1.
Filename
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A filename is a name used to uniquely identify a computer file stored in a file system. Different file systems impose different restrictions on filename lengths and the characters within filenames. Discussions of filenames are complicated by a lack of standardisation of the term, sometimes filename is used to mean the entire name, such as the Windows name c, \directory\myfile. txt. Sometimes, it will be used to refer to the components, sometimes, it is a reference that excludes an extension, so the filename would be just myfile. Such ambiguity is widespread and this article does not attempt to define any one meaning, some systems will adopt their own standardised nomenclature like path name, but these too are not standardised across systems. Around 1962, the Compatible Time-Sharing System introduced the concept of a file, around this same time appeared the dot as a filename extension separator, and the limit to three letter extensions might have come from RAD50 16-bit limits. Traditionally, filenames allowed only alphanumeric characters, but as time progressed and this led to compatibility problems when moving files from one file system to another. Around 1995, VFAT, an extension to the FAT filesystem, was introduced in Windows 95 and it allowed mixed-case Unicode long filenames, in addition to classic 8.3 names. In 1985, RFC959 officially defined a pathname to be the string that must be entered into a file system by a user in order to identify a file. One issue was migration to Unicode, for this purpose, several software companies provided software for migrating filenames to the new Unicode encoding. Microsoft provided migration transparent for the user throughout the vfat technology Apple provided File Name Encoding Repair Utility v1.0, Mac OS X10.3 marked Apples adoption of Unicode 3.2 character decomposition, superseding the Unicode 2.1 decomposition used previously. This change caused problems for writing software for Mac OS X. An absolute reference includes all directory levels, in some systems, a filename reference that does not include the complete directory path defaults to the current working directory. One advantage of using a reference in program configuration files or scripts is that different instances of the script or program can use different files. This makes an absolute or relative path composed of a sequence of filenames, Unix-like file systems allow a file to have more than one name, in traditional Unix-style file systems, the names are hard links to the files inode or equivalent. Windows supports hard links on NTFS file systems, and provides the command fsutil in Windows XP, hard links are different from Windows shortcuts, classic Mac OS/macOS aliases, or symbolic links. The introduction of LFNs with VFAT allowed filename aliases, with a maximum of eight plus three characters was a filename alias of long file name. As a way to conform to 8.3 limitations for older programs and this property was used by the move command algorithm that first creates a second filename and then only removes the first filename
2.
Computer file
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A computer file is a computer resource for recording data discretely in a computer storage device. Just as words can be written to paper, so can information be written to a computer file, there are different types of computer files, designed for different purposes. A file may be designed to store a picture, a message, a video. Some types of files can store different several types of information at once, by using computer programs, a person can open, read, change, and close a computer file. Computer files may be reopened, modified, and copied a number of times. Typically, computer files are organised in a system, which keeps track of where the files are. The word file derives from the Latin filum, such a file now exists in a memory tube developed at RCA Laboratories. Electronically it retains figures fed into calculating machines, holds them in storage while it memorizes new ones - speeds intelligent solutions through mazes of mathematics, in 1952, file denoted, inter alia, information stored on punched cards. In early use, the hardware, rather than the contents stored on it, was denominated a file. For example, the IBM350 disk drives were denominated disk files, although the contemporary register file demonstrates the early concept of files, its use has greatly decreased. On most modern operating systems, files are organized into one-dimensional arrays of bytes, for example, the bytes of a plain text file are associated with either ASCII or UTF-8 characters, while the bytes of image, video, and audio files are interpreted otherwise. Most file types also allocate a few bytes for metadata, which allows a file to some basic information about itself. Some file systems can store arbitrary file-specific data outside of the file format, on other file systems this can be done via sidecar files or software-specific databases. All those methods, however, are susceptible to loss of metadata than are container. At any instant in time, a file might have a size, normally expressed as number of bytes, in most modern operating systems the size can be any non-negative whole number of bytes up to a system limit. Many older operating systems kept track only of the number of blocks or tracks occupied by a file on a storage device. In such systems, software employed other methods to track the exact byte count, the general definition of a file does not require that its size have any real meaning, however, unless the data within the file happens to correspond to data within a pool of persistent storage. A special case is a zero byte file, these files can be newly created files that have not yet had any data written to them, or may serve as some kind of flag in the file system, or are accidents
3.
File system
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In computing, a file system or filesystem is used to control how data is stored and retrieved. Without a file system, information placed in a storage medium would be one large body of data with no way to tell where one piece of information stops, by separating the data into pieces and giving each piece a name, the information is easily isolated and identified. Taking its name from the way paper-based information systems are named, the structure and logic rules used to manage the groups of information and their names is called a file system. There are many different kinds of file systems, each one has different structure and logic, properties of speed, flexibility, security, size and more. Some file systems have been designed to be used for specific applications, for example, the ISO9660 file system is designed specifically for optical discs. File systems can be used on different types of storage devices that use different kinds of media. The most common device in use today is a hard disk drive. Other kinds of media that are used include flash memory, magnetic tapes, in some cases, such as with tmpfs, the computers main memory is used to create a temporary file system for short-term use. Some file systems are used on local storage devices, others provide file access via a network protocol. Some file systems are virtual, meaning that the files are computed on request or are merely a mapping into a different file system used as a backing store. The file system access to both the content of files and the metadata about those files. It is responsible for arranging storage space, reliability, efficiency, before the advent of computers the term file system was used to describe a method of storing and retrieving paper documents. By 1961 the term was being applied to computerized filing alongside the original meaning, by 1964 it was in general use. A file system consists of two or three layers, sometimes the layers are explicitly separated, and sometimes the functions are combined. The logical file system is responsible for interaction with the user application and it provides the application program interface for file operations — OPEN, CLOSE, READ, etc. and passes the requested operation to the layer below it for processing. The logical file system manage open file table entries and per-process file descriptors and this layer provides file access, directory operations, security and protection. The second optional layer is the file system. This interface allows support for multiple concurrent instances of physical file systems, the third layer is the physical file system
4.
VM (operating system)
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VM is a family of IBM virtual machine operating systems used on IBM mainframes System/370, System/390, zSeries, System z and compatible systems, including the Hercules emulator for personal computers. The first version, released in 1972, was VM/370, or officially Virtual Machine Facility/370 and this was a System/370 reimplementation of earlier CP/CMS operating system. The current version, z/VM, is widely used as one of the main full virtualization solutions for the mainframe market. The heart of the VM architecture is a program or hypervisor called VM-CP. It runs on the hardware, and creates the virtual machine environment. VM-CP provides full virtualization of the physical machine – including all I/O and it performs the systems resource-sharing, including device management, dispatching, virtual storage management, and other traditional operating system tasks. Each VM user is provided with a virtual machine having its own address space, virtual devices, etc. A given VM mainframe typically runs hundreds or thousands of virtual machine instances, VM-CP began life as CP-370, a reimplementation of CP-67, itself a reimplementation of CP-40. Running within each virtual machine is another, guest operating system, most virtual machines run CMS, a lightweight, single-user operating system. Its interactive environment is comparable to that of a single-user PC, including a system, programming services, device access. IBMs mainstream operating systems can be loaded and run without modification, most mainframe operating systems terminate a normal application which tries to usurp the operating systems privileges. A second level instance of VM can be fully virtualized inside a virtual machine and this is how VM development and testing is done. (A second-level VM can potentially implement a different virtualization of the hardware and this technique was used to develop S/370 software before S/370 hardware was available, and it has continued to play a role in new hardware development at IBM. The literature cites practical examples of five levels deep. Levels of VM below the top are also treated as applications, a copy of the mainframe version of AIX or Linux. In the mainframe environment, these systems often run under VM. Several non-CMS systems run within VM-CP virtual machines, providing services to CMS users such as spooling, interprocess communications and they operate behind the scenes, extending the services available to CMS without adding to the VM-CP control program. By running in virtual machines, they receive the same security and reliability protections as other VM users
5.
