in their own villages and regions. There are also numbers of Armenians, Kawliya and Mandeans, Shabaks, in religion, the majority of Arabs are Sunni Muslim while Turkmen are mostly Shiite. Kurds are largely Sunni Muslim, although some follow the native Yarsan religion, Armenians are also exclusively Christian and mostly followers of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Yazidis, Shabaks and Mandeans follow their own beliefs, Shabakism, Yazidism. However, Arab Sunnis form a majority in the province, the main language spoken is Arabic
24.
Kirkuk Governorate
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Kirkuk Governorate or Kirkuk Province is a governorate in northern Iraq, occupied by Iraqi Kurdistan since 2014. The governorate has an area of 9,679 square kilometres, in 2017 the estimated population was 1،259،561 people. The provincial capital is the city of Kirkuk and it is divided into four districts. From 1976 to 2006, it was named At-Tamim Governorate, which means Nationalization and refers to the ownership of the regional oil. Prior to 1976 it had been named Kirkuk Governorate, in 2006, the name Kirkuk Governorate was restored. The Arab districts were added to Kirkuk province, turkmen villages were added to Diyala and Salahuddin provinces. The number of Kurds remained relatively constant from 1957 until 1977, the Turkmens were seriously affected by the Baath changing Kirkuk borders their percentage fell from 21% to 7%. Starting from 1977,2000 Christians were registered as Arabs, from the end of the Gulf War to 1999, about 11,000 Kurdish families were deported from Kirkuk. Since the 2003 invasion of Iraq,100,000 Kurds have returned to the city of Kirkuk, many Arab families, particularly those of recent arrival have been encouraged by the Kurdish government to leave, including financial incentive to do so. In their place have arrived long-banished Kurds, from as far away as Egypt, Turkey, once again, Kirkuk is fast becoming a Kurdish-majority city, if it is not already
25.
Diyala Governorate
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Diyala Governorate or Diyala Province is a governorate in eastern Iraq. Governor, Muthana al-Timimi Deputy Governor, Mohammed Jassim al-Jubouri Diyala Governorate extends to the northeast of Baghdad as far as the Iranian border and it covers an area of 17,685 square kilometres. A large portion of the province is drained by the Diyala River, because of its proximity to two major sources of water, Diyalas main industry is agriculture, primarily dates grown in large groves. The province also contains one of the largest olive groves in the Middle East and it is also recognized as the orange capital of the Middle East. The Hamrin Mountains pass through the governorate and this changed drastically starting in 2003. It is now the Sunni Arabs that are exposed to expulsion and loss of house, presently, an estimated population of some 1,224,000 people live in this province. Sunni Arabs, once a majority until 2003, have been losing their positions due to violence of the Iraqi Civil War and since summer of 2014. Nearly half the Sunni Arab population has been pushed out of the province, presently, they constitute no more than 25 percent of the population of the Diyala Governorate. In contrast, the Feyli Kurds who were deported from this area from the 1960 to 1990s by various Sunni Arab governments in Baghdad are returning-as have other Kurds and they now dominate the entire Khanaqin district and all others bordering on Iran in this province. At the lowest point during the rule of Saddam Hussein, their numbers had fallen to just 7% of the total, today, they boast to around 30% and increasing as they take up their old homes in places such a Jalula/Jalawla and Al-Sadiyah. The rest of the residents are Iraqi Sunni Turkmen predominantly in Kifri, the Diyala Media Center was built under contract by a Japanese architectural firm in 1989. It is one of Iraqs few independent radio and television stations offer local television. There is evidence that Al-Qaeda in Iraq has recently moved its base of operations from Anbar province to Diyala, during late 2006 Baqubah and much of the Diyala province were reported to have come under Sunni insurgent control. This insurgent control is reported to have continued through 2007 and into early 2008, on May 11,2007, Army Maj. Gen. S. Military, and the debate about the level of commitment from the U. S. government. By mid-2007 the Islamic State of Iraq, already holding Baqubah and most of the province under its control, there is already strong evidence the Islamic State of Iraq has moved most of its command and control operations to Diyala. In June 2007, US forces launched Operation Arrowhead Ripper with night air assaults in Baquba, by August 19, Baquba was largely secured, although some insurgent presence remained in the city and surrounding areas. Fighting continued in the Diyala River valley but by the beginning of October, US and Iraqi forces held most of the province while the insurgents were in retreat to the north, Diyala is still a contested province
26.
