1.
Programming paradigm
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Programming paradigms are a way to classify programming languages based on the features of various programming languages. Other paradigms are concerned mainly with the way that code is organized, yet others are concerned mainly with the style of syntax and grammar. The communication between the units of code is not explicit, meanwhile, in object-oriented programming, code is organized into objects that contain state that is only modified by the code that is part of the object. Most object-oriented languages are also imperative languages, in contrast, languages that fit the declarative paradigm do not state the order in which to execute operations. Instead, they supply a number of operations that are available in the system, the implementation of the languages execution model tracks which operations are free to execute and chooses the order on its own. More at Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages, just as software engineering is defined by differing methodologies, so the programming languages are defined by differing paradigms. Some languages are designed to support one paradigm, while other programming languages support multiple paradigms, for example, programs written in C++, Object Pascal or PHP can be purely procedural, purely object-oriented, or can contain elements of both or other paradigms. Software designers and programmers decide how to use those paradigm elements, in object-oriented programming, programs are treated as a set of interacting objects. In functional programming, programs are treated as a sequence of function evaluations. When programming computers or systems with many processors, in process-oriented programming, many programming paradigms are as well known for the techniques they forbid as for those they enable. For instance, pure functional programming disallows use of side-effects, while structured programming disallows use of the goto statement, partly for this reason, new paradigms are often regarded as doctrinaire or overly rigid by those accustomed to earlier styles. Yet, avoiding certain techniques can make it easier to understand program behavior, programming paradigms can also be compared with programming models which allow invoking an external execution model by using only an API. Programming models can also be classified into paradigms, based on features of the execution model, for parallel computing, using a programming model instead of a language is common. The reason is that details of the parallel hardware leak into the used to program the hardware. This causes the programmer to have to map patterns in the algorithm onto patterns in the execution model, as a consequence, no one parallel programming language maps well to all computation problems. It is thus convenient to use a base sequential language and insert API calls to parallel execution models. These can be considered flavors of programming paradigm that apply to only parallel languages, different approaches to programming have developed over time, being identified as such either at the time or retrospectively. An early approach consciously identified as such is structured programming, advocated since the mid 1960s and these are sometimes called first- and second-generation languages
2.
Remington Rand
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Remington Rand was a diversified conglomerate making other office equipment, electric shavers, etc. The Remington Rand Building at 315 Park Avenue South in New York City is a 20-floor skyscraper completed in 1911, Remington Rand was formed in 1927 by the merger of the Remington Typewriter Company and Rand Kardex Corporation. One of its earliest factories, the former Herschell–Spillman Motor Company Complex, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2013. Within the first year Remington Rand acquired the Dalton Adding Machine Company, the Powers Accounting Machine Company, the Baker-Vawter Company and the Kalamazoo Loose-Leaf Binder Company. From 1942 to 1945, Remington Rand was one manufacturer of the M1911A1.45 caliber semi-automatic pistol used by the United States Armed Forces during World War II, Remington Rand produced more M1911A1 pistols than any other wartime manufacturer. Remington Rand ranked 66th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts, at that time, Remington Rand had become one of the biggest computer companies in the United States. Remington Rand was acquired by Sperry Corporation in 1955 to form a company known as Sperry Rand. However the brand name of Remington Rand remained as a subdivision for many years, Sperry merged in 1986 with Burroughs to form Unisys. Initially produced by E. Remington and Sons, the Remington Typewriters were the first to use the QWERTY keyboard layout, Remington had bought the design from Christopher Sholes. The Remington No.1 was the first model released, Remington spun off Remington Typewriter Company in 1886, and after the 1927 merger, the Remington Rand Corp. continued to manufacture and sell typewriters. The UNIVAC I was the commercial computer made in the United States. It was designed principally by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, design work was begun by their company, Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation, and was completed after the company had been acquired by Remington Rand. The first UNIVAC was delivered to the United States Census Bureau on March 31,1951, the fifth machine was used by CBS to predict the result of the 1952 U. S. presidential election. With a sample of 1% of the population it predicted Eisenhowers win. In 1949, Remington Rand designed the Remington Rand 409, a control panel programmed punched card calculator, Remington Rand also made electric razors. The Remington brand of razor was produced by a division of Remington Rand. Sperry Corporation sold the division in 1979 to Victor Kiam, who became the spokesman of the new Remington Products Company. His line, I liked the shaver so much, I bought the company one of the more memorable advertising slogans of the early 1980s
3.
