1.
Marburg
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Marburg is a university town in the German federal state of Hesse, capital of the Marburg-Biedenkopf district. The town area spreads along the valley of the river Lahn and has a population of approximately 72,000, having been awarded town privileges in 1222, Marburg served as capital of the landgraviate of Hessen-Marburg during periods of the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries. The University of Marburg was founded in 1527 and dominates the life in the town to this day. The settlement was protected and customs were raised by a castle built during the ninth or tenth century by the Giso. Marburg has been a town since 1140, as proven by coins, from the Gisos, it fell around that time to the Landgraves of Thuringia, residing on the Wartburg above Eisenach. In 1228, the widowed princess-landgravine of Thuringia, Elizabeth of Hungary, chose Marburg as her seat, as she did not get along well with her brother-in-law. The countess dedicated her life to the sick and would become after her death in 1231, aged 24. In 1264, St Elizabeths daughter Sophie of Brabant, succeeded in winning the Landgraviate of Hessen, hitherto connected to Thuringia, Marburg was one of the capitals of Hessen from that time until about 1540. Following the first division of the landgraviate, it was the capital of Hessen-Marburg from 1485 to 1500, Hessen was one of the more powerful second-tier principalities in Germany. Its old enemy was the Archbishopric of Mainz, one of the prince-electors, after 1605, Marburg became just another provincial town, known mostly for the University of Marburg. It became a backwater for two centuries after the Thirty Years War, when it was fought over by Hessen-Darmstadt and Hesse-Kassel. The Hessian territory around Marburg lost more than two-thirds of its population, Marburg is the seat of the oldest Protestant-founded university in the world, the University of Marburg, founded in 1527. It is one of the university towns in Germany, Greifswald, Erlangen, Jena, and Tübingen, as well as the city of Gießen. In 1529, Philipp I of Hesse arranged the Marburg Colloquy, to propitiate Martin Luther, when Romanticism became the dominant cultural and artistic paradigm in Germany, Marburg became interesting once again, and many of the leaders of the movement lived, taught, or studied in Marburg. They formed a circle of friends that was of importance, especially in literature, philology, folklore. Most famous internationally, however, were the Brothers Grimm, who collected many of their fairy tales here, the original building inspiring his drawing Rapunzels Tower stands in Amönau near Marburg. Across the Lahn hills, in the area called Schwalm, the costumes of little girls included a red hood, in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the Prince-elector of Hessen had backed Austria. Prussia won and took the opportunity to invade and annex the Electorate of Hessen north of the Main River, however, the pro-Austrian Hesse-Darmstadt remained independent
2.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
3.
Professor
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Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, informally known as full professor. Professors conduct original research and commonly teach undergraduate, graduate, or professional courses in their fields of expertise, in universities with graduate schools, professors may mentor and supervise graduate students conducting research for a thesis or dissertation. Professors typically hold a Ph. D. another doctorate or a different terminal degree, some professors hold a masters degree or a professional degree, such as an M. D. as their highest degree. The term professor was first used in the late 14th century to one who teaches a branch of knowledge. As a title that is prefixed to a name, it dates from 1706, the hort form prof is recorded from 1838. The term professor is used with a different meaning, ne professing religion. This canting use of the word comes down from the Elizabethan period, a professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In most Commonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the professor is the highest academic rank at a university. In the United States and Canada, the title of professor is also the highest rank, in these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees or equivalent qualifications who teach in four-year colleges and universities. An emeritus professor is a given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary, but they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, the term professor is also used in the titles assistant professor and associate professor, which are not considered professor-level positions in some European countries. In Australia, the associate professor is used in place of reader, ranking above senior lecturer. However, such professors usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution, in general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis. Other roles of professorial tasks depend on the institution, its legacy, protocols, place, a professor typically earns a base salary and a range of benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in her institution earns additional income, some professors also earn additional income by moonlighting in other jobs, such as consulting, publishing academic or popular press books, or giving speeches or coaching executives. Some fields give professors more opportunities for outside work, the anticipated average earnings with performance-related bonuses for a German professor is €71,500. The salaries of civil servant professors in Spain are fixed in a basis, but there are some bonus related to performance and seniority
4.