OpenVMS
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OpenVMS is a computer operating system for use in general-purpose computing. It is the successor to the VMS Operating System, that was produced by Digital Equipment Corporation, in the 1990s, it was used for the successor series of DEC Alpha systems. OpenVMS also runs on the HP Itanium-based families of computers, as of 2015, a port to the X86-64 architecture is underway. The name VMS is derived from virtual memory system, according to one of its architectural features. OpenVMS is a operating system, but source code listings are available for purchase. OpenVMS is a multi-user, multiprocessing virtual memory-based operating system designed for use in time sharing, batch processing, when process priorities are suitably adjusted, it may approach real-time operating system characteristics. The system offers high availability through clustering and the ability to distribute the system over multiple physical machines and this allows the system to be tolerant against disasters that may disable individual data-processing facilities. OpenVMS contains a user interface, a feature that was not available on the original VAX-11/VMS system. Versions of VMS running on DEC Alpha workstations in the 1990s supported OpenGL, customers using OpenVMS include banks and financial services, hospitals and healthcare, network information services, and large-scale industrial manufacturers of various products. As of mid-2014, Hewlett Packard licensed the development of OpenVMS exclusively to VMS Software Inc, VMS Software will be responsible for developing OpenVMS, supporting existing hardware and providing roadmap to clients. The company has a team of developers that originally developed the software during DECs ownership. In April 1975, Digital Equipment Corporation embarked on a project, code named Star. A companion software project, code named Starlet, was started in June 1975 to develop a new operating system, based on RSX-11M. These two projects were integrated from the beginning. Gordon Bell was the VP lead on the VAX hardware and its architecture, the Star and Starlet projects culminated in the VAX 11/780 computer and the VAX-11/VMS operating system. The Starlet name survived in VMS as a name of several of the system libraries, including STARLET. OLB. Over the years the name of the product has changed, in 1980 it was renamed, with version 2.0 release, to VAX/VMS. g. The smallest MicroVAX2000 had a 40MB RD32 hard disk and a maximum of 6MB of RAM, microVMS kits were released for VAX/VMS4.4 to 4.7 on TK50 tapes and RX50 floppy disks, but discontinued with VAX/VMS5.0
6.
CP/M
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Initially confined to single-tasking on 8-bit processors and no more than 64 kilobytes of memory, later versions of CP/M added multi-user variations and were migrated to 16-bit processors. The combination of CP/M and S-100 bus computers was loosely patterned on the MITS Altair and this computer platform was widely used in business through the late 1970s and into the mid-1980s. CP/M increased the size for both hardware and software by greatly reducing the amount of programming required to install an application on a new manufacturers computer. An important driver of innovation was the advent of low-cost microcomputers running CP/M, as independent programmers and hackers bought them. CP/M was displaced by MS-DOS soon after the 1981 introduction of the IBM PC, manufacturers of CP/M-compatible systems customized portions of the operating system for their own combination of installed memory, disk drives, and console devices. CP/M would also run on based on the Zilog Z80 processor since the Z80 was compatible with 8080 code. CP/M used the 7-bit ASCII set, the other 128 characters made possible by the 8-bit byte were not standardized. For example, one Kaypro used them for Greek characters, WordStar used the 8th bit as an end-of-word marker. The BIOS and BDOS were memory-resident, while the CCP was memory-resident unless overwritten by an application, a number of transient commands for standard utilities were also provided. The transient commands resided in files with the extension. COM on disk, the BIOS directly controlled hardware components other than the CPU and main memory. It contained functions such as input and output and the reading and writing of disk sectors. The BDOS implemented the CP/M file system and some input/output abstractions on top of the BIOS, the CCP took user commands and either executed them directly or loaded and started an executable file of the given name. Third-party applications for CP/M were also essentially transient commands, the BDOS, CCP and standard transient commands were the same in all installations of a particular revision of CP/M, but the BIOS portion was always adapted to the particular hardware. Adding memory to a computer, for example, meant that the CP/M system had to be reinstalled with an updated BIOS capable of addressing the additional memory, a utility was provided to patch the supplied BIOS, BDOS and CCP to allow them to be run from higher memory. Once installed, the system was stored in reserved areas at the beginning of any disk which would be used to boot the system. On start-up, the bootloader would load the system from the disk in drive A. By modern standards CP/M was primitive, owing to the constraints on program size. With version 1.0 there was no provision for detecting a changed disk, if a user changed disks without manually rereading the disk directory the system would write on the new disk using the old disks directory information, ruining the data stored on the disk
7.
MS-DOS
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MS-DOS is a discontinued operating system for x86-based personal computers mostly developed by Microsoft. MS-DOS resulted from a request in 1981 by IBM for a system to use in its IBM PC range of personal computers. Microsoft quickly bought the rights to 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, IBM licensed and released it in August 1981 as PC DOS1.0 for use in their PCs. During its life, several competing products were released for the x86 platform and it was also the underlying basic operating system on which early versions of Windows ran as a GUI. It is a operating system, and consumes negligible installation space. MS-DOS was a form of 86-DOS – owned by Seattle Computer Products. This first version was shipped in August 1980, Microsoft, which needed an operating system for the IBM Personal Computer hired Tim Paterson in May 1981 and bought 86-DOS1.10 for $75,000 in July of the same year. Microsoft kept the number, but renamed it MS-DOS. They also licensed MS-DOS1. 10/1.14 to IBM, within a year Microsoft licensed MS-DOS to over 70 other companies. It was designed to be an OS that could run on any 8086-family computer, thus, there were many different versions of MS-DOS for different hardware, and there is a major distinction between an IBM-compatible machine and an MS-DOS machine. This design would have worked well for compatibility, if application programs had only used MS-DOS services to perform device I/O, Microsoft omitted multi-user support from MS-DOS because Microsofts Unix-based operating system, Xenix, was fully multi-user. After the breakup of the Bell System, however, AT&T Computer Systems started selling UNIX System V, believing that it could not compete with AT&T in the Unix market, Microsoft abandoned Xenix, and in 1987 transferred ownership of Xenix to the Santa Cruz Operation. On 25 March 2014, Microsoft made the code to SCP MS-DOS1.25, as an April Fools joke in 2015, Microsoft Mobile launched a Windows Phone application called MS-DOS Mobile which was presented as a new mobile operating system and worked similar to MS-DOS. Version 3.1 – Support for Microsoft Networks Version 3.2 – First version to support 3.5 inch,720 kB floppy drives and diskettes. Version 3.21 Version 3.22 – Version 3.25 Version 3.3 – First version to support 3.5 inch,1.44 MB floppy drives and diskettes, Version 3. 3a Version 3.31 – supports FAT16B and larger drives. MS-DOS4.0 and MS-DOS4.1 – A separate branch of development with additional multitasking features and it is unrelated to any later versions, including versions 4.00 and 4.01 listed below MS-DOS4. x – includes a graphical/mouse interface. It had many bugs and compatibility issues. Version 4.00 – First version to support a hard disk partition that is greater than 32 MiB. Version 4.01 – Microsoft rewritten Version 4.00 released under MS-DOS label, First version to introduce volume serial number when formatting hard disks and floppy disks
8.
DOS
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None of these systems were officially named DOS, and indeed DOS is a general term for disk operating system. MS-DOS dominated the IBM PC compatible market between 1981 and 1995, and Microsoft Windows, still ran on top of it until about 2001, dozens of other operating systems also use the acronym DOS, including DOS/360 from 1966. Others are Apple DOS, Apple ProDOS, Atari DOS, Commodore DOS, TRSDOS, see List of DOS operating systems § Other operating systems. IBM PC DOS and its predecessor, 86-DOS, resembled Digital Researchs CP/M—the dominant disk operating system for 8-bit Intel 8080, DOS instead ran on Intel 8086 16-bit processors. Starting with MS-DOS1.28 and PC DOS2.0 the operating system incorporated various features inspired by Xenix, when IBM introduced the IBM PC, built with the Intel 8088 microprocessor, they needed an operating system. Seeking an 8088-compatible build of CP/M, IBM initially approached Microsoft CEO Bill Gates, IBM was sent to Digital Research, and a meeting was set up. However, the negotiations for the use of CP/M broke down, Digital Research wished to sell CP/M on a royalty basis, while IBM sought a single license. Digital Research founder Gary Kildall refused, and IBM withdrew, Gates in turn approached Seattle Computer Products. There, programmer Tim Paterson had developed a variant of CP/M-80, the system was initially named QDOS, before being made commercially available as 86-DOS. Microsoft purchased 86-DOS, allegedly for $50,000 and this became Microsoft Disk Operating System, MS-DOS, introduced in 1981. Within a year Microsoft licensed MS-DOS to over 70 other companies, Microsoft later required the use of the MS-DOS name, with the exception of the IBM variant. IBM continued to develop their version, PC DOS, for the IBM PC, Digital Research became aware that an operating system similar to CP/M was being sold by IBM, and threatened legal action. IBM responded by offering an agreement, they would give PC consumers a choice of PC DOS or CP/M-86, side-by-side, CP/M cost almost $200 more than PC DOS, and sales were low. CP/M faded, with MS-DOS and PC DOS becoming the operating system for PCs. Microsoft originally sold MS-DOS only to original equipment manufacturers, one major reason for this was that not all early PCs were 100% IBM PC compatible. DOS was structured such that there was a separation between the specific device driver code and the DOS kernel. Microsoft provided an OEM Adaptation Kit which allowed OEMs to customize the device driver code to their particular system, by the early 1990s, most PCs adhered to IBM PC standards so Microsoft began selling MS-DOS in retail with MS-DOS5.0. In the mid-1980s Microsoft developed a version of DOS
9.