Foreign relations of Iraqi Kurdistan
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Foreign relations of Iraqi Kurdistan refers to external relations of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq with foreign states and organizations. Foreign relations are conducted by Kurdistan Regional Government, political stability and a rapidly developing economy have given the KRG the opportunity to pursue an energetic and broad foreign policy. The KRGs foreign relations are integral components of the Kurdistan Regions economic, the KRGs primary body for directing its foreign affairs is the Department of Foreign Relations. The KRGs foreign policy vision has paved the way for the establishment of diplomatic representations in Kurdistan. A total of 32 countries have a presence in Erbil, with Canada, India. Multinational bodies, including the EU, UN, ICRC, JICA, the KRGs presence abroad has grown significantly since 2007. Currently the KRG has representative offices in 14 countries, the Kurdistan Regional Government established the Department of Foreign Relations in September 2006 to conduct relations with the international community. Today, the DFR is an part of the government. DFR is headed by Foreign Minister Falah Mustafa Bakir from 2006, India purchases Kurdish crude oil sold through Turkish companies. Several Indian citizens work in Iraqi Kurdistan, many Kurds travel to India for educational or medical purposes. Hawrani also expressed his desire to see the Indian government open a consulate in Erbil, in November 2014, the Indian government sent special envoy Ambassador Suresh K. Reddy to visit Kurdistan and meet Kurdish government officials. The Ambassador also praised the role of Peshmerga forces in fighting ISIL, the President of the Iraqi Kurdistan, Massoud Barzani answered a question while visiting Kuwait in May 2006 about the Kurdish–Israeli relationship, It is not a crime to have relations with Israel. If Baghdad established diplomatic relations with Israel, we could open a consulate in Erbil, in a policy address in 2014, Israeli Prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu supported the establishment of an independent Kurdish state. He said, The Kurds are a people that have proven political commitment and political moderation. The best example of the Kurdistan Regions evolving relations with its neighbors is its relationship with Turkey, flourishing trade between the two, an influx of Turkish investment, and energy agreements have paved the way for increasing geopolitical cooperation, and helped overcome decades of tension. Increasing trade volumes between Turkey and Kurdistan empirically demonstrate the importance of this developing relationship, past tensions have been supplanted by a new energy partnership and Turkey seems far less worried about the prospect of an independent Iraqi Kurdistan. Consulate General of Turkey in Erbil was established in March 2010, Iraqi Kurdistan does not yet have representative office in Turkey. The UK is providing military equipment including heavy machine guns
27.
