1.
James McCosh
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James McCosh was a prominent philosopher of the Scottish School of Common Sense. He was president of Princeton University 1868-1888 and he became a minister of the Established Church of Scotland in 1834, serving as pastor first at Arbroath and then at Brechin. He sided with the Free Church of Scotland in the Disruption of 1843, in 1850 or 1851 he was appointed Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at Queens College, Belfast. In 1868 he travelled to the United States to become president of the College of New Jersey and he resigned the presidency in 1888, but continued to teach philosophy until his death. McCosh Hall and a walkway are named in his honor. The campus infirmary is named after his wife, Isabella McCosh, a school on the South Side of Chicago was named after him, but has since been renamed the Emmett Louis Till Math & Science Academy. McCoshs position was mainly in the tradition of Thomas Reid and other Scottish common-sense philosophers and he also argued for the a priori nature of fundamental principles such as those of causality and morality. In his moral theory, especially, McCosh differed from many of his contemporaries in being relatively uninfluenced by Kant, mcCoshs most original work concerned the attempt to reconcile evolution and Christianity. In 1874, Charles Hodge, the theologian and intellectual leader at the Presbyterian Seminary in Princeton, claiming that Darwinism, was, in essence, atheism. To Hodge, Darwinism was contrary to the notion of design and was therefore clearly atheistic, Hodges views determined the position of the Seminary until his death in 1878. Hodge simply refused to accept that natural laws alone could create complex organisms that fit into their niches so perfectly, while he didnt consider all evolutionary ideas to be in conflict with his religion, he was concerned with its teaching in colleges. Meanwhile at the college across town President John Maclean also rejected Darwins theory of evolution, however in 1868, McCosh became president at the college. McCosh realized that much of Darwinism could and would be proved sound, instead of conflict between science and religion, McCosh sought reconciliation. Insisting on the principle of design in nature, McCosh interpreted the Darwinian discoveries as more evidence of the prearrangement, skill and he thus demonstrated that Darwinism was not atheistic nor in irreconcilable hostility to the Bible. McCosh thus argued that evolution, far from being inconsistent with belief in divine design and this aspect of his work found popularity among most Presbyterians clergy, who found his arguments useful in their attempts to cope with scientific philosophy. The Presbyterians in America thus could choose between two schools of thought on evolution, both based in Princeton, the Seminary held to Hodges position until his supporters were ousted in 1929, and the college became a world class center of the new science of evolutionary biology. McCosh offered the first public endorsement of evolution by an American religious leader, however, the two men showed greater similarities regarding matters of science and religion than popularly appreciated. Both supported the role of scientific inquiry in natural history and resisted its intrusion into philosophy
2.
Woodrow Wilson
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Thomas Woodrow Wilson was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he spent his years in Augusta, Georgia and Columbia. In 1910, he was the New Jersey Democratic Partys gubernatorial candidate and was elected the 34th Governor of New Jersey, while in office, Wilson reintroduced the spoken State of the Union, which had been out of use since 1801. Leading the Congress that was now in Democratic hands, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933. The Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, through passage of the Adamson Act that imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads, he averted a railroad strike and an ensuing economic crisis. Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality, Wilson faced former New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes in the presidential election of 1916. By a narrow margin, he became the first Democrat since Andrew Jackson elected to two consecutive terms, Wilsons second term was dominated by American entry into World War I. In April 1917, when Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann Telegram, the United States conducted military operations alongside the Allies, although without a formal alliance. During the war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving military strategy to the generals, loaning billions of dollars to Britain, France, and other Allies, the United States aided their finance of the war effort. On the home front, he raised taxes, borrowing billions of dollars through the publics purchase of Liberty Bonds. In his 1915 State of the Union Address, Wilson asked Congress for what became the Espionage Act of 1917, the crackdown was intensified by his Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. Wilson staffed his government with Southern Democrats who implemented racial segregation at the Treasury, Navy and he gave department heads greater autonomy in their management. Following his return from Europe, Wilson embarked on a tour in 1919 to campaign for the treaty. The treaty was met with concern by Senate Republicans, and Wilson rejected a compromise effort led by Henry Cabot Lodge. Due to his stroke, Wilson secluded himself in the White House, disability having diminished his power, forming a strategy for re-election, Wilson deadlocked the 1920 Democratic National Convention, but his bid for a third-term nomination was overlooked. Wilson was a devoted Presbyterian and Georgist, and he infused his views of morality into his domestic and he appointed several well known radically progressive single taxers to prominent positions in his administration. His ideology of internationalism is now referred to as Wilsonian, an activist foreign policy calling on the nation to promote global democracy and he was the third of four children of Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Jessie Janet Woodrow. Wilsons paternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland and his mother was born in Carlisle, England, the daughter of Rev. Dr. Thomas Woodrow from Paisley, Scotland, and Marion Williamson from Glasgow
3.
Princeton Theological Seminary
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Princeton Theological Seminary is an independent school of theology in Princeton, New Jersey and the largest of ten seminaries associated with the Presbyterian Church. Princeton Seminary has long been influential in theological scholarship, with many leading scholars, theologians. It houses one of the largest theological seminaries in the world and hosts a number of special collections, Today, the seminary enrolls approximately 500 students. The institution also has a relationship with the Center of Theological Inquiry. The plan to establish a seminary in Princeton was in the interests of advancing and extending the theological curriculum. The educational intention was to go beyond the arts course by setting up a postgraduate. The Seminary remains an institution of the Presbyterian Church, being the largest of the ten theological seminaries affiliated with the 1. 6-million-member denomination, in 1812, the Seminary boasted three students and the Reverend Dr. Archibald Alexander as its first professor. By 1815 the number of students had increased and work began on a building, Alexander Hall was designed by John McComb, Jr. a New York architect. The original cupola was added in 1827, but it burned in 1913 and was replaced in 1926, the building was simply called Seminary until 1893, when it was officially named Alexander Hall. Some of the institutions active in this movement included Charles Hodge, B. B. Warfield, J. Gresham Machen. The college was later the center of the Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy of the 1920s and 1930s, the library has over 1,252,503 bound volumes, pamphlets, and microfilms. It currently receives about 2,100 journals, annual reports of bodies and learned societies, bulletins, transactions, and periodically issued indices, abstracts. The Libraries are, Princeton Theological Seminary Library was opened in 2013, ashbel Green, Dr. William Buell Sprague, Prof. Joseph Addison Alexander, Dr. Alexander Balloch Grosart, Prof. William Henry Green, Prof. Samuel Miller, and Prof. B. B. Speer Library, opened in 1957 and named in honor of the missionary statesman Robert E. Speer. It was closed in late 2010 and was replaced by the new library, Henry Luce III Library, dedicated in 1994 and named in honor of a distinguished trustee, Henry Luce III,350,000 volumes and 250 readers. This library was closed for renovation in 2013, in 2015, the U. S. News & World Report placed Princeton Seminary among the top 50 graduate programs for the field of history in the United States. Built in 1834, Princetons chapel was named to honor Samuel Miller and it was designed in the Greek Revival style by Charles Steadman, who also designed the nearby Nassau Presbyterian Church. Originally located beside Alexander Hall, it was moved in 1933 toward the center of the campus, Miller Chapel underwent a complete renovation in 2000, with the addition of the Joe R. Engle Organ
4.
B. B. Warfield
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Benjamin Breckinridge Warfield was professor of theology at Princeton Seminary from 1887 to 1921. He served as the last principal of the Princeton Theological Seminary from 1886 to 1921, after the death of Warfield in office, Francis Landey Patton took over the functions of the office as the first president of seminary. Warfield was born near Lexington, Kentucky on November 5,1851 and his parents were William Warfield and Mary Cabell Breckinridge, originally from Virginia and quite wealthy. His maternal grandfather was the Presbyterian preacher Robert Jefferson Breckinridge, the son of John Breckinridge, Breckinridge, the fourteenth Vice President of the United States, and a Confederate general in the American Civil War. His brother, Ethelbert Dudley Warfield was a Presbyterian minister and college president, a fourth cousin twice removed of his was Wallis Warfield Simpson, for whom Great Britains King Edward VIII abdicated his throne in order to marry. Like many children born into a family, Warfields childhood education was private. Warfield entered Princeton University in 1868 and graduated in 1871 with high honors, although Warfield studied mathematics and science in college, while traveling in Europe he decided to study theology, surprising even many of his closest friends. He entered Princeton Seminary in 1873, in order to train for ministry as a Presbyterian minister. For a short time in 1876 he preached in Presbyterian churches in Concord, Kentucky and Dayton, in late 1876 Warfield and his new wife moved to Germany where he studied under Christoph Ernst Luthardt and Franz Delitzsch. Warfield was the assistant pastor of First Presbyterian Church in Baltimore, then he became an instructor at Western Theological Seminary, which is now called Pittsburgh Theological Seminary. He was ordained on April 26,1879, in 1881 Warfield wrote a joint article with A. A. Hodge on the inspiration of the Bible. It drew attention because of its scholarly and forceful defense of the inerrancy of the Bible, in many of his writings, Warfield attempted to demonstrate that the doctrine of Biblical inerrancy was simply orthodox Christian teaching, and not merely a concept invented in the nineteenth century. His passion was to refute the liberal element within Presbyterianism and within Christianity at large, throughout his life, he continued to write books and articles, which are still widely read today. In August 1876 Warfield married Annie Pierce Kinkead, soon afterward they visited Germany as Warfield was studying at Leipzig. During their time there, the two were overcome by a fierce thunderstorm, the experience of the storm was so shattering that Kinkead never fully recovered and remained a functional invalid for the rest of her life. Warfield continued to care for her until her death in 1915, in 1887 Warfield was appointed to the Charles Hodge Chair at Princeton Theological Seminary, where he succeeded Hodges son A. A. Hodge. Warfield remained there until his death, as the last conservative successor to Hodge to live prior to the re-organization of Princeton Seminary, Warfield is often regarded by Protestant scholarship as the last of the Princeton theologians. He died in Princeton, New Jersey on February 16,1921, during his tenure, his primary thrust was an authoritative view of the Bible
5.
