1.
Humanism
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The term was coined in 1808 by the early nineteenth century German educational reformer and theologian Friedrich Niethammer and gradually adopted into English. Niethammer had wished to introduce into German education the humane values of ancient Greece, the word Humanism is ultimately derived from the Latin concept humanitas, and, like most other words ending in -ism, entered English in the nineteenth century. Those who earnestly desire and seek after these are most highly humanized. For the desire to pursue of that kind of knowledge, and the training given by it, has granted to humanity alone of all the animals. Gellius says that in his day humanitas is commonly used as a synonym for philanthropy – or kindness and he himself was involved in public affairs. By assigning pride of place to Paideia in his comment on the etymology of humanitas, gelliuss writings fell into obscurity during the middle ages, but during the Italian Renaissance, Gellius became a favorite author. Teachers and scholars of Greek and Latin grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, during the French Revolution, and soon after, in Germany, humanism began to refer to an ethical philosophy centered on humankind, without attention to the transcendent or supernatural. The designation Religious Humanism refers to organized groups that sprang up during the late-nineteenth and it is similar to Protestantism, although centered on human needs, interests, and abilities rather than the supernatural. The first Humanist Manifesto was issued by a conference held at the University of Chicago in 1933, signatories included the philosopher John Dewey, but the majority were ministers and theologians. But in the century, during the French Enlightenment, a more ideological use of the term had come into use. In 1765, the author of an article in a French Enlightenment periodical spoke of The general love of humanity. A virtue hitherto quite nameless among us, and which we will venture to call humanism, for the time has come to create a word for such a beautiful and necessary thing. The latter part of the 18th and the early 19th centuries saw the creation of numerous philanthropic and benevolent societies dedicated to human betterment. Humanism began to acquire a negative sense, the Oxford English Dictionary records the use of the word humanism by an English clergyman in 1812 to indicate those who believe in the mere humanity of Christ, i. e. Unitarians and Deists. Human-centered philosophy that rejected the supernatural may also be found circa 1500 BCE in the Lokayata system of Indian philosophy, nasadiya Sukta, a passage in the Rig Veda, contains one of the first recorded assertions of agnosticism. Another instance of ancient humanism as a system of thought is found in the Gathas of Zarathustra. Zarathustras philosophy in the Gathas lays out a conception of humankind as thinking beings, dignified with choice, in China, Yellow Emperor is regarded as the humanistic primogenitor. Sage kings such as Yao and Shun are humanistic figures as recorded, king Wu of Zhou has the famous saying, Humanity is the Ling of the world
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Racism
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Racism is discrimination and prejudice towards people based on their race or ethnicity. Today, the use of the term racism does not easily fall under a single definition, the Holocaust is the classic example of institutionalized racism which led to the death of millions of people based on their race. Ethnicity is often used in a close to one traditionally attributed to race. Therefore, racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, according to a United Nations convention on racial discrimination, there is no distinction between the terms racial and ethnic discrimination. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life, Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. Associated social actions may include nativism, xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, in the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term racism is a noun describing the state of being racist, the origin of the root word race is not clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from Middle French, a recent proposal is that it derives from the Arabic ras, which means head, beginning, origin or the Hebrew rosh, which has a similar meaning. Early race theorists generally held that some races were inferior to others and these early theories guided pseudo-scientific research assumptions, the collective endeavors to adequately define and form hypotheses about racial differences are generally termed scientific racism. To date, there is evidence in human genome research indicating that race can be defined in such a way as to be useful in a genetic classification of humans. An entry in the Oxford English Dictionary defines racialism simply as An earlier term than racism, but now superseded by it. The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term racism in a quote from the year,1903. It was first defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as he theory that human characteristics and abilities are determined by race. Additionally, the Oxford English Dictionary records racism as a synonym of racialism, as its history indicates, popular use of the word racism is relatively recent. The word came into usage in the Western world in the 1930s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of Nazism. It is commonly agreed that racism existed before the coinage of the word, garner summarizes different existing definitions of racism and identifies three common elements contained in those definitions of racism. First, a historical, hierarchical power relationship between groups, second, a set of ideas about racial differences, and, third, the UDHR was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form a part of humanity
4.