University of Marburg
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The Philipp University of Marburg, was founded in 1527 by Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse as one of Germanys oldest universities, dating back to a Protestant foundation. As a state university it no longer has any religious affiliation and it was the main university of the principality of Hesse and remains a public university of that state. It now has about 25,000 students and 7,500 employees, making Marburg, a town of 72,000 inhabitants, though most subjects are grouped, the University of Marburg is not a campus university in the broader sense. About 12% of the students are international, the highest percentage in Hesse and it offers an International summer university programme every summer and has an awarded ERASMUS programme. Marburg is home to one of Germanys most traditional medical faculties, the German physicians union is called Marburger Bund. In 1609, the University of Marburg established the worlds first professorship in chemistry, in 2012 it opened the first German participative chemistry museum, called Chemicum. Its experimental course programme is aimed at encouraging people to pursue careers in science. 20 professors were expelled in 1933, among them Wilhelm Röpke who emigrated, the university is most famous for its life sciences research, but is also home to one of the few centers that conduct research on the middle east, the CNMS. The departments of psychology and geography enjoy a reputation and reached Excellence Group status in the Europe-wide CHE Excellence Ranking 2009. According to the 2012 QS Ranking, the university ranked among the top 30 German universities, the ARWU ranking which is more focused on research, ranks the university around 200, with its life sciences and social sciences department in the 151-200 range worldwide. The strong research is illustrated by its participation in several SFBs. These collaborative research centres are financed by the German Science Foundation DFG and they encourage researchers to cross the boundaries of disciplines, institutes, departments and faculties within the participating university. It retained that strength, especially in Philosophy and Theology for a time after World War II. S. S. Eliot Wilhelm Viëtor Historical detention room
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Meteorology
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Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics, with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century, the 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data, Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology. Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local, regional, Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences. Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology, the interactions between Earths atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system. Meteorology has application in diverse fields such as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture. The word meteorology is from Greek μετέωρος metéōros lofty, high and -λογία -logia -logy, varāhamihiras classical work Brihatsamhita, written about 500 AD, provides clear evidence that a deep knowledge of atmospheric processes existed even in those times. In 350 BC, Aristotle wrote Meteorology, Aristotle is considered the founder of meteorology. One of the most impressive achievements described in the Meteorology is the description of what is now known as the hydrologic cycle and they are all called swooping bolts because they swoop down upon the Earth. Lightning is sometimes smoky, and is then called smoldering lightning, sometimes it darts quickly along, at other times, it travels in crooked lines, and is called forked lightning. When it swoops down upon some object it is called swooping lightning, the Greek scientist Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs. The work of Theophrastus remained a dominant influence in the study of weather, in 25 AD, Pomponius Mela, a geographer for the Roman Empire, formalized the climatic zone system. According to Toufic Fahd, around the 9th century, Al-Dinawari wrote the Kitab al-Nabat, ptolemy wrote on the atmospheric refraction of light in the context of astronomical observations. St. Roger Bacon was the first to calculate the size of the rainbow. He stated that a rainbow summit can not appear higher than 42 degrees above the horizon, in the late 13th century and early 14th century, Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī and Theodoric of Freiberg were the first to give the correct explanations for the primary rainbow phenomenon. Theoderic went further and also explained the secondary rainbow, in 1716, Edmund Halley suggested that aurorae are caused by magnetic effluvia moving along the Earths magnetic field lines. In 1441, King Sejongs son, Prince Munjong, invented the first standardized rain gauge and these were sent throughout the Joseon Dynasty of Korea as an official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmers potential harvest. In 1450, Leone Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate anemometer, and was known as the first anemometer, in 1607, Galileo Galilei constructed a thermoscope
6.