Warwick Parish
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Warwick Parish is one of the nine parishes of Bermuda. It is named for Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick and it is joined to Southampton Parish in the southwest, and to Paget Parish in the northeast. As with most of Bermudas parishes, it covers just over 2.3 square miles, natural features in Warwick include Warwick Long Bay, Riddells Bay, Darrells Island, Hawkins Island, Long Island, and Marshalls Island. Hinsons Island, once part of Warwick, is now part of Paget Parish, the parish also contains Warwick Camp, the former rifle ranges of the Imperial military garrison, which is, today, the home of the Bermuda Regiment, and most of which doubles as parkland. Christ Church on Middle Road, Warwick is one of the worlds oldest Presbyterian churches outside of Europe and it was founded in 1719 and is part of the Church of Scotland. Warwick Pond was designated a Ramsar site on May 11,1999, PHC Zebras football club returned to PHC Field in 2015 after 17 years. It was named Warwick Stadium when it hosted its first match in the Bermuda Football Union, schools in the parish include, Warwick Preschool Purvis Primary School T. N. Tatem Middle School Warwick Academy Bermuda Online Christ Church, Warwick
6.
Bermuda
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Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is approximately 1,070 km east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,1,236 km south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Bermuda is an associate member of Caribbean Community. The first person known to have reached Bermuda was the Spanish sea captain Juan de Bermúdez in 1503 and he claimed the islands for the Spanish Empire. Bermúdez never landed on the islands, but made two visits to the archipelago, of which he created a recognisable map, shipwrecked Portuguese mariners are now thought to have been responsible for the 1543 inscription on Portuguese Rock. Subsequent Spanish or other European parties are believed to have released pigs there, the island was administered as an extension of Virginia by the Company until 1614. Its spin-off, the Somers Isles Company, took over in 1615, at that time, the companys charter was revoked, and the English Crown took over administration. The islands became a British colony following the 1707 unification of the parliaments of Scotland and England, after 1949, when Newfoundland became part of Canada, Bermuda became the oldest remaining British Overseas Territory. Since the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997, it is the most populous Territory and its first capital, St. Georges, was established in 1612 and is the oldest continuously inhabited English town in the New World. Bermudas economy is based on insurance and reinsurance, and tourism. Bermuda had one of the worlds highest GDP per capita for most of the 20th century, recently, its economic status has been affected by the global recession. The island is in the belt and prone to severe weather. However, it is protected from the full force of a hurricane by the coral reef that surrounds the island. It is 898 nautical miles northeast of Miami, Florida, and 667 nautical miles from Cape Sable Island, in Nova Scotia, Canada. The islands lie due east of Fripp Island, South Carolina, west-northwest of Cape Verde, southeast of New York City, New York, north-northwest of Brazil and north of San Juan, Puerto Rico. The archipelago is formed by points on the rim of the caldera of a submarine volcano that forms a seamount. The volcano is one part of a range that was formed as part of the process that formed the floor of the Atlantic. It has 103 km of coastline, the two incorporated municipalities in Bermuda are the City of Hamilton and the Town of St George. Bermuda is divided into nine parishes, which have some localities called villages, such as Flatts Village, although usually referred to in the singular, the territory consists of 181 islands, with a total area of 53.3 square kilometres
7.
Theology
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Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as a discipline, typically in universities, seminaries. Augustine of Hippo defined the Latin equivalent, theologia, as reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity, the term can, however, be used for a variety of different disciplines or fields of study. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument to help understand, explain, test, critique, the English equivalent theology had evolved by 1362. Greek theologia was used with the discourse on god in the fourth century BC by Plato in The Republic, Book ii. Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of discourse, mythical, rational and civil. Theologos, closely related to theologia, appears once in some manuscripts, in the heading to the book of Revelation, apokalypsis ioannoy toy theologoy. The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of study, dealing with the motionless. Boethius definition influenced medieval Latin usage, Theology can also now be used in a derived sense to mean a system of theoretical principles, an ideology. They suggest the term is appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently. Kalam. does not hold the place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for theology in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of theology is appropriate, can only do so, he says, I take theology not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God, within Hindu philosophy, there is a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God and of the Atman. The Sanskrit word for the schools of Hindu philosophy is Darshana. Nevertheless, Jewish theology historically has been active and highly significant for Christian. It is sometimes claimed, however, that the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be Rabbinical discussion of Jewish law, the history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education is as old as the history of such institutions themselves. Modern Western universities evolved from the institutions and cathedral schools of Western Europe during the High Middle Ages
8.
Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
9.
British Overseas Territories
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The 14 British Overseas Territories are territories under the jurisdiction and sovereignty of the United Kingdom. They are the parts of the British Empire that have not been granted independence or have voted to remain British territories. These territories do not form part of the United Kingdom and, with the exception of Gibraltar, are not part of the European Union, though the Cyprus SBAs are subject to EU law and use the Euro. Most of the territories are internally self-governing, with the UK retaining responsibility for defence. The rest are either uninhabited or have a population of military or scientific personnel. They share the British monarch as head of state, the term British Overseas Territory was introduced by the British Overseas Territories Act 2002, replacing the term British Dependent Territory, introduced by the British Nationality Act 1981. Prior to 1 January 1983, the territories were referred to as British Crown Colonies. With the exceptions of the British Antarctic Territory and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands and the British Indian Ocean Territory, the Territories retain permanent civilian populations. Permanent residency for the 7,000 or so living in the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri. Collectively, the Territories encompass a population of about 250,000 people, the vast majority of this,660,000 square miles, constitutes the British Antarctic Territory. The current minister responsible for the Territories excluding the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar and the Sovereign Base Areas is Baroness Anelay, Minister of State for the Commonwealth, the other three territories are the responsibility of Sir Alan Duncan MP, Minister of State for Europe and the Americas. The first, unofficial, colony was Newfoundland, where English fishermen routinely set up camps in the 16th century. It is now a province of Canada known as Newfoundland and Labrador and it retains strong cultural ties with Britain. English colonisation of North America began officially in 1607 with the settlement of Jamestown, st. Georges town, founded in Bermuda in that year, remains the oldest continuously inhabited British settlement in the New World. Bermuda and Bermudians have played important, sometimes pivotal, but generally underestimated or unacknowledged roles in the shaping of the English and British trans-Atlantic Empires. These include maritime commerce, settlement of the continent and of the West Indies, separate self-governing colonies federated to become Canada, Australia, South Africa, and Rhodesia. These and other large self-governing colonies had become known as Dominions by the 1920s, the Dominions achieved almost full independence with the Statute of Westminster. Through a process of following the Second World War, most of the British colonies in Africa, Asia
10.
Knox College, Toronto
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Knox College is a postgraduate theological college of the University of Toronto in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It was founded in 1844 as part of a movement in the Church of Scotland following the Disruption of 1843. Knox is affiliated with the Presbyterian Church in Canada and confers doctoral degrees as a school of the Toronto School of Theology. Controversy arising from the issue of control in the Church of Scotland led to the Disruption of 1843. In response, several Presbyterian ministers and congregations within the Canadian synod of the Church of Scotland switched their affiliation to the new denomination. Queens College, a Presbyterian seminary in Kingston, decided in 1844 to remain affiliated with the Church of Scotland, prompting some of its students to defect, named for Scottish Reformation theologian John Knox, the new college became affiliated with the Free Church. The first class included 14 students and took place on November 5,1844, in the home of Rev. Henry Esson on James Street, at the present site of Toronto Eaton Centre. For the next two years, Knox College transitioned to larger buildings acquired at Adelaide Street and later Front Street, Scottish minister Rev. Dr. Michael Willis, the founding president of the Anti-Slavery Society of Canada, became the first principal of the college in 1857. Willis came to Toronto in 1846 from St. Johns Renfield Church, Glasgow, Knox was formally granted its charter from the colonial government in 1858, thereby possessing the authority to confer academic degrees. In 1861, the Canada Presbyterian Church was created from the union of the Canadian synods of the Free Church of Scotland with the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland, Knox College absorbed the existing United Presbyterian Church theological college that was founded in London, Canada West in 1844. In 1867, Knox College assisted the establishment of The Presbyterian College, Montreal, Knox College donated some of the books from its library collection, and several Knox alumni served as faculty of The Presbyterian College. In 1875, Knox College moved to a new Gothic-revival building at 1 Spadina Crescent, towards the end of the century, Knox began encouraging its students to attend non-divinity studies at the nearby University College of the University of Toronto. Knox College entered formal affiliation with the University of Toronto in 1885, in 1890, Knox College became part of the university within a federated governance structure. In 1915, Knox College moved to its present site adjacent to University College, during World War II, Knox College accommodated faculty and students from The Presbyterian College, Montreal, whose building was used for military training until 1946. In 1969, Knox became a member of the Toronto School of Theology. By virtue of an amendment of its charter, Knox College has granted theology degrees conjointly with the university, Ewart College, a womens college of the Presbyterian Church, was merged into Knox College in 1991. Founded in 1897, Ewart College was initially known as the Presbyterian Missionary and Deaconess Training School, in 2005, Knox observed its 160th anniversary with a visit and lecture by Alison Elliot, the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. Knox college provides a number of facilities to the University of Toronto community, the chapel is noted for its Hellmuth Wolff organ
11.