Microsoft Windows
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Microsoft Windows is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft. It consists of families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry with the OS typically associated with IBM PC compatible architecture. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows Embedded and Windows Phone, defunct Windows families include Windows 9x, Windows 10 Mobile is an active product, unrelated to the defunct family Windows Mobile. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20,1985, Microsoft Windows came to dominate the worlds personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. Apple came to see Windows as an encroachment on their innovation in GUI development as implemented on products such as the Lisa. On PCs, Windows is still the most popular operating system, however, in 2014, Microsoft admitted losing the majority of the overall operating system market to Android, because of the massive growth in sales of Android smartphones. In 2014, the number of Windows devices sold was less than 25% that of Android devices sold and this comparison however may not be fully relevant, as the two operating systems traditionally target different platforms. As of September 2016, the most recent version of Windows for PCs, tablets, smartphones, the most recent versions for server computers is Windows Server 2016. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console, Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector of the computing industry. It now consists of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the time and share the same kernel. Windows, The operating system for personal computers, tablets. The latest version is Windows 10, the main competitor of this family is macOS by Apple Inc. for personal computers and Android for mobile devices. Windows Server, The operating system for server computers, the latest version is Windows Server 2016. Unlike its clients sibling, it has adopted a strong naming scheme, the main competitor of this family is Linux. Windows PE, A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as an operating system, used for installing Windows on bare-metal computers. The latest version is Windows PE10.0.10586.0, Windows Embedded, Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resource-limited to be called a full-fledged computer. The following Windows families are no longer being developed, Windows 9x, Microsoft now caters to the consumers market with Windows NT. Windows Mobile, The predecessor to Windows Phone, it was a mobile operating system
10.
Executable
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These instructions are traditionally machine code instructions for a physical CPU. Executable code is used to describe sequences of instructions that do not necessarily constitute an executable file, for example. Several object files are linked to create the executable, object files, executable or not, are typically in a container format, such as Executable and Linkable Format. This structures the generated code, for example dividing it into sections such as the. text. data. In order to be executed by the system, a file must conform to the systems Application Binary Interface. For example, in ELF, the point is specified in the header in the e_entry field. In the GCC this field is set by the based on the _start symbol. For C, this is done by linking in the crt0 object, Executable files thus normally contain significant additional machine code beyond that directly generated from the specific source code. In some cases it is desirable to omit this, for example for embedded systems development or simply to understand how compilation, linking, comparison of executable file formats EXE File Format at What Is
11.
Unix-like
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A Unix-like operating system is one that behaves in a manner similar to a Unix system, while not necessarily conforming to or being certified to any version of the Single UNIX Specification. A Unix-like application is one that behaves like the corresponding Unix command or shell, there is no standard for defining the term, and some difference of opinion is possible as to the degree to which a given operating system or application is Unix-like. The Open Group owns the UNIX trademark and administers the Single UNIX Specification and they do not approve of the construction Unix-like, and consider it a misuse of their trademark. Other parties frequently treat Unix as a genericized trademark, in 2007, Wayne R. Gray sued to dispute the status of UNIX as a trademark, but lost his case, and lost again on appeal, with the court upholding the trademark and its ownership. Unix-like systems started to appear in the late 1970s and early 1980s, many proprietary versions, such as Idris, UNOS, Coherent, and UniFlex, aimed to provide businesses with the functionality available to academic users of UNIX. These largely displaced the proprietary clones, growing incompatibility among these systems led to the creation of interoperability standards, including POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification. Various free, low-cost, and unrestricted substitutes for UNIX emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, including 4. 4BSD, Linux, some of these have in turn been the basis for commercial Unix-like systems, such as BSD/OS and OS X. The various BSD variants are notable in that they are in fact descendants of UNIX, however, the BSD code base has evolved since then, replacing all of the AT&T code. Since the BSD variants are not certified as compliant with the Single UNIX Specification, dennis Ritchie, one of the original creators of Unix, expressed his opinion that Unix-like systems such as Linux are de facto Unix systems. Eric S. Raymond and Rob Landley have suggested there are three kinds of Unix-like systems, Genetic UNIX Those systems with a historical connection to the AT&T codebase. Most commercial UNIX systems fall into this category, so do the BSD systems, which are descendants of work done at the University of California, Berkeley in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Some of these systems have no original AT&T code but can trace their ancestry to AT&T designs. Trademark or branded UNIX These systems—largely commercial in nature—have been determined by the Open Group to meet the Single UNIX Specification and are allowed to carry the UNIX name, many ancient UNIX systems no longer meet this definition. Around 2001, Linux was given the opportunity to get a certification including free help from the POSIX chair Andrew Josey for the price of one dollar. Some non-Unix-like operating systems provide a Unix-like compatibility layer, with degrees of Unix-like functionality. IBM z/OSs UNIX System Services is sufficiently complete to be certified as trademark UNIX, cygwin and MSYS both provide a GNU environment on top of the Microsoft Windows user API, sufficient for most common open source software to be compiled and run. Subsystem for Unix-based Applications provides Unix-like functionality as a Windows NT subsystem, Windows Subsystem for Linux provides a Linux-compatible kernel interface developed by Microsoft and containing no Linux code, with Ubuntu user-mode binaries running on top of it
12.
Tar (computing)
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In computing, tar is a computer software utility for collecting many files into one archive file, often referred to as a tarball, for distribution or backup purposes. The name is derived from ape chive, as it was developed to write data to sequential I/O devices with no file system of their own. The archive data sets created by tar contain various file system parameters, such as name, time stamps, ownership, file access permissions, the command line utility was first introduced in the seventh edition of unix in January 1979, replacing the tp program. The file structure to store information was later standardized in POSIX. 1-1988 and later POSIX. 1-2001. Many historic tape drives read and write variable-length data blocks, leaving significant wasted space on the tape between blocks, some tape drives only support fixed-length data blocks. Also, when writing to any medium such as a filesystem or network, therefore, the tar command writes data in blocks of many 512 byte records. The user can specify a blocking factor, which is the number of records per block, a tar archive consists of a series of file objects, hence the popular term tarball, referencing how a tarball collects objects of all kinds that stick to its surface. Each file object includes any data, and is preceded by a 512-byte header record. The file data is written unaltered except that its length is rounded up to a multiple of 512 bytes. The original tar implementation did not care about the contents of the padding bytes, and left the buffer data unaltered, the end of an archive is marked by at least two consecutive zero-filled records. The final block of an archive is padded out to length with zeros. The file header record contains metadata about a file, to ensure portability across different architectures with different byte orderings, the information in the header record is encoded in ASCII. Thus if all the files in an archive are ASCII text files, the fields defined by the original Unix tar format are listed in the table below. The link indicator/file type table includes some modern extensions, when a field is unused it is filled with NUL bytes. The header uses 257 bytes, then is padded with NUL bytes to make it fill a 512 byte record, there is no magic number in the header, for file identification. Numeric values are encoded in octal numbers using ASCII digits, with leading zeroes, for historical reasons, a final NUL or space character should also be used. Thus although there are 12 bytes reserved for storing the file size and this gives a maximum file size of 8 gigabytes on archived files. To overcome this limitation, star in 2001 introduced a base-256 coding that is indicated by setting the bit of the leftmost byte of a numeric field
13.
Gzip
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Gzip is a file format and a software application used for file compression and decompression. The program was created by Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler as a free replacement for the compress program used in early Unix systems. Version 0.1 was first publicly released on 31 October 1992, Gzip is based on the DEFLATE algorithm, which is a combination of LZ77 and Huffman coding. DEFLATE was intended as a replacement for LZW and other patent-encumbered data compression algorithms which, at the time, limited the usability of compress, although its file format also allows for multiple such streams to be concatenated, gzip is normally used to compress just single files. Compressed archives are created by assembling collections of files into a single tar archive. The final. tar. gz or. tgz file is called a tarball. Gzip is not to be confused with the ZIP archive format, various implementations of the program have been written. The most commonly known is the GNU Projects implementation using Lempel-Ziv coding, openBSDs version of gzip is actually the compress program, to which support for the gzip format was added in OpenBSD3.4. The g in this specific version stands for gratis and these implementations originally come from NetBSD, and supports decompression of bzip2 and the Unix pack format. The tar utility included in most Linux distributions can extract. tar. gz files by passing the z option, zlib is an abstraction of the DEFLATE algorithm in library form which includes support both for the gzip file format and a lightweight stream format in its API. The zlib stream format, DEFLATE, and the file format were standardized respectively as RFC1950, RFC1951. The gzip format is used in HTTP compression, a used to speed up the sending of HTML. It is one of the three formats for HTTP compression as specified in RFC2616. This RFC also specifies a zlib format, which is equal to the gzip format except that gzip adds eleven bytes of overhead in the form of headers and trailers. Still, the format is sometimes recommended over zlib because Microsoft Internet Explorer does not implement the standard correctly. Zlib DEFLATE is used internally by the Portable Network Graphics format, since the late 1990s, bzip2, a file compression utility based on a block-sorting algorithm, has gained some popularity as a gzip replacement. It produces considerably smaller files, but at the cost of memory, comparison of file archivers Free file format List of archive formats List of Unix programs GNU Gzip home page Original gzip Home Page
14.