Monochord
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A monochord, also known as sonometer, is an ancient musical and scientific laboratory instrument, involving one string. The term monochord is sometimes used as the class-name for any musical stringed instrument having only one string, according to the Hornbostel–Sachs system, string bows are bar zithers while monochords are traditionally board zithers. A string is fixed at both ends and stretched over a sound box, one or more movable bridges are then manipulated to demonstrate mathematical relationships among the frequencies produced. With its single string, movable bridge and graduated rule, the monochord straddled the gap between notes and numbers, intervals and ratios, sense-perception and mathematical reason, however, music, mathematics, and astronomy were inexorably linked in the monochord. For example, when a string is open it vibrates at a particular frequency. When the length of the string is halved, and plucked, it produces a pitch an octave higher, half of this length will produce a pitch two octaves higher than the original—four times the initial frequency —and so on. Standard diatonic Pythagorean tuning is easily derived starting from superparticular ratios, /n, constructed from the first four counting numbers, the mathematics involved include the multiplication table, least common multiples, and prime and composite numbers. A bichord instrument is one, having two strings in unison for each note, such as the mandolin, with two strings one can easily demonstrate how various musical intervals sound. Parts of a monochord include a tuning peg, nut, string, moveable bridge, fixed bridge, calibration marks, belly or resonating box, instruments derived from the monochord include the guqin, dan bau, koto, vina, hurdy-gurdy, and clavichord. A monopipe is the wind instrument version of a monochord, an open pipe which can produce variable pitches. End correction must be used with this method, to achieve accuracy, the monochord is mentioned in Sumerian writings, while some attribute its invention to Pythagorus. Dolge attributes the invention of the bridge to Guido of Arezzo around 1000 CE. In 1618, Robert Fludd devised a mundane monochord that linked the Ptolemaic universe to musical intervals, was it physical intuition or a Pythagorean confidence in the importance of small whole numbers. 1,5 &10, which is music that uses pitch ratios extended to higher partials beyond the standard Pythagorean tuning system. A modern playing technique used in rock as well as contemporary classical music is 3rd bridge. This technique shares the same mechanism as used on the monochord, a sonometer is a diagnostic instrument used to measure the tension, frequency or density of vibrations. They are used in medical settings to test both hearing and bone density, a sonometer, or audiometer, is used to determine hearing sensitivity, while a clinical bone sonometer measures bone density to help determine such conditions as the risk of osteoporosis. In audiology, the device is used to test for hearing loss, the audiometer measures the ability to hear sounds at frequencies normally detectable by the human ear
7.
Tuning fork
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A tuning fork is an acoustic resonator in the form of a two-pronged fork with the prongs formed from a U-shaped bar of elastic metal. It resonates at a constant pitch when set vibrating by striking it against a surface or with an object. The pitch that a tuning fork generates depends on the length. It is frequently used as a standard of pitch to tune musical instruments, the tuning fork was invented in 1711 by British musician John Shore, Sergeant Trumpeter and Lutenist to the court. A tuning fork is an acoustic resonator used in many applications to produce a fixed tone. The reason for this is that the frequency of the first overtone is about 52/22 = 25/4 = 6 1⁄4 times the fundamental. When the tuning fork is struck, little of the energy goes into the overtone modes, they die out correspondingly faster. It is easier to other instruments with this pure tone. Another reason for using the shape is that, when it vibrates in its principal mode. There is a node at the base of each prong, the fork is usually struck, and then the handle is pressed against a wooden box resonator, or a table top. Without the resonator the sound of a fork is very faint. The reason for this is that the waves produced by each fork prong are 180° out of phase with the other, so at a distance from the fork they interfere. Commercial tuning forks are normally tuned to the pitch at the factory. They can be retuned by filing material off the prongs, filing the ends of the prongs raises the pitch, while filing the inside of the base of the prongs lowers it. Tuning forks used by orchestras between 1750 and 1820 mostly had a frequency of A =423.5 Hz, although there were many forks, standard tuning forks are available that vibrate at all the musical pitches within the central octave of the piano, and other pitches. Well-known manufacturers of tuning forks include Ragg and John Walker, both of Sheffield, England, the pitch of a tuning fork varies slightly with temperature, due mainly to a slight decrease in the modulus of elasticity of steel with increasing temperature. A change in frequency of one vibration in 21,000 per °F change is typical for a tuning fork. The frequency decreases with increasing temperature, tuning forks are manufactured to have their correct pitch at a standard temperature
8.