University of Toronto
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The University of Toronto is a public research university in Toronto, Ontario, Canada on the grounds that surround Queens Park. It was founded by charter in 1827 as Kings College. Originally controlled by the Church of England, the university assumed the present name in 1850 upon becoming a secular institution, as a collegiate university, it comprises twelve colleges, which differ in character and history, each with substantial autonomy on financial and institutional affairs. It has two campuses in Scarborough and Mississauga. Academically, the University of Toronto is noted for influential movements and curricula in literary criticism and communication theory, by a significant margin, it receives the most annual scientific research funding of any Canadian university. It is one of two members of the Association of American Universities outside the United States, the other being McGill University, the Varsity Blues are the athletic teams that represent the university in intercollegiate league matches, with long and storied ties to gridiron football and ice hockey. The universitys Hart House is an example of the North American student centre. The founding of a college had long been the desire of John Graves Simcoe. As an Oxford-educated military commander who had fought in the American Revolutionary War, the Upper Canada Executive Committee recommended in 1798 a college be established in York, the colonial capital. On March 15,1827, a charter was formally issued by King George IV, proclaiming from this time one College, with the style. For the education of youth in the principles of the Christian Religion, the granting of the charter was largely the result of intense lobbying by John Strachan, the influential Anglican Bishop of Toronto who took office as the colleges first president. The original three-storey Greek Revival school building was built on the present site of Queens Park, under Strachans stewardship, Kings College was a religious institution closely aligned with the Church of England and the British colonial elite, known as the Family Compact. Reformist politicians opposed the control over colonial institutions and fought to have the college secularized. Having anticipated this decision, the enraged Strachan had resigned a year earlier to open Trinity College as a private Anglican seminary, University College was created as the nondenominational teaching branch of the University of Toronto. Established in 1878, the School of Practical Science was precursor to the Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering, while the Faculty of Medicine opened in 1843, medical teaching was conducted by proprietary schools from 1853 until 1887, when the faculty absorbed the Toronto School of Medicine. Meanwhile, the university continued to set examinations and confer medical degrees, the university opened the Faculty of Law in 1887, followed by the Faculty of Dentistry in 1888, when the Royal College of Dental Surgeons became an affiliate. Women were first admitted to the university in 1884, over the next two decades, a collegiate system took shape as the university arranged federation with several ecclesiastical colleges, including Strachans Trinity College in 1904. The university operated the Royal Conservatory of Music from 1896 to 1991, the University of Toronto Press was founded in 1901 as Canadas first academic publishing house
12.
Presbyterianism
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Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism which traces its origins to the British Isles, particularly Scotland. Presbyterian churches derive their name from the form of church government. Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the Acts of Union in 1707 which created the Kingdom of Great Britain. In fact, most Presbyterians found in England can trace a Scottish connection, the Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there are a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. The roots of Presbyterianism lie in the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, most Reformed churches which trace their history back to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government. In the twentieth century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement, many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches. Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists, Lutherans, Anglicans, Presbyterian history is part of the history of Christianity, but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. As the Catholic Church resisted the reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church, the Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to England and Scotland. In August 1560 the Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom, Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine, institutional organization and worship, often using a Book of Order to regulate common practice and order. The origins of the Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism, many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, Presbyterian government is by councils of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, teaching elders have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors are called by individual congregations, a congregation issues a call for the pastors service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery. Ruling elders are usually laymen who are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the elders, assuming responsibility for nurture. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance and this group may variously be known as a Deacon Board, Board of Deacons Diaconate, or Deacons Court. These are sometimes known as presbyters to the full congregation, above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations, the presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly, although an intermediate level of a synod sometimes exists. The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993, Presbyterian governance is practised by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches
13.
West-Park Presbyterian Church
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The church changed its name to Park Presbyterian Church in 1887. The name became West-Park Presbyterian when the midtown West Presbyterian Church merged with Park Presbyterian in 1911, the small congregation moved north in uptown Manhattan a number of times. In the 1980s, the church was re-pointed with cement, which has resulted in erosion of the soft sandstone. Around the same time, the church installed a new elevator for handicap accessibility in the parish house, in the early 2000s, the congregation hired a developer to address their financial situation, diminished attendance, and role in society. The design featured a base of stone, ” with a sweeping 125-foot glass carillon tower providing “a luminous well of light. ”The current social outreach and education facilities would be doubled and the modern design. The group principally feared the loss of air and light with the new tower. ”The Friends suggested selling Eidlitzs chapel for redevelopment to a non-profit, probably a school, to offset the cost of renovation, with neighboring buildings preparing to lease air rights. Most of the walls would be preserved, restoring the sandstone and stained glass but not the original roof shape nor the forty-foot interior. One architect responsible for the second plan explained that “successful rehabilitation allows the character. So the question is, If not every square inch is sacred turf, how much modification can the structure bear without losing what makes it special. ”The church was finally declared a landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission on January 12,2010
14.
Brooklyn
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Brooklyn is the most populous borough of New York City, with a Census-estimated 2,636,735 residents in 2015. It borders the borough of Queens at the end of Long Island. Today, if New York City dissolved, Brooklyn would rank as the third-most populous city in the U. S. behind Los Angeles, the borough continues, however, to maintain a distinct culture. Many Brooklyn neighborhoods are ethnic enclaves, Brooklyns official motto, displayed on the Borough seal and flag, is Eendraght Maeckt Maght which translates from early modern Dutch as Unity makes strength. Since 2010, Brooklyn has evolved into a hub of entrepreneurship and high technology startup firms. The history of European settlement in Brooklyn spans more than 350 years, the neighborhood of Marine Park was home to North Americas first tidal mill. It was built by the Dutch, and the foundation can be seen today, however, the area was not formally settled as a town. Many incidents and documents relating to this period are in Gabriel Furmans early compilation, what is today Brooklyn left Dutch hands after the final English conquest of New Netherland in 1664, a prelude to the Second Anglo–Dutch War. The English reorganized the six old Dutch towns on southwestern Long Island as Kings County on November 1,1683 and this tract of land was recognized as a political entity for the first time, and the municipal groundwork was laid for a later expansive idea of Brooklyn identity. On August 27,1776 was fought the Battle of Long Island, the first major engagement fought in the American Revolutionary War after independence was declared, and the largest of the entire conflict. British troops forced Continental Army troops under George Washington off the heights near the sites of Green-Wood Cemetery, Prospect Park. The fortified American positions at Brooklyn Heights consequently became untenable and were evacuated a few days later, One result of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 was the evacuation of the British from New York City, celebrated by residents into the 20th century. The New York Navy Yard operated in Wallabout Bay for the entire 19th century, the first center of urbanization sprang up in the Town of Brooklyn, directly across from Lower Manhattan, which saw the incorporation of the Village of Brooklyn in 1817. Reliable steam ferry service across the East River to Fulton Landing converted Brooklyn Heights into a town for Wall Street. Ferry Road to Jamaica Pass became Fulton Street to East New York, Town and Village were combined to form the first, kernel incarnation of the City of Brooklyn in 1834. Industrial deconcentration in mid-century was bringing shipbuilding and other manufacturing to the part of the county. Each of the two cities and six towns in Kings County remained independent municipalities, and purposely created non-aligning street grids with different naming systems and it later became the most popular and highest circulation afternoon paper in America. The publisher changed to L. Van Anden on April 19,1842, on May 14,1849 the name was shortened to The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, on September 5,1938 it was further shortened to Brooklyn Eagle
15.
Jefferson Park, Chicago
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Jefferson Park is one of the 77 community areas of Chicago, located on the Northwest Side of the city. The neighborhood of Jefferson Park occupies a larger swath of territory, Jefferson Park is bordered by the community areas of Norwood Park to the northwest, Forest Glen to the northeast, Portage Park to the south, and the suburb of Harwood Heights to the south. The tiny settlement of traders, hunters, and farmers consisted of simple one, Jefferson Park became the hub of an independent township that was incorporated at the nearby Dickinson Tavern as Jefferson Township in 1850 until annexed by the city of Chicago in 1889. Jefferson Park is also home to the The Northwest Chicago Historical Society which is dedicated to preserve the rich history as well as most historical events. Jefferson Park is a 7-acre park operated by the Chicago Park District, the park, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places is located on the site of the Esdohr Farm. Jefferson Park residents are served by Chicago Public Schools, which includes neighborhood, there are also a number of private parochial schools run by Roman Catholic and Lutheran congregations in the area. The Chicago Public Library operates the Jefferson Park branch for neighborhood residents, Jefferson Park is the home of the historic former Gateway Theatre Movie Palace that is now only part of the Copernicus Center. The Copernicus Center is also a location for Jefferson Park residents. The Copernicus Center Annex, which both an event space and offices, houses the Jefferson Park Chamber of Commerce office. Jefferson Park is also home to the award-winning Gift Theatre Company, the neighborhood holds two large festivals annually, Jeff Fest in June, and Taste of Polonia over Labor Day weekend. The Taste of Polonia has brought some of the nations most prominent political figures to Jefferson Park to woo the support of Chicagos Polish community. President George H. W. Bush hosted the festival in 1992 and in 2000, future Vice-President Dick Cheney as well as Tipper Gore, Jefferson Park has long been one of Chicagos transportation hubs, earning the neighborhood the nickname as The Gateway to Chicago. The Union Pacific / Northwest Line also provides service to Jefferson Park, in 2005, a monument to Thomas Jefferson was placed along the stations entrance along Milwaukee Avenue. Jefferson Park is a predominantly middle-class neighborhood of people coming from a variety of diverse backgrounds, Jefferson Park is also known for having a very high number of resident city and county workers. The area is filled with the homes of Chicago Public School teachers and staff, Chicago Police Department, Chicago Fire Department as well as Cook County Sheriff officers and staff. Boundaries are Austin Ave, Chicago River, Railway, Elston Ave, Foster Ave, Edens Expy, Cicero Ave, Montrose Ave, Narraganset Ave, Nagle Ave, Bryn Mawr Ave, Northwest Hwy, Milwaukee Ave. Boundaries are Indian Rd, Central Ave, Ardmore Ave. http and it is centered at the large and confusing intersection of Northwest Highway and Central, Milwaukee, and Foster Avenues. The Kennedy Expressway runs nearby as well and has an entrance from Foster Avenue, the park for which the neighborhood is named is located a few blocks to the northwest between Northwest Highway and Milwaukee, on Menard Avenue
16.