Nigger
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In the present-day English language, the word nigger is an ethnic slur, usually directed at black people. The word originated as a term referring to people with black skin, as a variation of the Spanish and Portuguese noun negro. It was often used derogatorily, and by the century, particularly in the United States, its usage became unambiguously pejorative. Accordingly, it began to disappear from popular culture, and its inclusion in classic works of literature has sparked controversy. In contemporary English, using the word nigger is considered extremely offensive, the variant nigga has to some extent been reclaimed by African Americans. The variants neger and negar derive from the Spanish and Portuguese word negro, etymologically, negro, noir, nègre, and nigger ultimately derive from nigrum, the stem of the Latin niger. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the first English use to 1577, other early spellings attested include nigor and Nigre, the first spelling of nigger is in 1608. The second meaning, of a term of abuse or contempt from whites to blacks is first attested in print in 1775. Its use by people both as a neutral or favourable term and as a depreciatory term go back to 1831 and 1834 respectively. In the colonial America of 1619, John Rolfe used negars in describing the African slaves shipped to the Virginia colony, lexicographer Noah Webster, whose eponymous dictionary did much to solidify the distinctive spelling of American English, suggested the neger spelling in place of negro in 1806. The dialect spoken in the Southern United States changes the pronunciation of negro to nigra, during the fur trade of the early 1800s to the late 1840s in the Western United States, the word was spelled niggur, and is often recorded in literature of the time. George Fredrick Ruxton used it in his mountain man lexicon, without pejorative connotation, niggur was evidently similar to the modern use of dude or guy. It was not used as a term exclusively for blacks among mountain men during this period, as Indians, Mexicans, the noun slipped back and forth from derogatory to endearing. The term colored became a respectful alternative, in 1851 the Boston Vigilance Committee, an Abolitionist organization, posted warnings to the Colored People of Boston and vicinity. Writing in 1904, journalist Clifton Johnson documented the opprobrious character of the word nigger, by the turn of the century, colored had become sufficiently mainstream that it was chosen as the racial self-identifier for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. In 2008 Carla Sims, its communications director, said the term colored is not derogatory and its outdated and antiquated but not offensive. Nineteenth-century literature features usages of nigger without racist connotation, mark Twain, in the autobiographic book Life on the Mississippi, used the term within quotes, indicating reported speech, but used the term negro when writing in his own narrative persona. Joseph Conrad published a novella in Britain with the title The Nigger of the Narcissus, president Thomas Jefferson had used this word of his slaves in his Notes on the State of Virginia, but black had not been widely used until the later 20th century
5.
Slavery
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A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced by the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
6.
Sir Francis Buller, 1st Baronet
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Sir Francis Buller, 1st Baronet of Downes, Crediton in Devon, was an English judge. In 1763, at the age of 17, he married Susanna Yarde, Susanna was also the niece and heiress of John Yarde of Churston Court in the parish of Churston Ferrers, Devonshire. In the late 1790s Buller was in health, suffering from frequent attacks of gout. He died during the night of 4/5 June 1800 after having some form of attack during a game of piquet at his house in Bedford Square and he was buried in St Andrews Churchyard, Grays Inn. In Easter term 1772, he was called to the bar and rose rapidly through it, on 6 May 1778, at only 32, he was made a puisne judge of the Kings Bench. His conduct on the bench, however, was often the subject of criticism, accused of being hasty. He has been the subject of controversy over time due to a statement he made that a husband could thrash his wife with impunity provided that he used a stick no bigger than his thumb. This claim was widely circulated and led to Buller being caricatured as Judge Thumb by James Gillray in 1782 and he was one of the three judges in the 1783 appeal