Academy of Sciences Leopoldina
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The Leopoldina is the national academy of Germany. Historically it was known under the German name Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina until 2007, the Leopoldina is located in Halle. Founded in 1652, the Leopoldina claims to be the oldest continuously existing learned society in the world. The Leopoldina was founded in the city of Schweinfurt on 1 January 1652 under the Latin name Academia Naturae Curiosorum, the four founding members were physicians, namely Johann Laurentius Bausch, first president of the society, Johann Michael Fehr, Georg Balthasar Metzger, and Georg Balthasar Wohlfarth. In 1677, Leopold I, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, recognised the society, P. 7–8, At first, the society conducted its business by correspondence and was located wherever the president was working. It was not permanently located in Halle until 1878 and did not meet regularly until 1924, pp. 8–9 When Adolf Hitler became Germanys chancellor in 1933, the Leopoldina started to exclude its Jewish members. Albert Einstein was one of the first victims, more than 70 followed until 1938, eight of them were murdered by the Nazis. At the end of World War II, the city of Halle, and hence the building of the academy, became part of East Germany, however, the Leopoldina successfully resisted these attempts and continued to think of itself as an institution for the whole of Germany. In 1991, after German reunification, the Leopoldina was granted the status of a non-profit organisation and it is funded jointly by the German government and the government of the state of Saxony-Anhalt. As the German Academy of Sciences, it is a counterpart to the rights and responsibilities of institutions such as Britains Royal Society and the United States National Academy of Science. The Leopoldina is the first and foremost academic society in Germany to advise the German government on a variety of scientific matters, the Leopoldina gives conferences and lectures and continues to publish the Ephemeriden under the name Nova Acta Leopoldina. It issues various medals and awards, offers grants and scholarships, the Academy also maintains a library and an archive and it also researches its own history and publishes another journal, Acta Historica Leopoldina devoted to this subject. The election to membership of the Leopoldina is the highest academic honour awarded by an institution in Germany, as of early 2014, a total of 169 Nobel prize laureates are fellows of the Leopoldina
9.
World's Columbian Exposition
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The Worlds Columbian Exposition was a worlds fair held in Chicago in 1893 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbuss arrival in the New World in 1492. The centerpiece of the Fair, the water pool, represented the long voyage Columbus took to the New World. Chicago bested New York City, Washington, D. C. the Exposition was an influential social and cultural event and had a profound effect on architecture, sanitation, the arts, Chicagos self-image, and American industrial optimism. The layout of the Chicago Columbian Exposition was, in part, designed by John Wellborn Root, Daniel Burnham, Frederick Law Olmsted. It was the prototype of what Burnham and his colleagues thought a city should be and it was designed to follow Beaux Arts principles of design, namely French neoclassical architecture principles based on symmetry, balance, and splendor. The color of the generally used to cover the buildings facades gave the fairgrounds its nickname. Many prominent architects designed its 14 great buildings, artists and musicians were featured in exhibits and many also made depictions and works of art inspired by the exposition. The exposition covered more than 600 acres, featuring nearly 200 new buildings of predominantly neoclassical architecture, canals and lagoons, more than 27 million people attended the exposition during its six-month run. Dedication ceremonies for the fair were held on October 21,1892, the fair continued until October 30,1893. On October 9,1893, the day designated as Chicago Day, the debt for the fair was soon paid off with a check for $1.5 million. Chicago has commemorated the fair one of the stars on its municipal flag. Schwab, Chicago railroad and manufacturing magnate John Whitfield Bunn, and Connecticut banking, insurance, the fair was planned in the early 1890s during the Gilded Age of rapid industrial growth, immigration, and class tension. Worlds fairs, such as Londons 1851 Crystal Palace Exhibition, had been successful in Europe as a way to bring together societies fragmented along class lines, the first American attempt at a worlds fair in Philadelphia in 1876, drew crowds but was a financial failure. Nonetheless, ideas about distinguishing the 400th anniversary of Columbus landing started in the late 1880s. Civic leaders in St. Louis, New York City, Washington DC and Chicago expressed an interest in hosting a fair to generate profits, boost real estate values, Congress was called on to decide the location. What finally persuaded Congress was Chicago banker Lyman Gage, who raised several million dollars in a 24-hour period, over. The exposition corporation and national exposition commission settled on Jackson Park, Daniel H. Burnham was selected as director of works, and George R. Davis as director-general. Burnham emphasized architecture and sculpture as central to the fair and assembled the periods top talent to design the buildings, the temporary buildings were designed in an ornate Neoclassical style and painted white, resulting in the fair site being referred to as the “White City”
10.