McCormick Theological Seminary
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McCormick Theological Seminary is one of eleven schools of theology of the Presbyterian Church. It shares a campus with the Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago, bordering the campus of the University of Chicago in Chicago, primarily a seminary serving the Presbytery of Chicago and the Synod of Lincoln Trails, McCormick Theological Seminary also educates members of other Christian denominations. After about ten years, the seminary moved a distance to New Albany. In 1886, it was renamed in honor of American industrialist Cyrus McCormick, in 1975, facing a dire financial situation and declining enrollment, McCormick sold the Lincoln Park campus to DePaul University and moved to the Hyde Park neighborhood in Chicago. This move divested the institution of infrastructure while reinforcing its commitment to urban ministry, sharing facilities with the Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago, McCormick began to help foster important ecumenical cooperation between the Presbyterian and Lutheran churches. In 2003 McCormick reinforced and recommitted itself to its partnership with LSTC by building a new building on the LSTC campus. The Lincoln Park campus, on Fullerton Avenue between Halsted and Racine Streets, is now part of the DePaul University campus, a Lincoln Park Poor Peoples Coalition was meeting with them to get McCormick to invest in affordable housing. The seminary refused and talks broke down, the Young Lords were the center of the coalition and they chained the doors and took administration offices over and held them for a full week. During the take-over, the seminary students volunteered to be human shields to prevent the police entering the building. By the next morning Latino community residents brought food and supplies, at one point President McKay of McCormick Theological Seminary threatened to bring in the police. The Young Lords responded by threatening to burn down the library, a negotiating committee met with President McKay and he agreed to all of the Young Lords demands. The Fifth Quarter Century at McCormick, 1929-1954, McCormick Theological Seminary Young Lords Origins
17.
Christian denomination
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A Christian denomination is a distinct religious body within Christianity, identified by traits such as a name, organisation, leadership and doctrine. Individual bodies, however, may use alternative terms to describe themselves, groups of denominations—often sharing broadly similar beliefs, practices, and historical ties—are sometimes known as branches of Christianity or denominational families. Individual Christian groups vary widely in the degree to which they recognize one another, several groups claim to be the direct and sole authentic successor of the church founded by Jesus Christ in the 1st century AD. Others, however, believe in denominationalism, where some or all Christian groups are legitimate churches of the same regardless of their distinguishing labels, beliefs. Because of this concept, some Christian bodies reject the term denomination to describe themselves, however, the Catholic Church does not view itself as a denomination, but as the original pre-denominational church. This view is rejected by other Christian denominations, Protestant denominations account for approximately 37 percent of Christians worldwide. Together, Catholicism and Protestantism comprise Western Christianity, Western Christian denominations prevail in Western, Northern, Central and Southern Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas and Oceania. The Eastern Orthodox Church, with an estimated 225–300 million adherents, is the second-largest Christian organization in the world, unlike the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church is itself a communion of fully independent autocephalous churches that mutually recognize each other to the exclusion of others. The Eastern Orthodox Church, together with Oriental Orthodoxy and the Assyrian Church of the East, Eastern Christian denominations are represented mostly in Eastern Europe, North Asia, the Middle East and Northeast Africa. Christians have various doctrines about the Church and about how the church corresponds to Christian denominations. Both Catholics and Eastern Orthodox hold that their own organizations faithfully represent the One Holy catholic and Apostolic Church to the exclusion of the other, sixteenth-century Protestants separated from the Catholic Church because of theologies and practices that they considered to be in violation of their own interpretation. But some non-denominational Christians do not follow any particular branch, though regarded as Protestants. Each group uses different terminology to discuss their beliefs and this section will discuss the definitions of several terms used throughout the article, before discussing the beliefs themselves in detail in following sections. A denomination within Christianity can be defined as an autonomous branch of the Christian Church, major synonyms include religious group, sect, Church. Some traditional and evangelical Protestants draw a distinction between membership in the church and fellowship within the local church. Becoming a believer in Christ makes one a member of the universal church, a related concept is denominationalism, the belief that some or all Christian groups are legitimate churches of the same religion regardless of their distinguishing labels, beliefs, and practices. Protestant leaders differ greatly from the views of the leaders of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, each church makes mutually exclusive claims for itself to be the direct continuation of the Church founded by Jesus Christ, from whom other denominations later broke away. These churches, and a few others, reject denominationalism, Christianity can be taxonomically divided into five main groups, the Church of the East, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, and Protestantism
18.
Presbyterian polity
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Presbyterian polity is a method of church governance typified by the rule of assemblies of presbyters, or elders. Each local church is governed by a body of elected elders usually called the session or consistory, though other terms, such as church board, may apply. Responsibility for conduct of services is reserved to an ordained minister or pastor known as a teaching elder, or a minister of the word. Presbyterian polity was developed as a rejection of governance by hierarchies of single bishops, in contrast to the other two forms, authority in the presbyterian polity flows both from the top down and from the bottom up. This theory of governance developed in Geneva under John Calvin and was introduced to Scotland by John Knox after his period of exile in Geneva and it is strongly associated with French, Dutch, Swiss and Scottish Reformation movements, and the Reformed and Presbyterian churches. St. Jerome In Epistle Titus, vol, decreed throughout the world that one chosen from among the presbyters should be placed over the others. This observation was made by Chrysostom in Homilia i, in Phil. I,1 and Theodoret in Interpret ad, Presbyterianism was first described in detail by Martin Bucer of Strasbourg, who believed that the early Christian church implemented presbyterian polity. The first modern implementation was by the Geneva church under the leadership of John Calvin in 1541, Presbyterian polity is constructed on specific assumptions about the form of the government intended by the Bible, Bishop and elder are synonymous terms. Episcopos means literally overseer and describes the function of the elder, rather than the maturity of the officer, a bishop holds the highest office of the church. In addition to these ministers, there are also others … with gifts for government … commonly call elders or ruling elders. Pastoral care, church discipline, leadership and legislation are committed to the care of ruling assemblies of presbyters among whom the ministers, all Christian people together are the priesthood, on behalf of whom the elders are called to serve by the consent of the congregation. Presbyterianism uses a method of church government. Thus, the presbyters and elders govern together as a group, the elders together exercise oversight over the local congregation, with superior groups of elders gathered on a regional basis exercising wider oversight. Presbyterians typically have viewed this method of government as approximating that of the New Testament, however, sometimes it is admitted that episcopacy was a form of government that was used very early in the church for practical reasons. Presbyterianism is also distinct from congregationalism, in that individual congregations are not independent, moreover, the ordained ministry possesses a distinct responsibility for preaching and sacraments. Thus, these are ruled by only at the level of the congregations. Reformed Baptist churches are organized to be governed by elders, on the congregationalist model, there are two types of elder, the teaching elder and the ruling elder
19.
Heresy
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Heresy /hār ə sē/ is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs. A heretic is a proponent of such claims or beliefs, the term is usually used to refer to violations of important religious teachings, but is used also of views strongly opposed to any generally accepted ideas. It is used in particular in reference to Christianity, Judaism, the word heresy is usually used within a Christian, Jewish, or Islamic context, and implies slightly different meanings in each. The founder or leader of a movement is called a heresiarch. Heresiology is the study of heresy, according to Titus 3,10 a divisive person should be warned two times before separating from him. The Greek for the phrase divisive person became a term in the early Church for a type of heretic who promoted dissension. In contrast correct teaching is called not only because it builds up the faith. The Church Fathers identified Jews and Judaism with heresy and they saw deviations from orthodox Christianity as heresies that were essentially Jewish in spirit. The use of the word heresy was given currency by Irenaeus in his 2nd century tract Contra Haereses to describe. He described the beliefs and doctrines as orthodox and the Gnostics teachings as heretical. He also pointed out the concept of succession to support his arguments. By Roman law the Emperor was Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of the College of Pontiffs of all recognized religions in ancient Rome. To put an end to the doctrinal debate initiated by Arius, Constantine called the first of what would afterwards be called the ecumenical councils and then enforced orthodoxy by Imperial authority. The first known usage of the term in a context was in AD380 by the Edict of Thessalonica of Theodosius I. Prior to the issuance of this edict, the Church had no state-sponsored support for any particular legal mechanism to counter what it perceived as heresy, by this edict the states authority and that of the Church became somewhat overlapping. One of the outcomes of this blurring of Church and state was the sharing of state powers of legal enforcement with church authorities and this reinforcement of the Churchs authority gave church leaders the power to, in effect, pronounce the death sentence upon those whom the church considered heretical. The edict of Theodosius II provided severe punishments for those who had or spread writings of Nestorius and those who possessed writings of Arius were sentenced to death. For some years after the Reformation, Protestant churches were known to execute those they considered heretics
20.
David Swing
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David Swing was a United States teacher and clergyman who was the most popular Chicago preacher of his time. Swing was born to Alsatian immigrant parents in Cincinnati, Ohio and he spent most of his boyhood on a farm and earned his schooling. He graduated from Miami University in 1852, where was Phi Delta Theta fraternity brother of Benjamin Harrison, Swing studied theology at Lane Seminary, and was principal of the preparatory school at Miami in 1853-1866. The presbytery acquitted Dr. Swing, who resigned from the presbytery when he learned that the case was to be appealed to the synod and he published Sermons, including most of his heretical utterances, Truths for To-day, Motives of Life, and Club Essays. A residence hall is named in Swings honor at Miami University, works by or about David Swing at Internet Archive The worlds edition of the great Presbyterian conflict, Patton vs. Swing. Both sides of the question,1874 Biographical Sketch David Swing at Find a Grave
21.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
22.