NTFS
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NTFS is a proprietary file system developed by Microsoft. Starting with Windows NT3.1, it is the file system of Windows NT family. Additional extensions are an elaborate security system based on Access control lists. MacOS kernels also have a limited ability to read NTFS. Linux and BSD kernels have a free and open-source driver for the NTFS filesystem with both read and write functionality, in the mid-1980s, Microsoft and IBM formed a joint project to create the next generation of graphical operating system, the result was OS/2 and HPFS. Because Microsoft disagreed with IBM on many important issues they eventually separated, OS/2 remained an IBM project and Microsoft worked to develop Windows NT, the HPFS file system for OS/2 contained several important new features. When Microsoft created their new operating system, they borrowed many of these concepts for NTFS, NTFS developers include, Tom Miller, Gary Kimura, Brian Andrew and David Goebel. Probably as a result of common ancestry, HPFS and NTFS use the same disk partition identification type code. Using the same Partition ID Record Number is highly unusual, since there were dozens of unused code numbers available, for example, FAT has more than nine. Algorithms identifying the system in a partition type 07 must perform additional checks to distinguish between HPFS and NTFS. Microsoft has released five versions of NTFS, v1.0, v1.0 is incompatible with v1.1 and newer, Volumes written by Windows NT3. 5x cannot be read by Windows NT3.1 until an update is installed. V1.1, Released with Windows NT3.51 in 1995, supports compressed files, named streams and access control lists v1.2, Released with Windows NT4.0 in 1996. Commonly called NTFS4.0 after the OS release, supports disk quotas, Encrypting File System, sparse files, reparse points, update sequence number journaling, the $Extend folder and its files. Reorganized security descriptors so that multiple files using the same security setting can share the same descriptor, commonly called NTFS5.0 after the OS release. V3.1, Released with Windows XP in Autumn,2001, expanded the Master File Table entries with redundant MFT record number. Commonly called NTFS5.1 after the OS release The NTFS. sys version number is based on the system version. Although subsequent versions of Windows added new file system-related features, they did not change NTFS itself, for example, Windows Vista implemented NTFS symbolic links, Transactional NTFS, partition shrinking, and self-healing. NTFS symbolic links are a new feature in the file system, NTFS is optimized for 4 kB clusters, but supports a maximum cluster size of 64 kB
15.
Graphical user interface
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GUIs were introduced in reaction to the perceived steep learning curve of command-line interfaces, which require commands to be typed on a computer keyboard. The actions in a GUI are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements, beyond computers, GUIs are used in many handheld mobile devices such as MP3 players, portable media players, gaming devices, smartphones and smaller household, office and industrial controls. Designing the visual composition and temporal behavior of a GUI is an important part of application programming in the area of human–computer interaction. Its goal is to enhance the efficiency and ease of use for the logical design of a stored program. Methods of user-centered design are used to ensure that the language introduced in the design is well-tailored to the tasks. The visible graphical interface features of an application are sometimes referred to as chrome or GUI, typically, users interact with information by manipulating visual widgets that allow for interactions appropriate to the kind of data they hold. The widgets of an interface are selected to support the actions necessary to achieve the goals of users. A model–view–controller allows a structure in which the interface is independent from and indirectly linked to application functions. This allows users to select or design a different skin at will, good user interface design relates to users more, and to system architecture less. Large widgets, such as windows, usually provide a frame or container for the main presentation content such as a web page, smaller ones usually act as a user-input tool. A GUI may be designed for the requirements of a market as application-specific graphical user interfaces. By the 1990s, cell phones and handheld game systems also employed application specific touchscreen GUIs, newer automobiles use GUIs in their navigation systems and multimedia centers, or navigation multimedia center combinations. Sample graphical desktop environments A GUI uses a combination of technologies and devices to provide a platform that users can interact with, a series of elements conforming a visual language have evolved to represent information stored in computers. This makes it easier for people with few computer skills to work with, the most common combination of such elements in GUIs is the windows, icons, menus, pointer paradigm, especially in personal computers. The WIMP style of interaction uses a virtual device to represent the position of a pointing device, most often a mouse. Available commands are compiled together in menus, and actions are performed making gestures with the pointing device, a window manager facilitates the interactions between windows, applications, and the windowing system. The windowing system handles hardware devices such as pointing devices, graphics hardware, window managers and other software combine to simulate the desktop environment with varying degrees of realism. Smaller mobile devices such as personal assistants and smartphones typically use the WIMP elements with different unifying metaphors, due to constraints in space
16.
Context menu
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A context menu is a menu in a graphical user interface that appears upon user interaction, such as a right-click mouse operation. A context menu offers a set of choices that are available in the current state, or context. Usually the available choices are actions related to the selected object, from a technical point of view, such a context menu is a graphical control element. Context menus first appeared in the Smalltalk environment on the Xerox Alto computer, context menus are opened via various forms of user interaction that target a region of the GUI that supports context menus. On systems that support one-button mice, context menus are opened by pressing and holding the primary mouse button or by pressing a keyboard/mouse button combination. A keyboard alternative for macOS is to enable Mouse keys in Universal Access, then, depending on whether a laptop or compact or extended keyboard type is used, the shortcut is Function+Ctrl+5 or Ctrl+5 or Function+Ctrl+i. On systems with an interface such as MacBook or Surface. This behavior differs from that of macOS and most free software GUIs, in Microsoft Windows, pressing the Application key or Shift+F10 opens a context menu for the region that has focus. Context menus are sometimes hierarchically organized, allowing navigation through different levels of the menu structure and this makes it possible to quickly repeat an action with the parameters of the previous execution, and to better separate options from actions. The following window managers provide context menu functionality, 9wm IceWM - middleclick and rightclick context menus on desktop, menubar. Context menus usually open in a position under the pointer. If the context menu is being triggered by keyboard, such as by using Shift + F10, microsofts guidelines call for always using the term context menu, and explicitly deprecate shortcut menu
17.
Classic Mac OS
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This is a list of macOS components, features that are included in the current Mac operating system. Latest version 2.7 Automator is a developed by Apple Inc. Automator enables the repetition of tasks across a variety of programs, including Finder, Safari, Calendar, Contacts. It can also work with third-party applications such as Microsoft Office, the icon features a robot holding a pipe, a reference to pipelines, a computer science term for connected data workflows. Automator was first released with Mac OS X Tiger, Automator provides a graphical user interface for automating tasks without knowledge of programming or scripting languages. Tasks can be recorded as they are performed by the user or can be selected from a list, the output of the previous action can become the input to the next action. Automator comes with a library of Actions that act as individual steps in a Workflow document, a Workflow document is used to carry out repetitive tasks. Workflows can be saved and reused, unix command line scripts and AppleScripts can also be invoked as Actions. The actions are linked together in a Workflow, the Workflow can be saved as an application, Workflow file or a contextual menu item. Options can be set when the Workflow is created or when the Workflow is run, a workflow file created in Automator is saved in /Users//Library/Services. Latest version 10.8 Calculator is a calculator application made by Apple Inc. It has three modes, basic, scientific, and programmer, Basic includes a number pad, buttons for adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing, as well as memory keys. Scientific mode supports exponents and trigonometric functions, and programmer mode gives the user access to more options related to computer programming, Apple currently ships a different application called Grapher. Calculator has Reverse Polish notation support, and can speak the buttons pressed. The Calculator appeared first as an accessory in first version of Macintosh System for the 1984 Macintosh 128k. Its design was maintained with the basic math operations until the final release of classic Mac OS in 2002. A Dashboard Calculator widget is included in all versions of macOS from Mac OS X Tiger onwards and it only has the basic mode of its desktop counterpart. Since the release of OS X Yosemite, there is also a simple calculator widget available in the notifications area, since the release of Mac OS X Leopard, simple arithmetic functions can be calculated from Spotlight feature
18.