Grace Hopper
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Grace Brewster Murray Hopper was an American computer scientist and United States Navy rear admiral. In 1944, she was one of the first programmers of the Harvard Mark I computer and she popularized the idea of machine-independent programming languages, which led to the development of COBOL, one of the first high-level programming languages. Owing to her accomplishments and her rank, she was sometimes referred to as Amazing Grace. The U. S. Navy Arleigh Burke-class guided-missile destroyer USS Hopper was named for her, on November 22,2016, she was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama. Hopper was born in New York City and she was the eldest of three children. Her parents, Walter Fletcher Murray and Mary Campbell Van Horne, were of Scottish and Dutch descent and her great-grandfather, Alexander Wilson Russell, an admiral in the US Navy, fought in the Battle of Mobile Bay during the Civil War. Grace was very curious as a child, this was a lifelong trait, at the age of seven, she decided to determine how an alarm clock worked, and dismantled seven alarm clocks before her mother realized what she was doing. For her preparatory school education, she attended the Hartridge School in Plainfield, Hopper was initially rejected for early admission to Vassar College at age 16, but she was admitted the following year. She graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Vassar in 1928 with a degree in mathematics and physics. In 1934, she earned a Ph. D. in mathematics from Yale under the direction of Øystein Ore and her dissertation, New Types of Irreducibility Criteria, was published that same year. Hopper began teaching mathematics at Vassar in 1931, and was promoted to professor in 1941. She was married to New York University professor Vincent Foster Hopper from 1930 until their divorce in 1945 and she did not marry again, but chose to retain his surname. Hopper had tried to enlist in the Navy early in the war and she was at age 34, too old to enlist, and her weight to height ratio was too low. She was also denied on the basis that her job as a mathematician—she was a professor at Vassar College—was valuable to the war effort. During World War II in 1943, Hopper obtained a leave of absence from Vassar and was sworn into the United States Navy Reserve and she had to get an exemption to enlist, she was 15 pounds below the Navy minimum weight of 120 pounds. She reported in December and trained at the Naval Reserve Midshipmens School at Smith College in Northampton, Hopper graduated first in her class in 1944, and was assigned to the Bureau of Ships Computation Project at Harvard University as a lieutenant, junior grade. She served on the Mark I computer programming staff headed by Howard H. Aiken, Hopper and Aiken coauthored three papers on the Mark I, also known as the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator. Hoppers request to transfer to the regular Navy at the end of the war was declined due to her age of 38
4.
Computing platform
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Computing platform means in general sense, where any piece of software is executed. It may be the hardware or the system, even a web browser or other application. The term computing platform can refer to different abstraction levels, including a hardware architecture, an operating system. In total it can be said to be the stage on which programs can run. For example, an OS may be a platform that abstracts the underlying differences in hardware, platforms may also include, Hardware alone, in the case of small embedded systems. Embedded systems can access hardware directly, without an OS, this is referred to as running on bare metal, a browser in the case of web-based software. The browser itself runs on a platform, but this is not relevant to software running within the browser. An application, such as a spreadsheet or word processor, which hosts software written in a scripting language. This can be extended to writing fully-fledged applications with the Microsoft Office suite as a platform, software frameworks that provide ready-made functionality. Cloud computing and Platform as a Service, the social networking sites Twitter and facebook are also considered development platforms. A virtual machine such as the Java virtual machine, applications are compiled into a format similar to machine code, known as bytecode, which is then executed by the VM. A virtualized version of a system, including virtualized hardware, OS, software. These allow, for instance, a typical Windows program to run on what is physically a Mac, some architectures have multiple layers, with each layer acting as a platform to the one above it. In general, a component only has to be adapted to the layer immediately beneath it, however, the JVM, the layer beneath the application, does have to be built separately for each OS
5.