Mary Todd Lincoln
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Mary Ann Todd Lincoln was the wife of the 16th President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln, and was First Lady of the United States from 1861 to 1865. She dropped the name Ann after her sister, Ann Todd, was born. A member of a large, wealthy Kentucky family, Mary was well educated, after living in the Todd House and finishing school during her teens, she moved to Springfield, Illinois, where she lived with her married sister Elizabeth Edwards. Before she married Abraham Lincoln, Mary was courted by his political opponent Stephen A. Douglas. She and Lincoln had four sons together, only one of whom outlived her and their home of about 17 years still stands at Eighth and Jackson Streets in Springfield, Illinois. She supported her throughout his presidency. She witnessed his fatal shooting when they were together in the Presidents Box at Fords Theatre on Tenth Street in Washington, Mary was involuntarily institutionalized for psychiatric disease ten years after her husbands murder. She also complained of physical symptoms during her adult life. Mary was born in Lexington, Kentucky as the fourth of seven children of Robert Smith Todd, a banker and her family were slaveholders, and Mary was raised in comfort and refinement. When Mary was six, her mother died, two years later, her father married Elizabeth Betsy Humphreys and they had nine children together. Mary had a relationship with her stepmother. From 1832, Mary and her family lived in what is now known as the Mary Todd Lincoln House, Marys paternal great-grandfather, David Levi Todd, was born in County Longford, Ireland, and immigrated through Pennsylvania to Kentucky. Her great-great maternal grandfather Samuel McDowell was born in Scotland, other Todd ancestors came from England. At an early age Mary was sent to Madame Mantelles finishing school and she learned to speak French fluently and studied dance, drama, music, and social graces. By age 20, she was regarded as witty and gregarious, like her family, she was a Whig. Mary began living with her sister Elizabeth Porter Edwards in Springfield, Elizabeth, married to Ninian W. Edwards, son of a former governor, served as Marys guardian. Mary Todd married Abraham Lincoln on November 4,1842, at her sister Elizabeths home in Springfield and she was 23 years old and he was 33 years of age. Their four sons, all born in Springfield, were, Robert Todd Lincoln, -– lawyer, diplomat, businessman
23.
Christian heresy
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When heresy is used today with reference to Christianity, it denotes the formal denial or doubt of a core doctrine of the Christian faith as defined by one or more of the Christian churches. In Western Christianity, heresy most commonly refers to those beliefs which were declared to be anathema by any of the ecumenical councils recognized by the Catholic Church, in the East, the term heresy is eclectic and can refer to anything at variance with Church tradition. Since the Great Schism and the Protestant Reformation, various Christian churches have used the concept in proceedings against individuals. The Catholic Church distinguishes between formal heresy and material heresy, the former involves willful and persistent adherence to an error in matters of faith and is a grave sin and produces excommunication. Material heresy is the holding of erroneous opinions through no fault of ones own and is not sinful, historical examination of heresies focuses on a mixture of theological, spiritual, and socio-political underpinnings to explain and describe their development. For example, accusations of heresy have been levelled against a group of believers when their beliefs challenged, or were seen to challenge, some heresies have also been doctrinally based, in which a teaching was deemed to be inconsistent with the fundamental tenets of orthodox dogma. The study of heresy requires an understanding of the development of orthodoxy, Heresy remained an officially punishable offence in Roman Catholic nations until the late 18th century. In Spain, heretics were prosecuted and punished during the Counter-Enlightenment movement of the restoration of the monarchy there after the Napoleonic Era, the word appears in the New Testament and was appropriated by the Church to mean a sect or division that threatened the unity of Christians. Heresy eventually became regarded as a departure from orthodoxy, a sense in which heterodoxy was already in Christian use soon after the year 100. Since the time of the apostles, the term anathema has come to mean a form of religious sanction beyond excommunication. The earliest recorded instance of the form is in the Council of Elvira, in his book Orthodoxy, G. K. Chesterton asserts that there have been substantial disagreements about faith from the time of the New Testament and Jesus. He pointed out that the Apostles all argued against changing the teachings of Christ as did the earliest church fathers including Ignatius of Antioch, Irenaeus, Justin Martyr and Polycarp. The development of doctrine, the position of orthodoxy, and the relationship between the various opinions is a matter of continuing theological debate. Early attacks upon alleged heresies formed the matter of Tertullians Prescription Against Heretics, the development of doctrine, the position of orthodoxy, and the relationship between the early Church and early heretical groups is a matter of academic debate. Scholars such as Pagels and Ehrman have built on Bauers original thesis, drawing upon distinctions between Jewish Christians, Gentile Christians, and other groups such as Gnostics, they see early Christianity as fragmented and with contemporaneous competing orthodoxies. Ehrmans view is that while the specifics of Bauers demonstration were later rejected, his intuitions are broadly accepted by scholars, turners response was in objection to Bauers. In 2006, Darrell Bock addressed Walter Bauers theory, stating that it does not show an equality between the church and outsiders including Simon Magus. Florovksy stating as an apology that the very tenet of Catholic or sobornost was the churchs response to the idea that there were multiple orthodoxies
24.
Unitarianism
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Unitarians believe that Jesus was inspired by God in his moral teachings and is a savior but a human being rather than a deity. Unitarianism is also known for the rejection of several other Western Christian doctrines, including the doctrines of sin, predestination. Unitarians in previous centuries accepted the doctrine of punishment in an eternal hell, Unitarianism might be considered a part of Protestantism depending on ones stance or viewpoint, perhaps it being described a part of Nontrinitarianism, or both, is more accurate. The Unitarian movement was not called Unitarian initially and it began almost simultaneously in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and in Transylvania in the mid-16th century. Among the adherents were a significant number of Italians, in England, the first Unitarian Church was established in 1774 on Essex Street, London, where todays British Unitarian headquarters are still located. In J. Gordon Meltons Encyclopedia of American Religions, it is classified among the family of churches. Unitarianism is a noun and follows the same English usage as other theologies that have developed within a religious movement. In that case it would be a belief system not necessarily associated with the Unitarian religious movement. Although these groups are unitarians in the sense, they are not in the proper sense. To avoid confusion, this article is about Unitarianism as a religious movement, for the generic form of unitarianism, see Nontrinitarianism. Recently some religious groups have adopted the 19th-century term biblical unitarianism to distinguish their theology from Unitarianism and these likewise have no direct relation to the Unitarian movement. The term Unitarian is sometimes applied today to those who belong to a Unitarian church, in the past, the vast majority of members of Unitarian churches were Unitarians also in theology. Over time, however, some Unitarians and Unitarian Universalists moved away from the traditional Christian roots of Unitarianism, for example, in the 1890s the American Unitarian Association began to allow non-Christian and non-theistic churches and individuals to be part of their fellowship. As a result, people who held no Unitarian belief began to be called Unitarians because they were members of churches that belonged to the American Unitarian Association, after several decades, the non-theistic members outnumbered the theological Unitarians. A similar, though much smaller, phenomenon has taken place in the Unitarian churches in the United Kingdom, Canada, and other countries. Unitarian theology, therefore, is distinguishable from the system of modern Unitarian and Unitarian Universalist churches. This article includes information about Unitarianism as a theology and about the development of theologically Unitarian churches, for a more specific discussion of Unitarianism as it evolved into a pluralistic liberal religious movement, see Unitarian Universalism. Unitarianism, both as a theology and as a family of churches, was defined and developed in Poland, Transylvania, England, Wales
25.
Moderator of the General Assembly
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The Moderator of the General Assembly is the chairperson of a General Assembly, the highest court of a presbyterian or reformed church. Kirk Sessions and Presbyteries may also style the chairperson as moderator, presbyterian churches are ordered by a presbyterian polity, including a hierarchy of councils or courts of elders, from the local church Session through presbyteries to a General Assembly. The moderator presides over the meeting of the court, much as a convener presides over the meeting of a church committee, the moderator is thus the chairperson, and is understood to be a member of the court acting primus inter pares. The moderator calls and constitutes meetings, presides at them, the moderator has a casting, but not a deliberative vote. During a meeting, the moderator is used by all other members of the court as a form of address. Thus this convention expresses deference to the authority of the rather than an honour for the moderator as an individual. Many moderators act as ambassadors for their general assembly when it is not sitting, westminster Assembly,1645 The Form of Presbyterial Church-Government online at reformed. org
26.
Charles Augustus Briggs
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Charles Augustus Briggs, American Presbyterian scholar and theologian, was born in New York City, the son of Alanson Briggs and Sarah Mead Berrian. He was excommunicated from the Presbyterian Church because of his liberal theology regarding the Bible, Briggs was educated at the University of Virginia, graduated at the Union Theological Seminary in 1863, and after the Civil War, studied further at the University of Berlin from 1866 to 1869. From 1880 to 1890 he was an editor of the Presbyterian Review, in 1892 Briggs was tried for heresy by the presbytery of New York, including James McCook, and acquitted. The charges were based upon his inaugural address of the preceding year. C, following his condemnation by the Presbyterians, he turned towards Episcopalianism and was ordained as a priest of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1899. His scholarship procured for him the degree of D. D. from the University of Edinburgh and from the University of Glasgow. This is one of the sources of clashes between Briggs and embedded doctrine. The ecumenical orthodoxy of Charles Augustus Briggs, lewiston, New York, Mellen University Press. How to Read the Bible, A Guide to Scripture, Then, which includes a relation of Briggs process as well as additional details of his life. Mediating Modernism, Charles Briggs, Catholic Modernism, and an Ecumenical Plot, Charles Augustus Briggs and the crisis of historical criticism. Charles Augustus Briggs and tensions in late nineteenth-century American theology, lewiston, New York, Mellen University Press. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Briggs. Works by or about Charles Augustus Briggs at Internet Archive
27.