hearing of the Zong massacre case. He also presided over an important trial in 1785 involving the validity of a patent held by Richard Arkwright, the jury held the patent to be invalid because the specification was unclear. Expert evidence showed that Arkwright had claimed inventions made by others, Arkwright had by that time established several cotton spinning mills, and continued to prosper despite losing the patent battle. Buller was always the second judge in his court, though when Lord Mansfield was absent through illness, he took the lead, however, on Mansfields death, William Pitt delayed and then in the end appointed Kenyon to the role. As additional recognition, Pitt made Buller a baronet on 13 January 1790, on 19 June 1794, Buller resigned from the Kings Bench and took his place in the Common Pleas. He was a guardian of Anna Eliza Brydges and a trustee to the 1796 settlement between her and Richard Temple, later the first Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, Buller greatly extended the buildings, converting the property into one of Georgian opulence. He was friendly towards his tenants and other workers on the moor and he also enclosed some 2,000 acres around Prince Hall, and set about improving the land. There was a belief among the intelligentsia of the time that Dartmoors moorland could be improved for agriculture. The avenue of trees leading to the property has, however, while Buller was attempting to improve Dartmoor at Prince Hall, Thomas Tyrwhitt was doing the same at nearby Tor Royal. Buller acquired other estates on Dartmoor, for example Skerraton in the parish of Dean Prior and he also built an inn, named the Saracens Head after his crest, at Two Bridges, on a site now occupied by the Two Bridges Hotel. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Courtney
7.
OK
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OK is an English word denoting approval, acceptance, agreement, assent, or acknowledgment. OK has frequently turned up as a loanword in other languages and has been described as the worlds most widely understood word. As an adjective, OK principally means adequate or acceptable as a contrast to bad and it fulfills a similar role as an adverb. As an interjection, it can denote compliance, or agreement and it can mean assent when it is used as a noun or, more colloquially, as a verb. OK, as an adjective, can express acknowledgment without approval, as a versatile discourse marker or back-channeling item, it can also be used with appropriate voice tone to show doubt or to seek confirmation. Numerous explanations for the origin of the expression have been suggested, the following proposals have found mainstream recognition. He tracked the spread and evolution of the word in American newspapers and other written documents and he also documented controversy surrounding OK and the history of its folk etymologies, both of which are intertwined with the history of the word itself. Many of the expressions were exaggerated misspellings, a stock in trade of the humorists of the day. One predecessor of OK was OW, oll wright, the general fad is speculated to have existed in spoken or informal written U. S. English for a decade or more before its appearance in newspapers, OKs original presentation as all correct was later varied with spellings such as Oll Korrect or even Ole Kurreck. Vote for OK was snappier than using his Dutch name, in response, Whig opponents attributed OK, in the sense of Oll Korrect, to Andrew Jacksons bad spelling. The country-wide publicity surrounding the election appears to have been an event in OKs history. Read proposed an etymology of OK in Old Kinderhook in 1941, the evidence presented in that article was somewhat sparse, and the connection to Oll Korrect not fully elucidated. Various challenges to the etymology were presented, e. g. Heflins 1962 article, however, Reads landmark 1963–1964 papers silenced most of the skepticism. Reads etymology gained immediate acceptance, and is now offered without reservation in most dictionaries, Read himself was nevertheless open to evaluating alternative explanations, Some believe that the Boston newspapers reference to OK may not be the earliest. Some are attracted to the claim that it is of American-Indian origin, there is an Indian word, okeh, used as an affirmative reply to a question. Mr Read treated such doubting calmly, “Nothing is absolute, ” he once wrote, “nothing is forever. ”The folk singer Pete Seeger sang that OK was of Choctaw Indian origin, as the dictionaries of the time tended to agree. Three major American reference works cited the Choctaw etymology as the origin until as late as 1961
8.