Creator code
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A creator code is a mechanism introduced in pre-OS X versions of the Macintosh operating system to link a data file to the application program which created it. The similar type code held the type, like TEXT. Together, the type and creator indicated what application should be used to open a file and they allow applications to launch and open a file whenever any of their associated files is double-clicked. Creator codes could be any value, but were usually chosen so that their ASCII representation formed a word or acronym. For example, the code of the HyperCard application and its associated stacks is represented in ASCII as WILD. For instance, the Marathon computer game had a code of 26.2 and Marathon 2. The binding are stored inside the fork of the application as BNDL. These resources maintained the code as well as the association with each type code. The OS collected this data from the files when they were copied between mediums, thereby building up the list of associations and icons as software was installed onto the machine, periodically this desktop database would become corrupted, and had to be fixed by rebuilding the desktop database. The key difference between extensions and Apples system is that type and file ownership bindings are kept distinct. This allows files to be written of the same type - TEXT say - by different applications, although any application can open anyone elses TEXT file, by default, opening the file will open the original application that created it. With the extensions approach, this distinction is lost - all files with a. txt extension will be mapped to a text editing application of the users choosing. A more obvious advantage of this approach is allowing for double click launching of specialized editors for more complex but common file types, OS X retains creator codes, but supports extensions as well. To avoid conflicts, Apple maintained a database of codes in use. Developers could fill out a form to register their codes. Apple reserves codes containing all lower-case ASCII characters for its own use, Apples developer documentation states that applications should continue to set type codes and optionally set creator codes. If either already exists, applications should preserve them, furthermore, creator codes are used in document binding prior to the file extension alone. Type code Uniform Type Identifier How application binding policy changed in Snow Leopard Szekely, Ilan
19.
Icon (computing)
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In computing, an icon is a pictogram or ideogram displayed on a computer screen in order to help the user navigate a computer system or mobile device. It can serve as an electronic hyperlink or file shortcut to access the program or data, the user can activate an icon using a mouse, pointer, finger, or recently voice commands. Their placement on the screen, also in relation to other icons, in activating an icon, the user can move directly into and out of the identified function without knowing anything further about the location or requirements of the file or code. Graphically, the icon is a picture of objects that users are familiar with from office environment or from other professional arenas. One group of icons was taken from the symbols found across all devices, such as the power on/off symbol. Another group is metaphorically representing desktop objects from the 1980s office environment, a third group of icons are the brand icons used to identify commercial software programs. These commercial icons serve as links on the system to the program or data files created by a specific software provider. Although icons are depicted in graphical user interfaces, icons are sometimes rendered in a TUI using special characters such as MouseText or PETSCII. The design of all computer icons is constricted by the limitations of the device display and they are limited in size, with the standard size about a thumbnail for both desktop computer systems and mobile devices. They are frequently scalable, as they are displayed in different positions in the software, the colors used, of both the image and the icon background, should stand out on different system backgrounds. The detailing of the image needs to be simple, remaining recognizable in varying graphical resolutions. Computer icons are by definition language-independent, they do not rely on letters or words to convey their meaning and these visual parameters place rigid limits on the design of icons, frequently requiring the skills of a graphic artist in their development. Because of their size and versatility, computer icons have become a mainstay of user interaction with electronic media. Icons also provide rapid entry into the system functionality, on most systems, users can create and delete, replicate, select, click or double-click standard computer icons and drag them to new positions on the screen to create a customized user environment. Some common computer icons are taken from the field of standardized icons used across a wide range of electrical equipment. Examples of these are the symbol and the USB icon. The standardization of electronic icons is an important safety-feature on all types of electronics, as a subset of electronic devices, computer systems and mobile devices use many of the same icons, they are incorporated into the design of both the computer hardware and on the software. On the hardware, these identify the functionality of specific buttons
20.
MacOS
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Within the market of desktop, laptop and home computers, and by web usage, it is the second most widely used desktop OS after Microsoft Windows. Launched in 2001 as Mac OS X, the series is the latest in the family of Macintosh operating systems, Mac OS X succeeded classic Mac OS, which was introduced in 1984, and the final release of which was Mac OS9 in 1999. An initial, early version of the system, Mac OS X Server 1.0, was released in 1999, the first desktop version, Mac OS X10.0, followed in March 2001. In 2012, Apple rebranded Mac OS X to OS X. Releases were code named after big cats from the release up until OS X10.8 Mountain Lion. Beginning in 2013 with OS X10.9 Mavericks, releases have been named after landmarks in California, in 2016, Apple rebranded OS X to macOS, adopting the nomenclature that it uses for their other operating systems, iOS, watchOS, and tvOS. The latest version of macOS is macOS10.12 Sierra, macOS is based on technologies developed at NeXT between 1985 and 1997, when Apple acquired the company. The X in Mac OS X and OS X is pronounced ten, macOS shares its Unix-based core, named Darwin, and many of its frameworks with iOS, tvOS and watchOS. A heavily modified version of Mac OS X10.4 Tiger was used for the first-generation Apple TV, Apple also used to have a separate line of releases of Mac OS X designed for servers. Beginning with Mac OS X10.7 Lion, the functions were made available as a separate package on the Mac App Store. Releases of Mac OS X from 1999 to 2005 can run only on the PowerPC-based Macs from the time period, Mac OS X10.5 Leopard was released as a Universal binary, meaning the installer disc supported both Intel and PowerPC processors. In 2009, Apple released Mac OS X10.6 Snow Leopard, in 2011, Apple released Mac OS X10.7 Lion, which no longer supported 32-bit Intel processors and also did not include Rosetta. All versions of the system released since then run exclusively on 64-bit Intel CPUs, the heritage of what would become macOS had originated at NeXT, a company founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985. There, the Unix-like NeXTSTEP operating system was developed, and then launched in 1989 and its graphical user interface was built on top of an object-oriented GUI toolkit using the Objective-C programming language. This led Apple to purchase NeXT in 1996, allowing NeXTSTEP, then called OPENSTEP, previous Macintosh operating systems were named using Arabic numerals, e. g. Mac OS8 and Mac OS9. The letter X in Mac OS Xs name refers to the number 10 and it is therefore correctly pronounced ten /ˈtɛn/ in this context. However, a common mispronunciation is X /ˈɛks/, consumer releases of Mac OS X included more backward compatibility. Mac OS applications could be rewritten to run natively via the Carbon API, the consumer version of Mac OS X was launched in 2001 with Mac OS X10.0. Reviews were variable, with praise for its sophisticated, glossy Aqua interface
21.
NeXTSTEP
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NeXTSTEP is a discontinued object-oriented, multitasking operating system based on UNIX. Although relatively unsuccessful at the time, it attracted interest from computer scientists and it was also the platform on which Tim Berners-Lee created the first web browser. After the purchase of NeXT by Apple, it became the source of the operating systems macOS, iOS, watchOS and tvOS. Many bundled macOS applications, such as TextEdit, Mail and Chess, are descendants of NeXTSTEP applications, the toolkits offer considerable power, and are the canonical development system for all of the software on the machine. NeXTSTEPs user interface is considered to be refined and consistent and it introduced the idea of the Dock and the Shelf. Additional kits were added to the line to make the system more attractive. These include Portable Distributed Objects, which allow easy remote invocation, and Enterprise Objects Framework, the kits made the system particularly interesting to custom application programmers, and NeXTSTEP had a long history in the financial programming community. A preview release of NeXTSTEP was shown with the launch of the NeXT Computer on October 12,1988, the first full release, NeXTSTEP1.0, shipped on September 18,1989. NeXTSTEP was later modified to separate the underlying operating system from the higher-level object libraries, the result was the OpenStep API, which ran on multiple underlying operating systems, including NeXTs own OPENSTEP, Windows NT and SUN Solaris. NeXTSTEPs legacy stands today in the form of its direct descendents, from day one, the operating system of NeXTSTEP was built upon Mach/BSD. It was built on 4. 3BSD Tahoe and it changed to 4. 3BSD Reno after the release of NeXTSTEP3.0. It changed to 4. 4BSD during the development of Rhapsody, the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, and the first ever app store were all invented on the NeXTSTEP platform. Some features and keyboard shortcuts now commonly found in web browsers can be traced back to NeXTSTEP conventions, the basic layout options of HTML1.0 and 2.0 are attributable to those features available in NeXTs Text class. Other games based on the Doom engine such as Heretic and its sequel Hexen by Raven Software as well as Strife by Rogue Entertainment were also developed on NeXT hardware using ids tools. Altsys made a NeXTSTEP application called Virtuoso, version 2 of which was ported to Mac OS, the modern Notebook interface for Mathematica, and the advanced spreadsheet Lotus Improv, were developed using NeXTSTEP. The software that controlled MCIs Friends and Family calling plan program was developed using NeXTSTEP, about the time of the release of NeXTSTEP3.2, NeXT partnered with Sun Microsystems to develop OpenStep. It is the product of an effort to separate the underlying operating system from the higher-level object libraries to create a cross-platform object-oriented API standard derived from NeXTSTEP, the OpenStep API targets multiple underlying operating systems, including NeXTs own OPENSTEP. Implementations of that standard were released for Suns Solaris, Windows NT, NeXTs implementation is called OPENSTEP for Mach and its first release superseded NeXTSTEP3.3 on NeXT, Sun and Intel IA-32 systems
22.