Princeton Theology
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W. Andrew Hoffecker argues that they strove to maintain a balance between the intellectual and affective elements in the Christian faith. Archibald Alexander, Charles Hodge, A. A. Hodge, the quarterly journal Biblical Repertory, later renamed the Princeton Review, was an important publication promoting this school. Albert Baldwin Dod, Lyman Hotchkiss Atwater, and John Breckinridge were frequent contributors of this journal, geerhardus Vos, J. Gresham Machen, Cornelius Van Til, Oswald T. Allis, Robert Dick Wilson, and John Murray were notable successors of the Princeton theologians. Of these, only Machen and Wilson represented the American Presbyterian tradition that was influenced by the Princeton Theology. Vos and Van Til were Dutch Reformed, Murray was a Scot, but a student under Machen at Princeton who later followed him to Westminster Theological Seminary. Murray and Van Til were both ministers in the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, which Machen founded, allegiance to the Bible as the supreme norm was common in the 19th century, and not a distinctive of the Princeton theologians. Princeton was, however, distinguished by the rigor with which it approached the Bible. Alexander and his successors sought to defend the doctrines found in the Bible against rival claims from learned scholars. Charles Hodge saw faithfulness to the Bible as the best defense against higher criticism as well as the overly experiential focus of Friedrich Schleiermacher, Princeton theologians saw themselves in the line of Reformed Protestantism stretching back to John Calvin. The dogmatics of Francis Turretin, a Reformed scholastic of the 17th century, was the textbook of theology at Princeton. In a world which increasingly valued the new over the old, the various Reformed confessions were viewed as harmonious voices of a common theological tradition, which was simply a distillation of the teaching of the Bible. In Noll, Mark A. Charles Hodge, The Way of Life, new York, Paulist Press – via Questia
28.
John Knox
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John Knox was a Scottish minister, theologian, and writer who was a leader of the Reformation and is considered the founder of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. He is believed to have been educated at the University of St Andrews, influenced by early church reformers such as George Wishart, he joined the movement to reform the Scottish church. He was caught up in the ecclesiastical and political events that involved the murder of Cardinal Beaton in 1546 and he was taken prisoner by French forces the following year and exiled to England on his release in 1549. While in exile, Knox was licensed to work in the Church of England and he exerted a reforming influence on the text of the Book of Common Prayer. In England, he met and married his first wife, Margery Bowes, when Mary Tudor ascended the throne and re-established Roman Catholicism, Knox was forced to resign his position and leave the country. Knox moved to Geneva and then to Frankfurt, in Geneva, he met John Calvin, from whom he gained experience and knowledge of Reformed theology and Presbyterian polity. He created a new order of service, which was adopted by the reformed church in Scotland. He left Geneva to head the English refugee church in Frankfurt but he was forced to leave over differences concerning the liturgy, on his return to Scotland, Knox led the Protestant Reformation in Scotland, in partnership with the Scottish Protestant nobility. The movement may be seen as a revolution, since it led to the ousting of Mary of Guise, Knox helped write the new confession of faith and the ecclesiastical order for the newly created reformed church, the Kirk. He continued to serve as the leader of the Protestants throughout Marys reign. In several interviews with the Queen, Knox admonished her for supporting Catholic practices, when she was imprisoned for her alleged role in the murder of her husband Lord Darnley and King James VI was enthroned in her stead, he openly called for her execution. He continued to preach until his final days, John Knox was born sometime between 1505 and 1515 in or near Haddington, the county town of East Lothian. His father, William Knox, was a merchant, All that is known of his mother is that her maiden name was Sinclair and that she died when John Knox was a child. Their eldest son, William, carried on his fathers business, Knox was probably educated at the grammar school in Haddington. In this time, the priesthood was the path for those whose inclinations were academic rather than mercantile or agricultural. He proceeded to further studies at the University of St Andrews or possibly at the University of Glasgow and he studied under John Major, one of the greatest scholars of the time. Knox first appears in records as a priest and a notary in 1540. Rather than taking up duties in a parish, he became tutor to two sons of Hugh Douglas of Longniddry
29.
Joshua Reynolds
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Sir Joshua Reynolds RA FRS FRSA was an influential eighteenth-century English painter, specialising in portraits. He promoted the Grand Style in painting which depended on idealization of the imperfect and he was a founder and first president of the Royal Academy of Arts, and was knighted by George III in 1769. Reynolds was born in Plympton, Devon, on 16 July 1723 the third son of the Rev. Samuel Reynolds and his father had been a fellow of Balliol College, Oxford, but did not send any of his sons to the university. One of his sisters was Mary Palmer, seven years his senior, author of Devonshire Dialogue, in 1740 she provided £60, half of the premium paid to Thomas Hudson the portrait-painter, for Joshuas pupilage, and nine years later advanced money for his expenses in Italy. His other siblings included Frances Reynolds and Elizabeth Johnson, as a boy, he came under the influence of Zachariah Mudge, whose Platonistic philosophy stayed with him all his life. The work that came to have the most influential impact on Reynolds was Jonathan Richardsons An Essay on the Theory of Painting, having shown an early interest in art, Reynolds was apprenticed in 1740 to the fashionable London portrait painter Thomas Hudson, who had been born in Devon. Hudson had a collection of old master drawings, including some by Guercino, although apprenticed to Hudson for four years, Reynolds only remained with him until summer 1743. Having left Hudson, Reynolds worked for some time as a portrait-painter in Plymouth Dock and he returned to London before the end of 1744, but following his fathers death in late 1745 he shared a house in Plymouth Dock with his sisters. In 1749, Reynolds met Commodore Augustus Keppel, who invited him to join HMS Centurion, of which he had command, while with the ship he visited Lisbon, Cadiz, Algiers, and Minorca. From Minorca he travelled to Livorno in Italy, and then to Rome, while in Rome he suffered a severe cold, which left him partially deaf, and, as a result, he began to carry a small ear trumpet with which he is often pictured. Reynolds travelled homeward overland via Florence, Bologna, Venice, and he was accompanied by Giuseppe Marchi, then aged about 17. Apart from a brief interlude in 1770, Marchi remained in Reynolds employment as an assistant for the rest of the artists career. Following his arrival in England in October 1752, Reynolds spent three months in Devon, before establishing himself in London, where he remained for the rest of his life. He took rooms in St Martins Lane, before moving to Great Newport Street and he achieved success rapidly, and was extremely prolific. In 1760 Reynolds moved into a house, with space to show his works and accommodate his assistants. Alongside ambitious full-length portraits, Reynolds painted large numbers of smaller works, in the late 1750s, at the height of the social season, he received five or six sitters a day, each for an hour. By 1761 Reynolds could command a fee of 80 guineas for a full-length portrait, the clothing of Reynolds sitters was usually painted either by one of his pupils, his studio assistant Giuseppe Marchi, or the specialist drapery painter Peter Toms. Lay figures were used to model the clothes and he had an excellent vantage from his house, Wick House, on Richmond Hill, and painted the view in about 1780
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Ethics
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Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The term ethics derives from the Ancient Greek word ἠθικός ethikos, the branch of philosophy axiology comprises the sub-branches of ethics and aesthetics, each concerned with values. As a branch of philosophy, ethics investigates the questions What is the best way for people to live, and What actions are right or wrong in particular circumstances. In practice, ethics seeks to resolve questions of morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice. As a field of enquiry, moral philosophy also is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics. Richard William Paul and Linda Elder define ethics as a set of concepts, the Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word ethics is commonly used interchangeably with morality. And sometimes it is used narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition. Paul and Elder state that most people confuse ethics with behaving in accordance with social conventions, religious beliefs, the word ethics in English refers to several things. It can refer to philosophical ethics or moral philosophy—a project that attempts to use reason in order to various kinds of ethical questions. As bioethicist Larry Churchill has written, Ethics, understood as the capacity to think critically about moral values, Ethics can also be used to describe a particular persons own idiosyncratic principles or habits. For example, Joe has strange ethics, the English word ethics is derived from an Ancient Greek word êthikos, which means relating to ones character. The Ancient Greek adjective êthikos is itself derived from another Greek word, meta-ethics asks how we understand, know about, and what we mean when we talk about what is right and what is wrong. An ethical question fixed on some particular practical question—such as, Should I eat this particular piece of chocolate cake. —cannot be a meta-ethical question, a meta-ethical question is abstract and relates to a wide range of more specific practical questions. For example, Is it ever possible to have knowledge of what is right. Meta-ethics has always accompanied philosophical ethics, meta-ethics is also important in G. E. In it he first wrote about what he called the naturalistic fallacy, moore was seen to reject naturalism in ethics, in his Open Question Argument. This made thinkers look again at second order questions about ethics, earlier, the Scottish philosopher David Hume had put forward a similar view on the difference between facts and values. Studies of how we know in ethics divide into cognitivism and non-cognitivism, non-cognitivism is the claim that when we judge something as right or wrong, this is neither true nor false
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Bliss Perry
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Bliss Perry, was an American literary critic, writer, editor, and teacher. Perry was born in Williamstown, Massachusetts and was educated at Williams College, Williamstown, as well as the universities of Berlin, Perry taught at Williams from 1886 until 1893. Perry taught at Harvard University between 1907 and 1930 and was the Harvard lecturer at the University of Paris from 1909 to 1910, from 1899 to 1909 he was the editor of The Atlantic Monthly. Perry was awarded the Legion of Honour by the French and he edited the works of Edmund Burke, Sir Walter Scott, and Ralph Waldo Emerson. From 1905 until 1909 he was editor of the Cambridge edition of the major American poets. He wrote extensively, including monographs on Walt Whitman, John Greenleaf Whittier, Thomas Carlyle and he was also a prolific writer of novels, short fiction, essays, studies in poetry, and an autobiography. Perry is famed in certain Vermont lore for establishing the colony of Greensboro. He enjoyed its tranquil setting and its distance from the cares of the world of the Atlantic Monthly. Fly fishing was one of his key hobbies, which led to the publication of Fishing With a Worm, Perry was the brother of Dr. Lewis Perry, headmaster of Phillips Exeter Academy from 1914 to 1946. He died in Exeter, New Hampshire in 1954, Works by Bliss Perry at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Bliss Perry at Internet Archive Works by Bliss Perry at LibriVox
