1.
.org
–
The domain name org is a generic top-level domain of the Domain Name System used in the Internet. The name is truncated from organization and it was one of the original domains established in 1985, and has been operated by the Public Interest Registry since 2003. The domain was intended for non-profit entities, but this restriction was not enforced and has been removed. The domain is used by schools, open-source projects, and communities. The number of registered domains in org has increased from fewer than one million in the 1990s, the domain. org was one of the original top-level domains, with com, us, edu, gov, mil and net, established in January 1985. It was originally intended for organizations or organizations of a non-commercial character that did not meet the requirements for other gTLDs. The MITRE Corporation was the first group to register an org domain with mitre. org in July 1985, the TLD has been operated since January 1,2003 by Public Interest Registry, who assumed the task from VeriSign Global Registry Services, a division of Verisign. Registrations of subdomains are processed via accredited registrars worldwide, anyone can register a second-level domain within org, without restrictions. In some instances subdomains are being used also by commercial sites, in some cases subdomains have been created for crisis management. Some cities, among them Rybnitsa in Transnistria) also have org domain names, such second-level domains are usually named org or or. In 2009, the org domain consisted of more than 8 million registered domain names,8.8 million in 2010, the Public Interest Registry registered the ten millionth. ORG domain in June,2012. When the 9.5 millionth. org was registered in December 2011. org, the org domain registry allows the registration of selected internationalized domain names as second-level domains. For German, Danish, Hungarian, Icelandic, Korean, Latvian, Lithuanian, Polish, spanish IDN registrations have been possible since 2007. This allows the verification of the authenticity and integrity of DNS data by conforming DNS clients. As of June 23,2010, DNSSEC was enabled for individual second-level domains, the Public Interest Registry charges its accredited registrars US $7.70 for each domain name. The registrars may set their charges to end users without restrictions
2.
.net
–
The domain name net is a generic top-level domain used in the Domain Name System of the Internet. However, restrictions were never enforced and the domain is now a general purpose namespace, as of 2015, it is the fourth most popular top-level domain, after. com. tk and. de. Verisign, the operator of net after acquiring Network Solutions, held a contract that expired on 30 June 2005. ICANN, the responsible for domain management, sought proposals from organizations to operate the domain upon expiration of the contract. Verisign regained the contract bid, and secured its control over the net registry for another six years, on 30 June 2011, the contract with Verisign was automatically renewed for another six years. This is because of an approved by the ICANN board. Registrations are processed via accredited registrars and internationalized domain names are also accepted, list of net accredited registrars net WhoIS netDomain Name suffixes
3.
.gov
–
The domain name gov is a sponsored top-level domain in the Domain Name System of the Internet. The name is derived from the government, indicating its restricted use by government entities in the United States. The gov domain is administered by the General Services Administration, an independent agency of the United States federal government, the U. S. is the only country that has a government-specific top-level domain in addition to its country-code top-level domain. This is a result of the origins of the Internet as a U. S. federal government-sponsored research network, other countries typically delegate a second-level domain for this purpose, for example. gc. ca is the second-level domain for the Government of Canada and all subdomains. Some U. S. federal agencies use com, instead of gov, the Department of Defense and its subsidiary organizations use the mil sTLD. Some U. S. governmental entities use other domains, such as com domains by the United States Postal Service, usps. com, the US military repeats this pattern for recruitment websites of other branches. All governments in the U. S. were allowed to apply for delegations in gov before May 2012, for example, domains have been registered for the city of Atlanta, for the county of Loudoun, Virginia, and for the U. S. state of Georgia. This was not always possible, under a policy, only federal agencies were allowed to use the domain. Inconsistencies exist in addressing of state and local government sites, with some using gov, some us, some using both. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania uses www. pa. gov, www. pennsylvania. gov and www. state. pa. us for the web site. Use of the domain gov is restricted to government entities, the URL for registration services is www. dotgov. gov. To register a gov domain, a letter of authorization must be submitted to the GSA, for federal agencies, the authorization must be submitted by cabinet-level chief information officer. For state governments, authorization from the governor or state CIO is required, for Native Sovereign Nations, the authorization must come from the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The GSA provides guidelines for naming of second-level domains, such as used by state. For states, the name must include the full state name or postal abbreviation. For example, invalid. gov for Idaho would be a domain name. For local governments, the name must include the state name or abbreviation. However, many. gov domain names do not conform to the convention because they were already registered before the GSA enacted this policy
4.