Johannes Goropius Becanus
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Johannes Goropius Becanus, born Jan Gerartsen at Gorp, was a Dutch physician, linguist, and humanist. He was born Jan Gerartsen van Gorp in the town of Gorp, as was the fashion of the time, Gerartsen adopted a Latinized surname based on the name of his birthplace, Goropius being rendered from Van Gorp and Becanus referring to Hilvarenbeek. He studied medicine in Leuven, and became physician to two sisters of Charles V, Marie and Eleonore, who were based in Brussels at the time, philip II, the son of Charles V, wanted him also as his doctor and offered him a rich income. Goropius refused and established himself as medicus of Antwerp in 1554, here, free of courtly intrigues, Goropius dedicated himself completely to languages, studying antiquity, and became fluent in many languages. Goropius died in Maastricht, where he was buried in the old friars minor church, Goropius theorized that Antwerpian Brabantic, spoken in the region between the Scheldt and Meuse Rivers, was the original language spoken in Paradise. Goropius believed that the most ancient language on Earth would be the simplest language, since Brabantic has a higher number of short words than do Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, Goropius reasoned that it was the older language. A corollary of this theory was that all languages derived ultimately from Brabantic, the Latin word for “oak, ” quercus, Goropius derived from werd-cou, the Hebrew name “Noah” he derived from nood. Goropius also believed that Adam and Eve were Brabantic names, another corollary involved locating the Garden of Eden itself in the Brabant region. In the book known as Hieroglyphica, Goropius also allegedly proved to his own satisfaction that Egyptian hieroglyphics represented Brabantic. In spite of his travels in Italy, Spain, France, Germany and Britain, Goropius remained attached to his homeland. Goropiuss work was met with a mixture of ridicule and admiration, Goropius is considered to have given Dutch linguistics, and Gothic philology in general, a bad name. Though Goropius had admirers, his etymologies have been considered linguistic chauvinism, justus Lipsius and Hugo Grotius discounted Goropiuss linguistic theories. Never have I read greater nonsense, the scholar Joseph Scaliger wrote of Goropiuss etymologies, Goropiuss work preceded that of William Jones, who discovered the Indo-European language family uniting Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, among others. Digitized primary sources and secondary information on the wiki Hortus Linguarum Eerherstel voor Goropius Becanus door Nicoline van der Sijs How come we cant decipher the Indus script, la linguistique et lappel de lhistoire. Rationalisme et révolutions positivistes, Genève, Droz,1987, la reconstruction de l’histoire des langues de la Renaissance aux Lumières, Bruxelles, ARLLFB,2007. Naborn, R. A. Etymologies in Joannes Goropius Becanus Hermathena, masters Thesis, University of Kansas,1989. Naborn, R. A. Becanus Etymological Methods, in, Voortgang 15, Van Hal, T. “Moedertalen en taalmoeders”. Het vroegmoderne taalvergelijkende onderzoek in de Lage Landen, Brussels,2010, 77-140
9.
Palgrave Macmillan
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Palgrave Macmillan is an international academic and trade publishing company. Its programme includes textbooks, journals, monographs, professional and reference works in print, Palgrave Macmillan was created in 2000 when St. Martins Press Scholarly and Reference in the USA united with Macmillan Publishers in the UK to combine their worldwide academic publishing operations. The company was known as simply Palgrave until 2002, but has since known as Palgrave Macmillan. It is a subsidiary of Springer Nature, until 2015, it was part of the Macmillan Group and therefore fully owned by the German publishing company Holtzbrinck Publishing Group. It maintains offices in London, New York, Shanghai, Melbourne, Sydney, Hong Kong, Delhi, Palgrave is named after the Palgrave family. He was a banker and editor of The Economist, reginald Palgrave was Clerk of the House of Commons and wrote A History of the House of Commons, which Macmillan published in 1869. William Gifford Palgrave was an Arabic scholar, Palgrave Macmillan publishes The Statesmans Yearbook, an annual reference work which gives a political, economic and social overview of every country of the world. In 2008, Palgrave Macmillan published The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd edition, edited by Steven N. Durlauf, in 2009 Palgrave Macmillan made over 4,500 scholarly ebooks available to libraries. Bayandor wrote a revisionist analysis of the 1953 Iranian coup détat, Iran and The CIA and he is the author of Obama and the Middle-East, The End of Americas Moment. Michael Huemer, professor of philosophy at University of Colorado, Boulder, books include The Problem of Political Authority, a defense of philosophical libertarianism and anarchism, and Ethical Intuitionism, a meta-ethical defense of ethical intuitionism. Lakshay Rai, an Indian origin author, professional risk analyst, has authored The Dark Age, a novel based on events in Syria during the terror regime. Rai, has co-authored 17 research articles in association with Palgrave, and was titled The Yougest Palgrave author in 2017. Kennedy and the Race to the Moon,2013, rowan Williams, The Archbishop of Canterbury, author of Crisis and Recovery Tony Zinni, a retired four-star General in the United States Marine Corps and a former Commander in Chief of U. S
10.