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John Grier Hibben
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John Grier Hibben was a Presbyterian minister, a philosopher, and educator. He served as president of Princeton University from 1912–1932, succeeding Woodrow Wilson and his term as President began after the term of Acting Princeton President Stewart, who served for two years after Wilsons departure. Hibben was born in Peoria, Illinois, just before the start of the American Civil War and he was the only son of the Rev. Samuel and Elizabeth Hibben. The Hibbens were of Scottish and Scots-Irish descent and his father came from Hillsboro, Ohio, to the pastorate of the Presbyterian church in Peoria, and on the outbreak of the American Civil War volunteered for service as a chaplain in the Union Army. He died in 1862 of one of the fevers prevalent in the camps, after his death, his widow, then a very young woman with a son one year old, was faced with serious financial problems. Elizabeth Grier was a native of Peoria, from a family with partial German ancestry. She later was one of the pioneers in the movement for womans suffrage, obtaining a position in a nearby ladies seminary, she gave her son the best education possible. He attended Peoria High School and entered the College of New Jersey in the fall of 1878, later, as president of Princeton, he was instrumental in modifying the entrance requirements for boys of promise from the Western public schools. As an undergraduate he distinguished himself especially in mathematics and on graduation was awarded a mathematical fellowship and he was valedictorian of his class and its president from 1882 to his death in 1933. After graduation, in 1882, he spent a year in philosophical studies at the University of Berlin, on his return he entered the Princeton Theological Seminary, and while there taught French and German at the Lawrenceville School. He met his wife, Jenny Davidson, the daughter of John. John Davidson was a native of Berwick-upon-Tweed, and an eminent New York lawyer, on November 8,1887, Hibben and Jenny were married. His next charge was at the Falling Spring Presbyterian Church at Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, a throat ailment forced him to give up preaching and he went to his alma mater as an instructor in logic in 1891. He received a Ph. D. degree in 1893 with a dissertation on The Relation of Ethics to Jurisprudence, became assistant professor in 1894, and Stuart Professor of Logic in 1907. In 1912 he was elected president of Princeton, succeeding Woodrow Wilson. At the start of his presidency, Princeton was torn by the controversies started during Wilsons administration, Hibben agreed with Wilsons introduction of the preceptorial system in 1905. This system revitalized traditional methods of such as lectures and recitations by including small discussion groups and stimulating independent reading. Hibben did not support Wilsons proposal to eliminate the upper-class eating clubs and his election was a victory for the anti-Wilson group, but in his inaugural address he declared that he represented no faction but a united Princeton
33.
Henry van Dyke Jr.
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Henry Jackson van Dyke was an American author, educator, and clergyman. Henry van Dyke was born on November 10,1852, in Germantown and he graduated from Poly Prep Country Day School in 1869, Princeton University, in 1873 and from Princeton Theological Seminary,1877. He served as a professor of English literature at Princeton between 1899 and 1923, among the many students whom he influenced was, notably, future celebrity travel writer Richard Halliburton, Editor-in-Chief, at the time, of the Princeton Pictorial. Van Dyke chaired the committee that wrote the first Presbyterian printed liturgy, in 1908–09 Dr. van Dyke was a lecturer at the University of Paris. By appointment of President Woodrow Wilson, a friend and former classmate of van Dyke, he became Minister to the Netherlands, shortly after his appointment, World War I threw Europe into dismay. Americans all around Europe rushed to Holland as a place of refuge, although inexperienced as an ambassador, van Dyke conducted himself with the skill of a trained diplomat, maintaining the rights of Americans in Europe and organizing work for their relief. He later related his experiences and perceptions in the book Pro Patria, Van Dyke resigned as ambassador at the beginning of December 1916 and returned to the United States. He was subsequently elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters, Van Dyke was a friend of Helen Keller. Keller wrote, Dr. van Dyke is the kind of a friend to have one is up against a difficult problem. He will take trouble, days and nights of trouble, if it is for somebody else or for some cause he is interested in, im not an optimist, says Dr. van Dyke, theres too much evil in the world and in me. Nor am I a pessimist, there is too good in the world. So I am just a meliorist, believing that He wills to make the world better and he died on April 10,1933. He is buried in Princeton Cemetery, a biography of Van Dyke, titled Henry Van Dyke, A Biography, was written by his son Tertius van Dyke and published in 1935. Among his popular writings are the two Christmas stories, The Other Wise Man and The First Christmas Tree, various religious themes of his work are also expressed in his poetry, hymns and the essays collected in Little Rivers and Fisherman’s Luck. He wrote the lyrics to the hymn, Joyful, Joyful We Adore Thee. He compiled several short stories in The Blue Flower, named after the key symbol of Romanticism introduced first by Novalis and he also contributed a chapter to the collaborative novel, The Whole Family. The poem inspired the song Time Is by the group Its a Beautiful Day on their eponymous 1969 debut album, another interpretation of the poem is a song entitled Time by Mark Masri. In 2003, the section of the poem was chosen for a memorial in Grosvenor Square, London
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Paul Van Dyke
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Paul Van Dyke was an American historian, brother of Henry Van Dyke. He was born in Brooklyn, New York, graduated from Princeton in 1881 and from Princeton Theological Seminary in 1884 and he was a Presbyterian minister at Geneva, N. Y. in 1887–89, then taught church history at Princeton Theological Seminary. After serving as pastor at the Edwards Congregational Church in Northampton and he wrote The Age of the Renascence, volume seven in a ten-volume series titled Ten Epochs of Church History. He was elected to the National Institute of Arts and Letters in 1927, at Princeton Theological Seminary, he taught classes using the German seminar method. When he joined the faculty of Princeton College in 1898, he was Chair of History and Political Science
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Howard C. Warren
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Howard Crosby Warren was an American psychologist and the first chairman of the Princeton University Psychology department. He was also president of the American Psychological Association in 1913, the Society of Experimental Psychologists awards the Howard Crosby Warren Medal each year in his honor. Warren graduated from Princeton in 1889, and received his A. M. in 1891, starting in 1891, he studied abroad at the universities in Leipzig, Berlin and Munich, but left by 1892 to help establish a psychological laboratory at Princeton University with James Baldwin. Despite not earning a doctorate until 1917 Warren was appointed professor in 1902 and he is noted as having been a major contributor to the erection of the Eno Hall built in 1924. At Princeton his private psychological library is housed in the Green Halls, introduction to Psychology — article published in Science Human Psychology A History of the Association Psychology Elements of Human Psychology Dictionary of Psychology
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Anniversary
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An anniversary is the date on which an event took place or an institution was founded in a previous year, and may also refer to the commemoration or celebration of that event. For example, the first event is the occurrence or, if planned. One year later would be the first anniversary of that event, the word was first used for Catholic feasts to commemorate saints. Most countries celebrate national anniversaries, typically called national days and these could be the date of independence of the nation or the adoption of a new constitution or form of government. The important dates in a monarchs reign may also be commemorated. Birthdays are the most common type of anniversary, when someones birth date is commemorated each year, the actual celebration is sometimes moved for practical reasons, as in the case of an official birthday. Wedding anniversaries are also celebrated, on the same day of the year as the wedding occurred. In ancient Rome, the Aquilae natalis was the birthday of the eagle, anniversaries of nations are usually marked by the number of years elapsed, expressed with Latin words or Roman numerals. However, when anniversaries relate to fractions of centuries, the situation is not as simple, Roman fractions were based on a duodecimal system. From 1⁄12 to 8⁄12 they were expressed as multiples of twelfths, a whole unit less 3⁄12, 2⁄12 or 1⁄12 respectively. There were also special terms for quarter, half, and three-quarters, dodrans is a Latin contraction of de-quadrans which means a whole unit less a quarter (de means from, quadrans means quarter. Thus for the example of 175 years, the term is a quarter less than the next whole century or 175 =. In Latin it seems that this rule did not apply precisely for 1½, while secundus is Latin for second, and bis for twice, these terms are not used such as in sesqui-secundus. Instead sesqui is used by itself, etiquette in Society, in Business, in Politics and at Home by Emily Post, published in 1922, contained suggestions for wedding anniversary gifts for 1,5,10,15,20,25,50, and 75 years. Wedding anniversary gift suggestions for other years were added in later editions and publications, generally speaking, the longer the period, the more precious or durable the material associated with it. See wedding anniversary for a general list of the wedding anniversary symbols, however, furthermore, there exist numerous partially overlapping, partially contradictory lists of anniversary gifts, separate from the traditional names. The concepts of a persons birthday stone and zodiac stone, by contrast, are fixed for life according to the day of the week, month, list of historical anniversaries Quinquennial Neronia Wedding anniversary
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Graduate school
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A graduate school is a school that awards advanced academic degrees with the general requirement that students must have earned a previous undergraduate degree with a high grade point average. The distinction between schools and professional schools is not absolute, as various professional schools offer graduate degrees. Also, some graduate degrees train students for a specific profession, many universities award graduate degrees, a graduate school is not necessarily a separate institution. Those attending graduate schools are called students, or often in British English as postgraduate students and, colloquially, postgraduates. Degrees awarded to students include masters degrees, doctoral degrees. Producing original research is a significant component of graduate studies in the humanities, sciences and this research typically leads to the writing and defense of a thesis or dissertation. In graduate programs that are oriented towards professional training, the degrees may consist solely of coursework, the term graduate school is primarily North American. Unlike in undergraduate programs, however, it is common for graduate students to take coursework outside their specific field of study at graduate or graduate entry level. Some institutions designate separate graduate versus undergraduate staff and denote other divisions, Graduate degrees in Brazil are called postgraduate degrees, and can be taken only after an undergraduate education has been concluded. Lato sensu graduate degrees, degrees that represent a specialization in a certain area, sometimes it can be used to describe a specialization level between a masters degree and a MBA. However, since there are no norms to regulate this, both names are used indiscriminately most of the time, stricto sensu graduate degrees, degrees for those who wish to pursue an academic career. Usually serves as qualification for those seeking a differential on the job market. Most doctoral programs in Brazil require a degree, meaning that a Lato Sensu Degree is usually insufficient to start a doctoral program. Doctors / PhD, 3–4 years for completion, usually used as a stepping stone for academic life. In Canada, the Schools and Faculties of Graduate Studies are represented by the Canadian Association of Graduate Studies or Association canadienne pour les études supérieures and its mandate is to promote, advance, and foster excellence in graduate education and university research in Canada. In addition to a conference, the association prepares briefs on issues related to graduate studies including supervision, funding. Admission to a masters program generally requires a degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades usually ranging from B+ and higher. Some schools require samples of the writing as well as a research proposal