UNIVAC I
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The UNIVAC I was the first commercial computer produced in the United States. It was designed principally by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, design work was started by their company, Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation, and was completed after the company had been acquired by Remington Rand. In the years before successor models of the UNIVAC I appeared, the first Univac was accepted by the United States Census Bureau on March 31,1951, and was dedicated on June 14 that year. The fifth machine was used by CBS to predict the result of the 1952 presidential election, with a sample of just 1% of the voting population it famously predicted an Eisenhower landslide while the conventional wisdom favored Stevenson. As such the UNIVAC competed directly against punch-card machines, though the UNIVAC originally could neither read nor punch cards and that shortcoming hindered sales to companies concerned about the high cost of manually converting large quantities of existing data stored on cards. This was corrected by adding offline card processing equipment, the UNIVAC Card to Tape converter, however, the early market share of the UNIVAC I was lower than the Remington Rand Company wished. To promote sales, the company joined with CBS to have UNIVAC I predict the result of the 1952 Presidential election, UNIVAC I predicted Eisenhower would have a landslide victory over Adlai Stevenson whom the pollsters favored. The result was a public awareness of computing technology. The first contracts were with government agencies such as the Census Bureau, the U. S. Air Force, contracts were also signed by the ACNielsen Company, and the Prudential Insurance Company. Following the sale of Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation to Remington Rand, due to the cost overruns on the project, Remington Rand convinced Nielsen and Prudential to cancel their contracts. The first sale, to the Census Bureau, was marked with a ceremony on March 31,1951, at the Eckert–Mauchly Divisions factory at 3747 Ridge Avenue. As a result, the first installation was with the second computer, UNIVAC installations, 1951–1954 Originally priced at US$159,000, the UNIVAC I rose in price until they were between $1,250,000 and $1,500,000. A total of 46 systems were built and delivered. The UNIVAC I was too expensive for most universities, and Sperry Rand, a few UNIVAC I systems stayed in service long after they were made obsolete by advancing technology. The Census Bureau used its two systems until 1963, amounting to 12 and nine years of service, respectively, Sperry Rand itself used two systems in Buffalo, New York until 1968. The insurance company Life and Casualty of Tennessee used its system until 1970, UNIVAC I used 5,000 vacuum tubes, weighed 16,000 pounds, consumed 125 kW, and could perform about 1,905 operations per second running on a 2.25 MHz clock. The Central Complex alone was 4.3 m by 2.4 m by 2.6 m high, the complete system occupied more than 35.5 m² of floor space. The main memory consisted of 1000 words of 12 characters, when representing numbers, they were written as 11 decimal digits plus sign
6.
AIMACO
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Air Force Materiel Command is a major command of the United States Air Force. AFMC was created on July 1,1992 through the amalgamation of the former Air Force Logistics Command, AFMC is headquartered at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. The commander of AFMC is General Ellen M. Pawlikowski and the commander is Major General Warren D. Berry. AFMC is one of ten Air Force Major Commands and has a workforce of approximately 80,000 military and it is the Air Force’s largest command in terms of funding and second in terms of personnel. AFMC’s operating budget represents 31 percent of the total Air Force budget, the command develops, acquires and sustains the aerospace power needed to defend the United States and its interests for today and tomorrow. This is accomplished through research, development, testing, evaluation, acquisition, maintenance and program management of existing and future USAF weapon systems and their components. In 1947, AMC bases were transferred to the newly established United States Air Force, with such as the storage depot in Maywood. The material procurement role was transferred, Air Force Materiel Command was activated on July 1,1992 as part of a post-Cold War, USAF-wide reorganization that resulted in the merger of AFLC and AFSC into a single major command. Following the establishment of AFMC, subsequent Base Realignment and Closure actions also saw significant reductions in AFMC infrastructure, AFMC Commanders, General Ronald W. Yates, 1992-1995 General Henry Viccellio Jr. June 1995-May/June 1997 General George T. Babbitt, Jr. May 1997 –2000 General Lester Lyles, May 2000 - October 2003 General Gregory S. Martin,2003 -2005 General Bruce A. Carlson,2005 -2008 General Donald J. Hoffman,2008 -2012 General Janet C. Wolfenbarger,2012 -2015 General Ellen M, from cradle-to-grave, AFMC provides the work force and infrastructure necessary to ensure the United States remains the worlds most respected Air and Space Force. AFMC headquarters is the unit located at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. In 2012, there was a reorganization and several new centers were organized. The center is located at Joint Base San Antonio, Texas