Backronym
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A backronym or bacronym is a specially constructed phrase that is supposed to be the source of a word that is, or is claimed to be, an acronym. Backronyms may be invented with serious or humorous intent, or may be a type of false or folk etymology, the word is a combination of backward and acronym, and has been defined as a reverse acronym. Its earliest known citation in print is as bacronym in the November 1983 edition of the Washington Post monthly neologism contest. The newspaper quoted winning reader Meredith G. Williams of Potomac, Maryland, defining it as the same as an acronym, except that the words were chosen to fit the letters. An acronym is a derived from the initial letters of the words of a phrase, For example. By contrast, a backronym is constructed by creating a new phrase to fit an existing word, name. Backronyms are also used for comedic effect, as exemplified by NASAs C. O. L. B. E. R. T. NASA named its ISS treadmill the Combined Operational Load-Bearing External Resistance Treadmill after Stephen Colbert, the backronym was a lighthearted compromise in recognition of the comedians ability to sway NASAs online vote for the naming of an ISS module. Backronyms can be constructed for educational purposes, for example to form mnemonics, an example of such a mnemonic is the Apgar score, used to assess the health of newborn babies. Alcoholics Anonymous and other 12-step programs use backronyms as teaching tools, similar to such as one day at a time, or Let go, let God. For example, a slip may be expanded as Sobriety Losing Its Priority, backronyms are also created as jokes or as slogans, often expressing consumer loyalties or frustration. For example, the name of the restaurant chain Arbys is a play on the letters RB, referring to the companys founders, an advertising campaign in the 1980s created a backronym with the slogan America’s Roast Beef, Yes Sir. Many companies or products have spawned multiple humorous backronyms, with positive connotations asserted by supporters or negative ones by detractors. For example, the car company Ford was said to stand for First On Race Day, by aficionados, similar backronyms have been directed against many other automakers, such as Fix It Again Tony for Fiat. Backronyms have also coined by military personnel during wartime. The backronym for Spam, Something Posing As Meat, was said to have originated from jaundiced soldiers who were sick of eating canned meat. The British contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq was code-named Operation Telic, backronyms are sometimes created to name laws or programs. Commentators have noted a trend among US lawmakers to devise names that form a desired acronym
11.
Ghil'ad Zuckermann
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Ghilad Zuckermann is a linguist and revivalist who works in contact linguistics, lexicology and the study of language, culture and identity. Zuckermann is Chair of Linguistics and Endangered Languages at the University of Adelaide, Zuckermann was born in Tel Aviv on June 1,1971 and attended the United World College of the Adriatic in 1987–1989. In 1997 he received an M. A. in Linguistics at the Adi Lautman Interdisciplinary Programme for Outstanding Students of Tel Aviv University. In 1997–2000 he was Scatcherd European Scholar of the University of Oxford and Denise Skinner Graduate Scholar at St Hughs College, Oxford, receiving a D. Phil. in 2000. As Gulbenkian Research Fellow at Churchill College, Cambridge, he was affiliated with the Department of Linguistics, Faculty of Modern and Medieval Studies and he received a titular Ph. D. from the University of Cambridge in 2003. In 2010-2015 he was Chinas Ivy League Project 211 Distinguished Visiting Professor and he won a British Academy Research Grant, Memorial Foundation of Jewish Culture Postdoctoral Fellowship, Harold Hyam Wingate Scholarship and Chevening Scholarship. He was President of AustraLex in 2013-2015, Zuckermann is Professor of Linguistics and Endangered Languages at the University of Adelaide. He is elected member of the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies and he serves as Editorial Board member of the Journal of Language Contact, consultant for the Oxford English Dictionary, and Expert Witness in lexicography and linguistics. Zuckermann applies insights from the Hebrew revival to the revitalization of Aboriginal languages in Australia and he proposes Native Tongue Title, compensation for language loss, because