Kurdish nationalism
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These territories lie in northern Iraq, northwestern Iran, eastern and southeastern Turkey, and northern Syria. Early Kurdish nationalism had its roots in the days of the Ottoman Empire, Kurdish nationalist movements have long been suppressed by Turkey, Iran and the Arab-majority states of Iraq and Syria, all of whom fear loss of territory to a potential independent Kurdistan. Since the 1970s, Iraqi Kurds have pursued the goal of greater autonomy and even outright independence against the Baath Party regimes, since the 1980s, the Kurdish-Turkish conflict led by Kurdish armed groups challenged the Turkish state, which responded with martial law. After the 2003 invasion of Iraq that ousted dictator Saddam Hussein, Iraqi Kurdistan became a region, enjoying a great measure of self-governance. Kurdish nationalism has long been espoused and promoted by the worldwide Kurdish diaspora, the Kurdish nationalist struggle first emerged in the late 19th century when a unified movement demanded the establishment of a Kurdish state. In 1880, Ubeydullah, demanded political autonomy or outright independence for Kurds, the uprising against Qajar Persia and the Ottoman Empire was ultimately suppressed by the Ottomans and Ubeydullah, along with other notables, were exiled to Istanbul. Western powers fighting the Turks also promised the Kurds they would act as guarantors for Kurdish freedom, one particular organization, the Kürdistan Teali Cemiyeti was central to the forging of a distinct Kurdish identity. While these researchers had ulterior political motives their findings were embraced, under the millet system, Kurds primary form of identification was religious with Sunni Islam being the top in the hierarchy. While the Ottoman Empire embarked on a modernization and centralization campaign known as the Tanzimat, Kurdish regions retained much of their autonomy, the Sublime Porte made little attempt to alter the traditional power structure of segmented, agrarian Kurdish societies – agha, sheikh, and tribal chief. This bolstered the Kurds authority and autonomy, for instance, the Ottoman qadi, in 1908, the Young Turks come to power asserting a radical form of Turkish ethnic identity and closed Ottoman associations and non-Turkish schools. At the end of World War I, Kurds still had the right to conduct their affairs in Kurdish, celebrate unique traditions. The once politically unified Ottoman Kurdistan was then divided into the different administrative and political systems in Iraq, Turkey, equal citizenship rights were enshrined in Turkeys 1920 Provisional Constitution. Article 8 asserted that the country was composed of both Turks and Kurds but under the law they would be treated as common citizens, however, the 1923 formation of the Republic of Turkey marked the beginning of continuing period of reduced civic rights for Kurds. The Caliphate was abolished a year later as well as all public expressions and institutions of Kurdish identity, Kurdish madrassas, newspapers, religious fraternal organizations, and associations were shut down. Kurdish regions were placed under martial law and the use of the Kurdish language, dress, folklore and it was this continued repression that led to reemergence of Kurdish nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s. During this period the primary goal of the movement was to resolve its grievances with the Turkish government through legitimate channels, civic rights were temporarily improved with the Turkish Constitution of 1961 which allowed freedom of expression, the press, and association for Kurds. The 1964 Political Parties Act criminalized Kurdish political parties and the acknowledgment of the existence of different languages and races in Turkey, the 1972 Law of Association further restricted rights to association and political organization. The failure to address the Kurdish grievances throughout the 1960s and 1970s led to alternate avenues of resolution, in 1984 the Kurdistan Workers Party started a guerrilla insurgency against the Turkish Republic
28.
Rojava
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On 17 March 2016, its de facto administration self-declared the establishment of a federal system of government as the Federation of Northern Syria–Rojava. While entertaining some foreign relations, the NSR is not officially recognized as autonomous by the government of Syria or any state or organization. The protagonists of the NSR consider its constitution a model for a federalized Syria as a whole, the updated December 2016 constitution of the polity uses the name Democratic Federal System of Northern Syria. Also known as Western Kurdistan or Syrian Kurdistan, Rojava is regarded by Kurdish nationalists as one of the four parts of Kurdistan. However, Rojava is polyethnic and home to sizable ethnic Kurdish, Arab, Assyrian and Turkmen populations and this diversity is mirrored in its constitution, society and politics. Rojava lies to the west of the Tigris along the Turkish border and it is composed of three cantons, Jazira, Kobanî, Afrin Canton, as well as the proposed Shahba region. Jazira Canton borders Iraqi Kurdistan to the southeast, other borders are fluid in the Syrian Civil War. All cantons are at latitude approximately 36 and a half degrees north and they are relatively flat except for the Kurd Mountains in Afrin Canton. In terms of governorates of Syria, Rojava is formed from most of al-Hasakah