Ernst Chladni
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Ernst Florens Friedrich Chladni was a German physicist and musician. His most important work, for which he is labeled the father of acoustics, included research on vibrating plates. He also undertook pioneering work in the study of meteorites and so is regarded by some as the father of meteoritics. Although Chladni was born in Wittenberg in Saxony, his family originated from Kremnica, then part of the Kingdom of Hungary, Chladni has therefore been identified as German, Hungarian and Slovak. Chladni came from an family of academics and learned men. Chladnis great-grandfather, the Lutheran clergyman Georg Chladni, had left Kremnica in 1673 during the Counter Reformation, Chladnis grandfather, Martin Chladni, was also a Lutheran theologian and, in 1710, became professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg. He was dean of the faculty in 1720–1721 and later became the universitys rector. Chaldnis uncle, Justus Georg Chladni, was a law professor at the university, another uncle, Johann Martin Chladni, was a theologian, a historian and a professor at the University of Erlangen and the University of Leipzig. Chladnis father, Ernst Martin Chladni, was a law professor and rector of the University of Wittenberg and he had joined the law faculty there in 1746. Chladnis mother was Johanna Sophia and he was an only child and his father disapproved of his sons interest in science and insisted that Chladni become a lawyer. Chladni studied law and philosophy in Wittenberg and Leipzig, obtaining a law degree from the University of Leipzig in 1782 and that same year, his father died and he turned to physics in earnest. One of Chladnis best-known achievements was inventing a technique to show the modes of vibration of a rigid surface. When resonating, a plate or membrane is divided into regions that vibrate in opposite directions, Chladni repeated the pioneering experiments of Robert Hooke who, on July 8,1680, had observed the nodal patterns associated with the vibrations of glass plates. Hooke ran a bow along the edge of a plate covered with flour. Chladnis technique, first published in 1787 in his book Entdeckungen über die Theorie des Klanges, the plate was bowed until it reached resonance, when the vibration causes the sand to move and concentrate along the nodal lines where the surface is still, outlining the nodal lines. The patterns formed by these lines are what are now called Chladni figures, similar nodal patterns can also be found by assembling microscale materials on Faraday waves. When Chladni showed the technique in Paris, Napoleon set a prize for the best mathematical explanation, sophie Germains answer, although rejected due to flaws, was the only entry with the correct approach. Variations of this technique are still used in the design and construction of acoustic instruments such as violins, guitars
11.