.mil
–
The domain name mil is the sponsored top-level domain in the Domain Name System of the Internet for the United States Department of Defense and its subsidiary or affiliated organizations. The name is derived from military and it was one of the first top-level domains, created in January 1985. The United States is the country that has a top-level domain for its military. Other countries often use second-level domains for this purpose, e. g. mod. uk for the United Kingdoms Ministry of Defence, canada uses norad. mil with the United States as they jointly operate the North American Aerospace Defense Command. The official athletic program sites of the three academies that are members of NCAA Division I use com domains, as well as Coast Guard, which is a member of NCAA Division III. The Department of Defense itself uses gov for its home page, the United States Coast Guard, like other military services, uses the mil domain, although during statutory peacetime the service falls under the United States Department of Homeland Security. IANA. mil whois information Mil Domain Used by US Airforce Mil Domain Used by US Army Mil Domain Used by US Marines Mil Domain Used by US Navy Mil Domain Used by US Coast Guard List of Mil Domains
5.
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
–
Following ICANNs transition to a global multistakeholder governance model, the IANA functions were transferred to Public Technical Identifiers, an affiliate of ICANN. In addition, five regional Internet registries delegate number resources to their customers, local Internet registries, Internet service providers, a local Internet registry is an organization that assigns parts of its allocation from a regional Internet registry to other customers. Most local Internet registries are also Internet service providers, IANA is broadly responsible for the allocation of globally unique names and numbers that are used in Internet protocols that are published as Request for Comments documents. These documents describe methods, behaviors, research, or innovations applicable to the working of the Internet, IANA maintains a close liaison with the Internet Engineering Task Force and RFC Editorial team in fulfilling this function. IANA is responsible for assignment of Internet numbers which are numerical identifier assigned to an Internet resource or used in the protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite. Examples include IP addresses and autonomous system numbers, IANA delegates allocations of IP address blocks to regional Internet registries. Each RIR allocates addresses for a different area of the world, collectively the RIRs have created the Number Resource Organization formed as a body to represent their collective interests and ensure that policy statements are coordinated globally. The RIRs divide their allocated address pools into smaller blocks and delegate them to Internet service providers, since the exhaustion of the Internet Protocol Version 4 address space, no further IPv4 address space is allocated by IANA. IANA administers the data in the root nameservers, which form the top of the hierarchical Domain name system tree and this task involves liaising with top-level domain operators, the root nameserver operators, and ICANNs policy making apparatus. IANA administers many parameters of IETF protocols, examples include the names of uniform resource identifier schemes and character encodings recommended for use on the Internet. This task is performed under the oversight of the Internet Architecture Board, on March 26,1972, Vint Cerf and Jon Postel at UCLA called for establishing a socket number catalog in RFC322. Network administrators were asked to submit a note or place a call, describing the function. This catalog was published as RFC433 in December 1972. In it Postel first proposed a registry of assignments of port numbers to network services, calling himself the czar of socket numbers. The first reference to the name IANA in the RFC series is in RFC1083, published in December,1988 by Postel at USC-ISI, there was widespread dissatisfaction with this concentration of power in one company, and people looked to IANA for a solution. Postel wrote up a draft on IANA and the creation of new top level domains and he was trying to institutionalize IANA. In retrospect, this would have been valuable, since he died about two years later. Jon Postel managed the IANA function from its inception on the ARPANET until his death in October 1998, by his almost 30 years of selfless service, Postel created his de facto authority to manage key parts of the Internet infrastructure
6.