Graphics
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Graphics are visual images or designs on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, screen, paper, or stone to inform, illustrate, or entertain. In contemporary usage it includes, pictorial representation of data, as in computer-aided design and manufacture, in typesetting and the graphic arts, images that are generated by a computer are called computer graphics. Examples are photographs, drawings, Line art, graphs, diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols, geometric designs, maps, engineering drawings, Graphics often combine text, illustration, and color. Graphic design may consist of the selection, creation, or arrangement of typography alone, as in a brochure, flyer, poster, web site. Clarity or effective communication may be the objective, association with cultural elements may be sought, or merely. Graphics can be functional or artistic. C, many of these were found to record astronomical, seasonal, and chronological details. Records from Egypt predate these and papyrus was used by the Egyptians as a material on which to plan the building of pyramids, they also used slabs of limestone, from 600–250 BC, the Greeks played a major role in geometry. They used graphics to represent their mathematical theories such as the Circle Theorem, in art, graphics is often used to distinguish work in a monotone and made up of lines, as opposed to painting. Drawing generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, in which a tool is always used as if there were no tools it would be art. Graphical drawing is an instrumental guided drawing, woodblock printing, including images is first seen in China after paper was invented. In the West the main techniques have been woodcut, engraving and etching, etching is an intaglio method of printmaking in which the image is incised into the surface of a metal plate using an acid. The acid eats the metal, leaving behind roughened areas, or, if the surface exposed to the acid is very thin, the use of the process in printmaking is believed to have been invented by Daniel Hopfer of Augsburg, Germany, who decorated armour in this way. Etching is also used in the manufacturing of printed circuit boards, Line art is usually monochromatic, although lines may be of different colors. An illustration is a visual representation such as a drawing, painting, the aim of an illustration is to elucidate or decorate a story, poem or piece of textual information, traditionally by providing a visual representation of something described in the text. The editorial cartoon, also known as a cartoon, is an illustration containing a political or social message. Charts are often used to make it easier to understand large quantities of data, a diagram is a simplified and structured visual representation of concepts, ideas, constructions, relations, statistical data, etc. used to visualize and clarify the topic. A symbol, in its sense, is a representation of a concept or quantity, i. e. an idea, object, concept, quality. A map is a depiction of a space, a navigational aid which highlights relations between objects within that space
23.
Plain text
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In computing, plain text is the data that represent only characters of readable material but not its graphical representation nor other objects. It may also include a number of characters that control simple arrangement of text. Plain text is different from formatted text, where information is included. The encoding has traditionally been either ASCII, sometimes EBCDIC, unicode-based encodings such as UTF-8 and UTF-16 are gradually replacing the older ASCII derivatives limited to 7 or 8 bit codes. Files that contain markup or other meta-data are generally considered plain-text, the use of plain text rather than bit-streams to express markup, enables files to survive much better in the wild, in part by making them largely immune to computer architecture incompatibilities. According to The Unicode Standard, Plain text is a sequence of character codes. Styled text, also known as rich text, is any text representation containing plain text completed by such as a language identifier, font size, color. For instance, Rich text such as SGML, RTF, HTML, XML, wiki markup, according to The Unicode Standard, plain text has two main properties in regard to rich text, plain text is the underlying content stream to which formatting can be applied. Plain text is public, standardized, and universally readable, Plain text represents the basic, interchangeable content of text. Plain text represents character content only, not its appearance and it can be displayed in a variety of ways and requires a rendering process to make it visible with a particular appearance. If the same plain text sequence is given to disparate rendering processes, instead, the disparate rendering processes are simply required to make the text legible according to the intended reading. This legibility criterion constrains the range of possible appearances, the relationship between appearance and content of plain text may be summarized as follows, Plain text must contain enough information to permit the text to be rendered legibly, and nothing more. The Unicode Standard encodes plain text, the distinction between plain text and other forms of data in the same data stream is the function of a higher-level protocol and is not specified by the Unicode Standard itself. The purpose of using plain text today is primarily independence from programs that require their own special encoding or formatting or file format. Plain text files can be opened, read, and edited with countless text editors, a command-line interface allows people to give commands in plain text and get a response, also in plain text. Plain text files are almost universal in programming, a code file containing instructions in a programming language is almost always a plain text file. Plain text is commonly used for configuration files, which are read for saved settings at the startup of a program. Plain text is used for much e-mail, a comment, a. txt file, or a TXT Record generally contains only plain text intended for humans to read
24.
Music
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Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch, rhythm, dynamics, different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. The word derives from Greek μουσική, Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as the harmony of the spheres and it is music to my ears point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, There is no noise, the creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. There are many types of music, including music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious ceremonies. For example, it can be hard to draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock and heavy metal, within the arts, music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art or as an auditory art. People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing cello in a youth orchestra, the word derives from Greek μουσική. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the music is derived from mid-13c. Musike, from Old French musique and directly from Latin musica the art of music and this is derived from the. Greek mousike of the Muses, from fem. of mousikos pertaining to the Muses, from Mousa Muse. In classical Greece, any art in which the Muses presided, Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. With the advent of recording, records of popular songs. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their songs, which serve as a self-portrait. An environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved, amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure, and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings, There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians, in community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras. However, there are many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers
25.
WordStar
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WordStar is a word processor application that had a dominant market share during the early- to mid-1980s. It was published by MicroPro International, and written for the CP/M operating system, Rubinstein was the principal owner of the company, Rob Barnaby was the sole author of the early versions of the program. Starting with WordStar 4.0, the program was built on new code written principally by Peter Mierau. WordStar was deliberately written to make as few assumptions about the system as possible. As all of these versions had relatively similar commands and controls, already popular, its inclusion with the Osborne 1 computer made the program become the de facto standard for much of the word-processing market. As the computer market became dominated by the IBM PC. In spite of its popularity in the early 1980s, these problems allowed WordPerfect to take WordStars place as the most widely used word processor from 1985 onwards. Rubinstein was an employee of early microcomputer company IMSAI, where he negotiated contracts with Digital Research. After leaving IMSAI, Rubinstein planned to start his own company that would sell through the new network of retail computer stores. MicroPro began selling the product, now renamed WordStar, in June 1979, by early 1980, MicroPro claimed in advertisements that 5,000 people had purchased WordStar in eight months. Wordstar was the first microcomputer word processor to offer mail merge, by May 1983 BYTE magazine called WordStar without a doubt the best-known and probably the most widely used personal computer word-processing program. By 1984, the year it held a public offering. A manual that PC Magazine described as incredibly inadequate led many authors to publish replacements, WordStar 3.0, the first version for MS-DOS, appeared in April 1982. WordStars ability to use a non-document mode to create text files without formatting made it popular among programmers for writing code, like the CP/M versions, the DOS WordStar was not explicitly designed for IBM PCs, but rather for any x86 machine. As such, it used only DOSs OS calls and avoided any BIOS usage or direct hardware access, the first DOS version was a port of the CP/M-86 version, and therefore could only address 64k of RAM even though DOS supported up to 640k. Users quickly learned they could make WordStar run dramatically faster by installing a RAM disk board, WordStar would still access the disk repeatedly, but the far faster access of the RAM drive compared to a floppy disk yielded a substantial speed improvement. However, edited versions of a document were saved only to this RAM disk, infoWorld described WordStar as notorious for its complexity, but by 1983 it was the leading word processing system. Although competition appeared early, WordStar was the dominant word processor on x86 machines until 1985 and it was part of the software bundle that accompanied Kaypro computers
26.
Rpm (software)
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RPM Package Manager is a package management system. The name RPM refers to the following, the. rpm file format, files in the. rpm file format, software packaged in such files, RPM was intended primarily for Linux distributions, the file format is the baseline package format of the Linux Standard Base. Even though it was created for use in Red Hat Linux and it has also been ported to some other operating systems, such as Novell NetWare and IBMs AIX. An RPM package can contain a set of files. The larger part of RPM files encountered are “binary RPMs” containing the version of some software. There are also “source RPMs” files containing the code used to produce a package. These have a tag in the file header that distinguishes them from normal RPMs. SRPMs customarily carry the file extension “. src. rpm”, RPM was originally written in 1997 by Erik Troan and Marc Ewing, based on pms, rpp, and pm experiences. Pm preserves the Pristine Sources + patches paradigm of pms, while adding features, packages may come from within a particular distribution or be built for it by other parties. Circular dependencies among mutually dependent RPMs can be problematic, in such cases a single installation command needs to specify all the relevant packages, RPMs are often collected centrally in one or more repositories on the internet. A site often has its own RPM repositories which may act as local mirrors of such internet repositories or be locally maintained collections of useful RPMs. Several front-ends to RPM ease the process of obtaining and installing RPMs from repositories and help in resolving their dependencies. These include, yum used in Fedora, CentOS5, Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 and above, Scientific Linux, Yellow Dog Linux and Oracle Linux DNF, introduced in Fedora 18, default since 22. Rpmquery, a command-line utility available in Red Hat Enterprise Linux Working behind the scenes of the manager is the RPM database. It uses Berkeley DB as its back-end and it consists of a single database containing all of the meta information of the installed rpms. Multiple databases are created for indexing purposes, replicating data to speed up queries, the database is used to keep track of all files that are changed and created when a user installs a package, thus enabling the user to reverse the changes and remove the package later. If the database gets corrupted, the databases can be recreated with the rpm --rebuilddb command. Whilst the RPM format is the same across different Linux distributions, part is specified as src as in, libgnomeuimm-2. 0-2.0. 0-3. src. rpm RPMs with the noarch. rpm extension refer to packages which do not depend on a certain computers architecture
27.