Governorate and the parts of Raqqa Governorate. Rojava is part of the Fertile Crescent, and includes archaeological sites dating to the Neolithic, in antiquity, the area was part of the Mitanni kingdom, its centre being the Khabur river valley in modern-day Jazira Canton. It was then part of Assyria for a long time, the last surviving Assyrian imperial records, from between 604 BC and 599 BC, were found in and around the Assyrian city of Dūr-Katlimmu in what is now Jazira Canton. Later it was ruled by the Achaemenids, Hellenes, Artaxiads, Romans, Parthians, Sasanians, Byzantines, Kurdish settlement in Syria goes back to before the Crusades of the 11th century. A number of Kurdish military and feudal settlements from before this period have been found in Syria, such settlements have been found in the Alawite and north Lebanese mountains and around Hama and its surroundings. The Crusade fortress of Krak des Chevaliers, which is known in Arabic as Hisn al-Akrad, was originally a Kurdish military settlement before it was enlarged by the French Crusaders, similarly, the Kurd-Dagh has been inhabited by Kurds for more than a millennium. The Kurdish regiments that accompanied Saladin established self-ruled areas in and around Damascus and these settlements evolved into the Kurdish sections of Damascus of Hayy al-Akrad and the Salhiyya districts located in the north-east of Damasacus on Mount Qasioun. The Kurdish community’s role in the continued under the Ottomans. Kurdish soldiers and policeman from city were tasked with maintaining order and protecting the pilgrims’ route toward Mecca. Many Kurds from Syria’s rural hinterland joined the local Janissary corp in Damascus, later, Kurdish migrants from diverse areas, such as Diyarbakir, Mosul and Kirkuk, also joined these military units which caused an expansion of the Kurdish community in the city
29.
Libertarian socialism
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It criticizes wage labour relationships within the workplace. Instead, it emphasizes workers self-management of the workplace and decentralized structures of political organization, as such libertarian socialism, within the larger socialist movement, seeks to distinguish itself both from Leninism/Bolshevism and from social democracy. Libertarian socialism is a Western philosophy with diverse interpretations, though some general commonalities can be found in its many incarnations and they propose that this economic system be executed in a manner that attempts to maximize the liberty of individuals and minimize concentration of power or authority. Libertarian socialists are critical of coercive institutions, which often leads them to reject the legitimacy of the state in favor of anarchism. Adherents propose achieving this through decentralization of political and economic power, usually involving the socialization of most large-scale private property, the next recorded use of the term was in Europe, when libertarian communism was used at a French regional anarchist Congress at Le Havre. January the following year saw a French manifesto issued on Libertarian or Anarchist Communism, finally,1895 saw leading anarchists Sébastien Faure and Louise Michel publish La Libertaire in France. The word stems from the French word libertaire, and was used to evade the French ban on anarchist publications, in the context of the European socialist movement, libertarian has conventionally been used to describe those who opposed state socialism, such as Mikhail Bakunin. Early in the century, libertarian socialism was as powerful a force as social democracy. Libertarian socialists played a role in the Russian revolutions of 1905 and 1917. Libertarian socialists played a dominant role in the Mexican Revolution of 1911, twenty years after World War I was over, libertarian socialists were still strong enough to spearhead the social revolution that swept across Republican Spain in 1936 and 1937. The history of socialist thought includes a long associational and anti-statist tradition prior to the victory of the Bolshevism in the east. Libertarian socialists are anti-capitalist, and can thus be distinguished from right-wing libertarians, whereas capitalist principles concentrate economic power in the hands of those who own the most capital, libertarian socialism aims to distribute power more widely amongst members of society. This is sometimes characterized as a desire to maximize free creativity in a society in preference to free enterprise and it is a negatively connoted term used to draw an analogy between slavery and wage labor by focusing on similarities between owning and renting a person. Libertarian socialists believe that freedom, society works towards a system in which individuals have the power to decide economic issues along with political issues. Many libertarian socialists believe that large-scale voluntary associations should manage industrial production and they see a distinction between concepts of private property and personal possession. Private property grants an exclusive control over a thing whether it is in use or not. Also the separation of work and life is questioned, and alternatives suggested that are underpinned by notions of dignity, self-realization, Libertarian socialists generally regard concentrations of power as sources of oppression that must be continually challenged and justified. Libertarian socialists typically oppose rigid and stratified structures of authority, be political, economic
30.