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Union Theological Seminary (New York City)
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Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York is an independent, ecumenical, Christian seminary located in New York City. It is the oldest independent seminary in the United States and has long known as a bastion of progressive Christian scholarship. It was founded in 1836 by members of the Presbyterian Church in the U. S. A. but was open to students of all denominations. In 1893, Union rescinded the right of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church to veto faculty appointments, in the 20th century, Union became a center of liberal Christianity. It served as the birthplace of the Black theology, Womanist Theology, Union houses the Columbia University Burke Library, one of the largest theological libraries in the Western Hemisphere. Union is affiliated with neighboring Columbia University and the seminary serves as Columbias constituent faculty of theology, although administratively independent, Union is represented in Columbias governance structure and appoints one faculty member and one student to the Columbia University Senate. In 1964, Union also established an affiliation with the neighboring Jewish Theological Seminary of America, Unions campus is located in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of the New York City borough of Manhattan, bordered by Claremont Avenue, Broadway, 120th Street, and 122nd Street. The brick and limestone English Gothic revival architecture, by Francis R. Allen and Collins, completed in 1910, includes the tower, the building was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 23,1980. Some sections of the campus are now on long-term lease to Columbia University, Unions urban campus is regarded by some to be among the most beautiful in the United States. The inner quadrangle and other halls and rooms are often used as a filming location by the motion picture industry. The Burke Library, the largest theological library in the western hemisphere, boniface, a 1520 imprint of Martin Luther’s first published writing, and one of the first African-American hymnals, published in Philadelphia in 1818. The Burke Library offers a number of world-renowned archival collections, including the Archives of Women in Theological Scholarship, in 2004 Unions Burke Library became fully integrated into the Columbia University Library system, which holds over 10 million volumes. The library is named in honor of Walter Burke, a benefactor to the library who served as Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Seminary from 1976 to 1982. Union Theological Seminary was founded in 1836, during the late-19th Century, it became one of the leading centers of liberal Christianity in the United States. In 1891, Charles A. Briggs, who was being installed as the chair of Biblical Studies, in 1939 the Auburn Theological Seminary moved to its campus. In 1895, members of the Union Theological Seminary Alumni Club founded Union Settlement Association, known as East Harlem, it was a neighborhood filled with new tenements but devoid of any civic services. The ethos of the settlement house movement called for its workers to “settle” in such neighborhoods in order to learn first-hand the problems of the residents, Union Settlement still exists, providing community-based services and programs to support the immigrant and low-income residents of East Harlem. Reinhold Niebuhr and Paul Tillich made UTS the center of liberal and neo-orthodox Protestantism in the post-War period
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Academic freedom
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Academic freedom is a contested issue and, therefore, has limitations in practice. For instance, in the Soviet Union, scientific research was brought under strict control in the 1930s. A number of areas were declared bourgeois pseudoscience and forbidden, notably genetics. Demands in Britain for centrally planned scientific research led Polanyi, together with John Baker, the Society promoted a liberal conception of science as free enquiry against the instrumental view that science should exist primarily to serve the needs of society. Just as consumers in a free market determine the value of products, such self-co-ordination of independent initiatives leads to a joint result which is unpremeditated by any of those who bring it about. Any attempt to organize the group, under a single authority would eliminate their independent initiatives, and thus reduce their joint effectiveness to that of the single person directing them from the centre. It would, in effect, paralyse their co-operation, proponents of academic freedom believe that the freedom of inquiry by students and faculty members is essential to the mission of the academy. They argue that communities are repeatedly targeted for repression due to their ability to shape. For example, in North Africa, a professor of public health discovered that his countrys infant mortality rate was higher than government figures indicated and he lost his job and was imprisoned. The fate of biology in the Soviet Union is also cited as a reason why society has an interest in protecting academic freedom. Lysenkos ideas proved appealing to the Soviet leadership, in part because of their value as propaganda, subsequently, Lysenko directed a purge of scientists who professed harmful ideas, resulting in the expulsion, imprisonment, or death of hundreds of Soviet scientists. Lysenkos ideas were implemented on collectivised farms in the Soviet Union. Famines that resulted partly from Lysenkos influence are believed to have killed 30 million people in China alone, AFAF of the United Kingdom is a campaign for lecturers, academic staff and researchers who want to make a public statement in favour of free enquiry and free expression. AFAF and those who agree with its principles believe that it is important for academics to be not only to express their opinions. They are against the idea of telling the public Platonic noble lies, the concept of academic freedom as a right of faculty members is an established part of most legal systems. The nomination and promotion of professors is largely done through a process of peer review rather than through normal administrative procedures, the German Constitution specifically grants academic freedom, Art and science, research and teaching are free. Freedom of teaching does not absolve from loyalty to the constitution, lehrfreiheit embraces the right of professors to determine the content of their lectures and to publish the results of their research without prior approval. Since professors through their Habilitation receive the right to teach in an academic field
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Trustees of Princeton University
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The Trustees of Princeton University is a 40-member board responsible for managing Princeton Universitys endowment, real estate, instructional programs, and admission. The Trustees include at least 13 members elected by alumni classes, and the Governor of New Jersey, the Trustees mission and responsibilities stem from the original Charter of the college, written in 1746. The Trustees oversee the budget of the university through the Princeton University Investment Company, notable recent policy decisions include implementing the residential college system, accepting coeducation, and increasing the size of the undergraduate student body. This is similar to most of the oldest universities and colleges in the United States, such as the President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Yale Corporation
41.
Westminster Confession of Faith
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The Westminster Confession of Faith is a Reformed confession of faith. Their meetings, over a period of five years, produced the confession of faith, as well as a Larger Catechism and a Shorter Catechism. For more than three hundred years, various churches around the world have adopted the confession and the catechisms as their standards of doctrine, the Westminster Confession of Faith was modified and adopted by Congregationalists in England in the form of the Savoy Declaration. Likewise, the Baptists of England modified the Savoy Declaration to produce the Second London Baptist Confession, the purpose of the Westminster Assembly, in which 121 Puritan clergymen participated, was to provide official documents for the reformation of the Church of England. The Church of Scotland had recently overthrown the bishops imposed by the King, the Confession and Catechisms were produced in order to secure the help of the Scots against the king. The Church of Scotland adopted the document, without amendment, in 1647, in England, the House of Commons returned the document to the Assembly with the requirement to compile a list of proof texts from Scripture. The next year, the Scottish parliament ratified the Confession without amendment, in 1660, restoration of the British monarchy and Anglican episcopacy resulted in the nullification of these acts of the two parliaments. The confession is an exposition of Calvinist orthodoxy, influenced by Puritan. It states that the Pope is the Antichrist, which was a common belief in seventeenth-century England. It also stated that the Roman Catholic mass is a form of idolatry, that the magistrates have divine authority to punish heresy. These formulations were repudiated by several bodies which adopted the confession, for example, the Presbyterian Church of Australia holds to the Westminster Confession of Faith as its standard, subordinate to the Word of God, and read in the light of a declaratory statement. The confession begins with a definition of the Bibles content as well as an explication of its role within the church, chapter 1 declares that the Bible, both Old and New Testaments, is the inspired, written Word of God. As the Word of God, the Bible is considered the rule of faith, the Confession of Faith states that, in the original languages, the Bible was kept pure and authentic. Because of this, the Scriptures alone are the final authority in all religious disputes. The confession states that the Holy Spirit speaking in the Scripture is the judge of councils, ancient writers, doctrines. Chapter 3 affirms the Reformed doctrine of predestination, that God foreordained who would be among the elect, the confession states that from eternity God did freely, and unchangeably ordain whatsoever comes to pass. By Gods decree, some men and angels are predestinated unto everlasting life, chapter 4 recounts the Genesis creation narrative and affirms that human beings were created in the image of God with immortal souls, having fellowship with God and dominion over other creatures. Chapter 6 recounts the Fall of Man whereby humans committed original sin, according to the confession, the consequence of the fall and sin is that sinners are guilty before God, under divine wrath and the curse of the law, and, ultimately, subject to spiritual death
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Patton, Francis Landey". Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 937–938.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 