RealPlayer
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RealPlayer, formerly RealAudio Player, RealOne Player and RealPlayer G2, is a cross-platform media player app, developed by RealNetworks. RealPlayer is also available for operating systems, Linux, Unix, Palm OS, Windows Mobile. The program is powered by an underlying open-source media engine called Helix, the first version of RealPlayer was introduced in April 1995 as RealAudio Player and was one of the first media players capable of streaming media over the Internet. Then, version 4.01 of RealPlayer was included as a selectable Internet tool in Windows 98s installation package. Subsequent versions of the software were titled RealPlayer G2 and RealOne Player, while free Basic versions as well as paid Plus versions, for the Windows OS, the RealPlayer version 9 subsumed the features of the separate program, RealJukebox. RealPlayer 11 was released for Microsoft Windows in November 2007 and for Mac OS X in May 2008, RealPlayer 15 was released November 18,2011. The Real. com Blog states that RealPlayer with RealTimes will still include the features, such as Downloader, Converter. It will also include our RealTimes features, such as Photos and RealTimes Stories™. Playlists Graphics, Bitmap, GIF Images, JPEG Images, PNG RealPlayer has a variety of plug-ins. Some of the plug-ins are listed at the RealPlayer accessories page, Audio Enhancement There are four audio enhancers available for the latest version of RealPlayer. DFX, iQfx, Volume Logic, and Sanyo 3D Surround, Lake PLS, created by Lake Technologies, works only with RealJukebox, and has limited use. There are some registry tweaks which allow Lake PLS to work with RealPlayer 10, Lake PLS is still available on the RealPlayer website. RealPlayer Skin Creators RealPlayer has had two skin creator plug-ins, SkinsEditor for RealJukebox -- an easy to use skins creator made by DeYoung software, the second application, RealJukebox Skins Converter, converts Winamp skins into RealPlayer skins. Playback Plug-Ins Please see section Formats supported by optional plug-ins, radio Tuners vTuner Plus is a radio tuner specially created for RealPlayer. There are some more visualization plug-ins like Surreal. FX by RealNetworks, G-Force and WhiteCap by SoundSpectrum, Firefox Browser Download RealPlayer has a browser download add-on for Firefox which allows users to download video from a video player window. ScrobRealPlayer an audioscrobbler plugin that connects RealPlayer with the Last. FM social music network. This includes music players such as iPod and Zune, smartphones such as iPhone and BlackBerry, portable gaming devices such as Sony PSP, and console gaming systems such as Xbox 360, PS3, and Wii. Since version 11, RealPlayer SP has gained Flash Video support, DVD, SVCD, VCD burning, as of 2011 RealPlayer Enterprise is a licensed product for enterprise applications which can be customized and remotely administered by RealPlayer Enterprise Manager
28.
DESQview
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DESQview was a text mode multitasking operating environment developed by Quarterdeck Office Systems which enjoyed modest popularity in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Running on top of MS-DOS, it allowed users to run multiple programs concurrently in multiple windows, Quarterdecks predecessor to DESQview was a task switching product called Desq which allowed users to switch between running programs. Quarterdeck revamped its package, bringing multitasking in, and adding TopView compatibility, DESQview was released in July 1985, four months before Microsoft introduced the first version of Windows. Under DESQview, well-behaved DOS programs could be run concurrently in resizable, a simple hideable menu allowed cutting and pasting between programs. DESQview provided support for simple editable macros as well, Quarterdeck also developed a set of optional utilities for DESQview, including a notepad and dialer. Later versions allowed graphics mode programs to be loaded as well, DESQview was not a GUI operating system. Rather, it was a non-graphical, windowed shell that ran in real mode on top of DOS and it could also use expanded memory add-ons to work around the 640 kB RAM limit of conventional memory on early PCs. DESQview really came into its own on Intel 80386 machines, which were better at utilizing memory above DOSs limit, however, in either case, it ran in real mode rather than protected mode, meaning that a misbehaving program could still crash the system. Owing to the foresight of its manager, Quarterdeck marketed it as a separate product. It became more popular than DESQview itself, and sold steadily for many years, after the release of the Intel Pentium processor, the 386 in QEMM was dropped. The combination package of DESQview and QEMM-386 was called DESQview 386 and this allowed a 386 to implement the LIM EMS. The memory manager was easily controlled by the user with DOS program QEMM. COM, the main copy of DOS and any device and networking drivers had to be loaded before DESQview. The resulting space was the largest single program that could run, so an 8 MB system could generally have a dozen full-sized DOS programs running concurrently, a 16 MB system could run over twenty, and so on. It also had an interface that was generally unobtrusive while being quickly available. All normal PCs include a keyboard with three shift or modifier keys, Control, Alt, and the normal Shift keys and these keys are normally held down in combination with other keys. DESQview, by default, monitored the Alt key for isolated presses, in addition a Shift+Alt combination would cause DESQview to learn a set of keys as a macro. This allowed DESQview to run other programs without interfering with any of the keybindings they might be using, DESQview was critically acclaimed and won many fans, but it never met with mass appeal, despite Quarterdecks sustained efforts to win people over. Reportedly it intrigued many people at Microsoft, including Bill Gates, most free or inexpensive BBS software of the time ran as a single-node, single-tasking DOS program
29.
Quicken
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Quicken is a personal finance management tool developed by Quicken Inc. On March 3,2016, Intuit announced plans to sell Quicken to H. I. G, terms of the sale were not disclosed. Different versions of Quicken run on Windows and Macintosh systems, since 2008, each version has tended to have the release year in the product name, before then, versions were numbered. Quickens major marketplace is North America, and most of the software sold is specialized for the United States and Canadian marketplace, development of the UK-specific version of Quicken was stopped in January 2005, with sales and support ending shortly afterwards. There were also versions for Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Denmark, Ecuador, France, Mexico, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Uruguay, the Quicken brand has been extended to other personal and household areas, including healthcare. Quicken Health Expense Tracker is a online tool for healthcare consumers enrolled in participating health plans. Users can manage and direct their health care finances, view and organize medical expenses, payments and service histories, the Quicken Medical Expense Manager is a desktop software tool for managing healthcare paperwork, tracking claims and payments, and consolidating related information. Quicken Kids & Money was a Web-based program that aimed to help parents teach five- to eight-year-old children how to earn, spend, save, other products are aimed at home business and seem to fit in a space for a less formal business than would be using QuickBooks. Quicken Rental Property Manager is a software tool for managing rental properties, tracking tenants, expenses, and payments. Quicken Online was a free, hosted solution by Intuit, Intuit hosted all of the users data, and provided patches and regularly upgraded the software automatically. Initially this was launched as a paid subscription, and was a free service for over a year. During the year that it was free, it acquired over 1.5 million customers, Intuit completed the acquisition of competitor Mint. com on November 2,2009. Quicken Online was discontinued on August 29,2010, and users were encouraged to transition to Mint. com, the following are current and retired versions of Quicken. 1996 Version 3 for Windows 3.1 Quicken Essentials for Mac - April 30,2015 Quicken for Mac 2007 - retired April 2012, Intuit stopped supporting its Quicken software in the United Kingdom in 2005, leaving many thousands of users with only partly functional software. In 2008 and 2009, Quicken users reported a large number of software bugs for a commercial product. A review of Quicken 2010 suggests that quality and user interface in that year is dramatically improved. Existing Quicken Online users data is not transferable/importable into Mint. com and this is in direct contrast to VP Aaron Patzers promise, made on April 27,2010, you can continue to use Quicken Online just like you have. Once we have completed integrating all features to Mint, you will be able to transfer your information
30.
Ledger
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The ledger is a permanent summary of all amounts entered in supporting journals which list individual transactions by date. Every transaction flows from a journal to one or more ledgers, a companys financial statements are generated from summary totals in the ledgers. Ledgers include, Sales ledger, records accounts receivable and this ledger consists of the financial transactions made by customers to the company. Purchase ledger records money spent for purchasing by the company, General ledger representing the five main account types, assets, liabilities, income, expenses, and Capital. Distributed ledger, sometimes called a shared ledger, is a consensus of replicated, shared, for every debit recorded in a ledger, there must be a corresponding credit so that the debits equal the credits in the grand totals. Originally, a ledger was a volume of scripture or service book kept in one place in church. According to Charles Wriothesleys Chronicle, The curates should provide a booke of the bible in Englishe, of the largest volume, in application of this original meaning the commercial usage of the term is for the principal book of account in a business house. Retrieved March 29,2011, from http, //www. toolkit. com/small_business_guide/sbg. aspx. nid=P06_1450 General Ledger Entries, retrieved March 30,2011, from http, //www. netmba. com/accounting/fin/process/ledger/
31.