Acoustical engineering
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Acoustical engineering is the branch of engineering dealing with sound and vibration. It is the application of acoustics, the science of sound and vibration, Acoustical engineers are typically concerned with the design, analysis and control of sound. One goal of engineering can be the reduction of unwanted noise. Unwanted noise can have significant impacts on animal and human health and well-being, reduce attainment by pupils in schools, acoustic engineers usually possess a bachelors degree or higher qualification in acoustics, physics or another engineering discipline. Practicing as an acoustic engineer usually requires a degree with significant scientific. Acoustic engineers might work in consultancy, specializing in particular fields, such as architectural acoustics. Acousticians are also involved in researching and understanding sound scientifically, some positions, such as faculty require a Doctor of Philosophy. In most countries, a degree in acoustics can represent the first step towards professional certification, after completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated the title of Chartered Engineer, the listed subdisciplines are loosely based on the PACS coding used by the Acoustical Society of America. Aeroacoustics is concerned with how noise is generated by the movement of air, for instance via turbulence, aeroacoustics plays an important role in understanding how noise is generated by aircraft and wind turbines, as well as exploring how wind musical instruments work. Audio signal processing is the manipulation of audio signals using analog. Perceptual coding in MP3 and Opus, and to understand the content of the signal, audio engineers develop and use audio signal processing algorithms. Architectural acoustics is the science and engineering of achieving a good sound within a building, architectural acoustic design is usually done by acoustic consultants. Bioacoustics usually concerns the study of sound production and hearing in animals. This branch of acoustic engineering deals with the design of headphones, microphones, loudspeakers, sound systems, sound reproduction, environmental acoustics work is usually done by acoustic consultants or those working in environmental health. Recent research work has put an emphasis on soundscapes, the positive use of sound. Musical acoustics is concerned with researching and describing the physics of music, noise control is a set of strategies to reduce noise pollution by reducing noise at its source, by inhibiting sound propagation using noise barriers or similar, or by the use of ear protection. Control at the source is the most cost-effective way of providing noise control, noise control engineering applied to cars and trucks is known as noise, vibration, and harshness
12.
Hermann von Helmholtz
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Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz was a German physician and physicist who made significant contributions in several scientific fields. The largest German association of institutions, the Helmholtz Association, is named after him. In physics, he is known for his theories on the conservation of energy, work in electrodynamics, chemical thermodynamics, Helmholtzs work is influenced by the philosophy of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Immanuel Kant. He tried to trace their theories in empirical matters like physiology, as a young man, Helmholtz was interested in natural science, but his father wanted him to study medicine at the Charité because there was financial support for medical students. Trained primarily in physiology, Helmholtz wrote on other topics, ranging from theoretical physics, to the age of the Earth. Helmholtzs first academic position was as a teacher of Anatomy at the Academy of Arts in Berlin in 1848 and he then moved to take a post of associate professor of physiology at the Prussian University of Königsberg, where he was appointed in 1849. In 1855 he accepted a professorship of anatomy and physiology at the University of Bonn. He was not particularly happy in Bonn, however, and three later he transferred to the University of Heidelberg, in Baden, where he served as professor of physiology. In 1871 he accepted his final university position, as professor of physics at the University of Berlin and his first important scientific achievement, an 1847 treatise on the conservation of energy, was written in the context of his medical studies and philosophical background. He discovered the principle of conservation of energy while studying muscle metabolism and he tried to demonstrate that no energy is lost in muscle movement, motivated by the implication that there were no vital forces necessary to move a muscle. This was a rejection of the tradition of Naturphilosophie which was at that time a dominant philosophical paradigm in German physiology. He published his theories in his book Über die Erhaltung der Kraft, in the 1850s and 60s, building on the publications of William Thomson, Helmholtz and William Rankine popularized the idea of the heat death of the universe. In fluid dynamics, Helmholtz made several contributions, including Helmholtzs theorems for vortex dynamics in inviscid fluids, Helmholtz was a pioneer in the scientific study of human vision and audition. He coined the term psychophysics, to capture the distinction between the measurement of physical stimuli and their effect on human perception. The physical sound needs to be increased exponentially in order for equal steps to seem linear, Helmholtz paved the way in experimental studies on the relationship between the physical energy and its appreciation, with the goal in mind to develop psychophysical laws. The sensory physiology of Helmholtz was the basis of the work of Wilhelm Wundt, a student of Helmholtz and he, more explicitly than Helmholtz, described his research as a form of empirical philosophy and as a study of the mind as something separate. Helmholtz had, in his early repudiation of Naturphilosophie, stressed the importance of materialism, in 1851, Helmholtz revolutionized the field of ophthalmology with the invention of the ophthalmoscope, an instrument used to examine the inside of the human eye. Helmholtzs interests at that time were focused on the physiology of the senses