Democratic Union Party (Syria)
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The Democratic Union Party is a left-wing Kurdish political party established in 2003 by Kurdish activists in northern Syria. It is a member of the National Coordination Body for Democratic Change. It is the political party in the Federation of Northern Syria - Rojava. Chemical engineer Saleh Muslim became its chairman in 2010, and Asiyah Abdullah its co-chairwoman in June 2012, on its website, the PYD describes itself as believing in social equality, justice and the freedom of belief as well as pluralism and the freedom of political parties. The PYD is a member of organisations, e. g. the Kurdistan Communities Union. Like the KCK umbrella in general, and even more so and this policy stands in stark contrast to the Kurdish nationalist visions of the Kurdish National Council. In 1975, Assad offered the Iraqi Kurdish leader Jalal Talabani a safe haven in Damascus to found his new Patriotic Union of Kurdistan. From the 1980s, Assad also supported the Kurdistan Workers Party against his regional rival Turkey, until he bowed to pressure from Ankara and sought improved political, in 1998, the Syrian government banned Kurdish political parties and organizations, including the PUK and PKK. Five years later, the PYD was founded by Syrian Kurds, at the same year, Saleh Moslem left the Kurdistan Democratic Party of Syria, an affiliate of the Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iraq and joined the newly formed PYD. According to the Carnegie Middle East Center, the PYD suffered years of violent repression at the hands of the Syrian regime. Turkish sources have claimed that the PYD was secretly founded in 2003 by PKK while other sources have described it as a political party founded by Kurdish separatists. According to Human Rights Watch, the Syrian government saw the party as a threat due to its ability to mobilise large crowds. Therefore, many PYD activists imprisoned in the aftermath of the uprising were not given the amnesty that Bashar al-Assad granted other Kurdish detainees as a goodwill gesture. Security forces—including a unit imported from Damascus—fired teargas in an effort to disperse the crowds, when some protesters reportedly began to resist by throwing stones, the police opened fire with live ammunition, killing one and injuring at least two more. Dozens of Kurds were detained in the police crackdown. Most were soon released, but 15 activists—3 of them party officials—remained imprisoned and were sent before a court on various charges. Syrian security forces also continued to harass activists and their families even following their release. Although critical of the Syrian government, the PYD also criticised the Syrian opposition, including the Syrian National Council, the SNCs unwillingness to support Kurdish autonomy led all but one of its Kurdish parties to leave by February 2012
31.
Syriac Union Party (Syria)
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The Syriac Union Party later became part of the PYD-led Movement for a Democratic Society coalition governing in the Federation of Northern Syria - Rojava. It has three deputies in the Syrian Democratic Council, the Syriac Union Party has set up the Syriac Military Council militia as well as the Sutoro police force to protect Assyrian communities in their settlement areas in northeast Syria. The Syriac Military Council has co-operated closely with the mainly Kurdish Peoples Protection Units, on 6 June 2013, government forces raided the Qamishli home of SUP Executive Committee member Rubel Gabriel Bahho, arresting and subsequently imprisoning him. After being detained in Qamishli for several days, Cosar was transferred to a prison near Damascus, neither party official is known to have been formally charged or tried in court, and neither has been released or heard from since their imprisonment. Their fates remain unknown as of February 2014, Cosar is rumoured to have died under shadowy circumstances while in custody. But despite requests from both the SUP and Cosars family, government officials have refused to release his body. Friends, family members, and party colleagues alike believe that Cosar may still be alive, on 15 August 2012, members of Syriac Union Party stormed the Syrian embassy in Stockholm in protest of the Syrian government. A dozen of its members were detained by Swedish police
Republic of Mahabad (1946)
Iraqi Kurdistan