QuickTime
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QuickTime is an extensible multimedia framework developed by Apple Inc. capable of handling various formats of digital video, picture, sound, panoramic images, and interactivity. First made in 1991, the latest Mac version, QuickTime X, is available on Mac OS X Snow Leopard. Apple ceased support for the Windows version of QuickTime in 2016, as of Mac OS X Lion, the underlying media framework for QuickTime, QTKit, is deprecated in favor of a newer graphics framework, AV Foundation. Software development kits for QuickTime are available to the public with an Apple Developer Connection subscription and it is available free of charge for both macOS and Windows operating systems. There are some other free player applications that rely on the QuickTime framework, for example, iTunes can export audio in WAV, AIFF, MP3, AAC, and Apple Lossless. In addition, macOS has a simple AppleScript that can be used to play a movie in full-screen mode, QuickTime Player 7 is limited to only basic playback operations unless a QuickTime Pro license key is purchased from Apple. Until recently, Apples professional applications included a QuickTime Pro license, Pro keys are specific to the major version of QuickTime for which they are purchased and unlock additional features of the QuickTime Player application on macOS or Windows. The Pro key does not require any additional downloads, entering the code immediately unlocks the hidden features. Saving and exporting to any of the supported by QuickTime. QuickTime 7 includes presets for exporting video to a video-capable iPod, Apple TV, saving existing QuickTime movies from the web directly to a hard disk drive. This is often, but not always, either hidden or intentionally blocked in the standard mode, two options exist for saving movies from a web browser, Save as source – This option will save the embedded video in its original format. Save as QuickTime movie – This option will save the video in a. mov file format no matter what the original container is/was. Mac OS X Snow Leopard includes QuickTime X. QuickTime Player X lacks cut, copy and paste and will only export to four formats, but its limited export feature is free. Otherwise, users will have to install QuickTime 7 from the Optional Installs directory of the Snow Leopard DVD after installing the OS. Mac OS X Lion and later also include QuickTime X. No installer for QuickTime 7 is included with software packages. The QuickTime framework provides the following, Encoding and transcoding video, decoding video and audio, then sending the decoded stream to the graphics or audio subsystem for playback. In macOS, QuickTime sends video playback to the Quartz Extreme Compositor, a component plug-in architecture for supporting additional 3rd-party codecs. As of early 2008, the framework hides many older codecs listed below from the user although the option to Show legacy encoders exists in QuickTime Preferences to use them
32.
Game Boy Advance
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The Game Boy Advance is a 32-bit handheld video game console developed, manufactured and marketed by Nintendo as the successor to the Game Boy Color. It was released in Japan on March 21,2001, in North America on June 11,2001, in Australia and Europe on June 22,2001, and in the Peoples Republic of China on June 8,2004. Nintendos competitors in the market at the time were the Neo Geo Pocket Color, WonderSwan, GP32, Tapwave Zodiac. Despite the competitors best efforts, Nintendo maintained a majority market share with the Game Boy Advance, as of June 30,2010, the Game Boy Advance series has sold 81.51 million units worldwide. Its successor, the Nintendo DS, was released in November 2004 and is compatible with Game Boy Advance software. The Game Boy Advance was designed by the French designer Gwénaël Nicolas, in 1996, magazines including Electronic Gaming Monthly, issues 53 and 54 of Total. and the July 1996 issue of Game Informer featured reports of a new Game Boy, codenamed Project Atlantis. It also may have referred to the unnamed, unreleased Game Boy Color successor prototype that was revealed at 2009s Game Developers Conference and it was announced that Nintendo Co. Ltd. was working on a game for the system called Marios Castle. When playing Game Boy or Game Boy Color games on the Game Boy Advance, Game Boy games can be played using the same selectable color palettes as on the Game Boy Color. Every Nintendo handheld system following the release of the Game Boy Advance SP has included a built-in light and rechargeable battery. The Game Boy Advance and Nintendo DS 2D graphics hardware have scaling and rotation for traditional tiled backgrounds in its modes 1 and 2 and scaling, more complex effects such as fuzz are possible by using other equations for the position, scaling, and rotation of each line. The character mode supports up to 4 tile map background layers per frame, with each tile being 8x8 pixels in size and having 16 or 256 colors. The character mode supports up to 128 hardware sprites per frame, with any sprite size from 8x8 to 64x64 pixels. With hardware comparable to the Super NES, the Game Boy Advance represents progress for sprite-based technology, the Game Boy Advance has platformers, SNES-style role-playing video games, and classic games ported from various 8-bit and 16-bit systems of the previous generations. This includes the Super Mario Advance series, as well as the backward compatibility with all earlier Game Boy titles. Final Fantasy VI Advance was the final licensed Japanese GBA game release, Released November 2006, it was the final Nintendo-published game for the system. The Legend of Spyro, The Eternal Night was the final European GBA game, samurai Deeper Kyo was the final North American GBA game, released in February 2008. The last Nintendo-developed game released for the system was the Japan-only rhythm game Rhythm Tengoku, an accessory for the GameCube, known as the Game Boy Player, was released in 2003 as the successor to the Super Game Boy peripheral for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The accessory allows Game Boy Advance games, as well as Game Boy and Game Boy Color games, however, some games may have compatibility issues due to certain features
33.
SmallBASIC
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SmallBASIC is a BASIC programming language dialect with interpreters released as free software under the GNU General Public License version 2. The dialect is described by the authors as a second generation BASIC and it is a structured BASIC, and contains the most advanced math functions and operators found on graphing calculators such as matrices and Gauss-Jordan method. The Small prefix in the name reflects the projects original intention of being used with the Palm. SmallBASIC was designed for portability, and is written in C with separate modules containing any code that is unique to a particular platform. SmallBASIC also adds functions such as File Save, Save As, Close File, and Open File to the Palm, other programming languages for Palm OS that are written in SmallBASIC include Exclamation and Brainfuck. SmallBASIC was designed to run on minimal hardware, one of the primary platforms supported is Palm OS, where memory, CPU cycles, and screen space are limited. The SmallBASIC graphics engine can use ASCII graphics and therefore run many programs on pure text devices, SmallBASIC runs even on Palm OS wristwatches made by Fossil, Inc. Tech Republic calls it an excellent tool to begin programming with, aSCII-World says SmallBASIC is an excellent tool for mathematics David Mertz, Ph. D. and Andrew Blais, Ph. D. of Gnosis Software say SmallBASIC has one of the better development interfaces reviewed. Microsoft Small Basic SmallBASIC on SourceForge. net SmallBASIC Home Page at SourceForge
34.
Scratch (programming language)
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Scratch is a free visual programming language developed by the MIT Media Lab. Scratch is used by students, scholars, teachers, and parents to create animations, games. It provides a stone to the more advanced world of computer programming. Viewing the existing projects available on the Scratch website, or modifying and testing any modification without saving it requires no online registration, Scratch allows users to use event-driven programming with multiple active objects called sprites. Sprites can be drawn, as vector or bitmap graphics, from scratch in an editor that is part of Scratch, or can be imported from external sources. As of 2013, Scratch 2 is available online and as an application for Windows, macOS, the source code of Scratch 1. x is released under GPLv2 license and Scratch Source Code License. It also gives credit to the participant who built on the original work, the name was derived from turntablisms technique of scratching, relating the ease of mixing sounds to the ease of mixing projects made with Scratch. Scratch was iteratively developed based on ongoing interaction with youth and staff at Computer Clubhouses and its purpose was to aid young people, mainly for ages 8 and up, to learn programming. Scratch 2 was released on May 9,2013, with its introduction, custom blocks can be defined within projects. Scratch was made popular in the UK through Code Clubs, Scratch is not exclusively for creating games. With the provided visuals, programmers can create animated stories, informational texts, there are already many programs which students can use to learn topics in math, history, and even photography. Within the social sciences, instructors can create quizzes, games, using Scratch allows young people to understand the logic of programming and how to creatively build and collaborate. Scratch lets students create meaningful personal as well as projects which gives students a practical tool to express themselves after learning to use the language. Harvard University lecturer Dr. David J. Malan prefers using Scratch over commonly used programming languages, such as Java or C. However, there is a benefit in a college level education. Malan switches his courses language to C after the first week, from left to right, in the upper left area of the screen, there is a stage area, featuring the results and all sprites thumbnails listed in the bottom area. The stage uses x and y coordinates, with 0,0 being the stage center, there are many ways to create personal sprites and backgrounds. First, users can draw their own sprite manually with Paint Editor provided by Scratch, second, users can choose a Sprite from the Scratch library that contains default sprite, users past creations, a picture using a camera, or clip art