linguicide results in loss of cultural autonomy, loss of spiritual and intellectual sovereignty, loss of soul. So, for example, Port Lincoln should also be referred to as Galinyala and his edX MOOC Language Revival, Securing the Future of Endangered Languages has attracted 6000 students from 150 countries. Zuckermann proposes a controversial theory of the emergence of Israeli Hebrew according to which Hebrew. Scholars including Yiddish linguist Dovid Katz, adopt Zuckermanns term Israeli, others, for example author and translator Hillel Halkin, oppose Zuckermanns model. In an article published December 24,2004, in The Jewish Daily Forward pseudonymous column Philologos, Zuckermanns response was published December 28,2004, in The Mendele Review, Yiddish Literature and Language. According to Omri Herzog, Zuckermann is considered by his Israeli colleagues either a genius or a provocateur, Zuckermanns alternative theories also often spark debate. Especially his controversial adaptation of the Australian Aboriginal flag which changes the centre to pink. His reasoning being that language is in fact the mouth of both the land and the people in many Aboriginal spiritualities, in 2011 Zuckermann contacted the Barngarla community about helping to revive and reclaim the Barngarla language. This request was accepted by the Barngarla people and language reclamation workshops began in Port Lincoln, Whyalla. The reclamation is based on 170-year-old documents, Zuckermanns research focuses on contact linguistics, lexicology, revivalistics, Jewish languages, and the study of language, culture and identity
12.
Etymological fallacy
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The etymological fallacy is a genetic fallacy that holds that the present-day meaning of a word or phrase should necessarily be similar to its historical meaning. This is a misconception, and is sometimes used as a basis for linguistic prescription. An argument constitutes an etymological fallacy if it makes a claim about the present meaning of a word based exclusively on its etymology and this does not, however, show that etymology is irrelevant in any way, nor does it attempt to prove such. A notable example is the word decimation, which used to refer to reduction by a tenth, an etymological fallacy becomes possible when a word has changed its meaning over time. Such changes can include a shift in scope or of connotation, in some cases, meanings can also shift completely, so that the etymological meaning has no evident connection to the current meaning. For example, The word hound originally simply meant dog in general and this usage is now archaic or poetic only, and hound now almost exclusively refers to dogs bred for hunting in particular. The meaning of a word may change to higher status, as when knight, originally servant like German Knecht, came to mean military knight. Conversely, the word originally meant boy and only gradually acquired its meaning of person of low. The word lady derives from Old English hlæf-dige, and lord from hlafweard, no connection with bread is retained in the current meaning of either word. Not every change in meaning provokes an etymological fallacy, but such changes are frequently the basis of inaccurate arguments, from the fact that logos is Greek for word, Stuart Chase concluded in his book The Tyranny of Words that logic was mere manipulation of words. Some dictionaries of old languages do not distinguish glosses from etymologies, as when Old English geþofta is defined as one who sits on the same rowing bench, here the only attested meaning is the second one, while the first is simply the words etymology. The word apologize comes from the Greek word ἀπολογία which originally meant a speech in defence. Later on it began to carry the sense of expressing remorse or saying sorry over something that one may feel regret for, as well as to explain or defend, in some contexts. The word began to be used eventually as only expressing regret mainly because words of remorse would often accompany explanations, the word is still sometimes used in its original sense, especially in the form apologist, meaning someone who explains and justifies a belief. Phrases such as to smaller or to climb down have been criticised for being incoherent, based on the original meanings of grow. False cognate False etymology False friend Folk etymology Informal fallacy NNEST On Translating Beowulf Semantic change Persuasive definition Gula, Robert J. Nonsense, Semantic Antics, How and Why Words Change Meanings