Domain Name System
–
The Domain Name System is a hierarchical decentralized naming system for computers, services, or other resources connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of the participating entities, by providing a worldwide, distributed directory service, the Domain Name System is an essential component of the functionality of the Internet, that has been in use since 1985. The Domain Name System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain names, Network administrators may delegate authority over sub-domains of their allocated name space to other name servers. This mechanism provides distributed and fault tolerant service and was designed to avoid a large central database. The Domain Name System also specifies the technical functionality of the service that is at its core. It defines the DNS protocol, a specification of the data structures and data communication exchanges used in the DNS. Historically, other directory services preceding DNS were not scalable to large or global directories as they were based on text files. The Internet maintains two principal namespaces, the domain name hierarchy and the Internet Protocol address spaces, the Domain Name System maintains the domain name hierarchy and provides translation services between it and the address spaces. Internet name servers and a communication protocol implement the Domain Name System, a DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records for a domain, a DNS name server responds with answers to queries against its database. The most common types of stored in the DNS database are for Start of Authority, IP addresses, SMTP mail exchangers, name servers, pointers for reverse DNS lookups. As a general purpose database, the DNS has also used in combating unsolicited email by storing a real-time blackhole list. The DNS database is stored in a structured zone file. An often-used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it serves as the book for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses. For example, the name www. example. com translates to the addresses 93.184.216.119 and 2606,2800,220, 6d, 26bf,1447,1097. Unlike a phone book, DNS can be updated, allowing a services location on the network to change without affecting the end users. Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators, an important and ubiquitous function of DNS is its central role in distributed Internet services such as cloud services and content delivery networks. When a user accesses a distributed Internet service using a URL and this process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services. The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility in the Internet, each subdomain is a zone of administrative autonomy delegated to a manager
7.
Internet
–
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
8.
.info
–
The domain name info is a generic top-level domain in the Domain Name System of the Internet. The name is derived from information, though registration requirements do not prescribe any particular theme, the info TLD was a response to ICANNs highly publicized announcement, in late 2000, of a phased release of seven new generic top-level domains. The event was the first addition of major gTLDs since the Domain Name System was developed in the 1980s, the seven new gTLDs, selected from over 180 proposals, were meant in part to take the pressure off the com domain. The info domain has been the most successful of the seven new domain names, ICANN and Afilias have also sealed an agreement for country names to be reserved by ICANN under resolution 01.92. Info is a domain, meaning that anyone can obtain a second-level domain under info for any purpose, similar to the com. This is in contrast to TLDs such as edu or coop, info is the only top-level domain that was explicitly created and chartered for unrestricted use, though various other TLDs became that way as a de facto situation. Info stands for information in about 37 languages, and is a neutral name, Afilias, the registry operator of both the info and aero top-level domains, has been aggressive in its marketing of the domain, with significant registrar incentives and outreach events. The info domain has been operated by Afilias since its creation, in 2003, it was the first gTLD domain to support IETF standards-based internationalized domain names. The launching of info involved a Sunrise Period for trademark owners, followed by an open to all
9.
.name
–
The domain name is a generic top-level domain in the Domain Name System of the Internet. It is intended for use by individuals for representation of their name, nicknames, screen names, pseudonyms. The top-level domain was founded by Hakon Haugnes and Geir Rasmussen and initially delegated to Global Name Registry in 2001, verisign was the outsourced operator for. name since the. name launch in 2002 and acquired Global Name Registry in 2008. Subdomains of name may be registered at the second-level and the third-level and it is also possible to register an e-mail address of the form john@doe. name. Such a registration may require another address as destination, the second-level domain of third-level subdomains is shared, and may not be registered by individuals. When the TLD name was first launched, only third-level registrations, second-level registrations became available in January 2004. The original intended structure of domain names was first. last. name, the purpose of this sharing of second-level names was to ensure that the highest number of people possible could get an email address that included their last name. In November 2009, internationalized domain names available for second. IDNs are domain names that are represented by user applications in the character set of a language. The WHOIS service for name is available at the URL http, Domain name registrations are available from accredited ICANN registrars. In late September 2007, security researchers accused Global Name Registry of harboring hackers by charging fees per WHOIS lookup, the registry, however, offers unlimited free lookups through the free Extensive Whois access program. Domain name IANA. name whois information. name operator website. name Registry Agreement
10.
.jobs
–
The domain name jobs is a sponsored top-level domain in the Domain Name System of the Internet. As indicated by its name, the domain is restricted to employment-related sites, the domain was approved by ICANN on April 8,2005 as part of the second group of new TLD applications submitted in 2004. It was installed in the DNS root in September 2005, for example, manufacturing. jobs could represent employment for a specific corporation, or market sector. In 2010, Employ Media LLC applied to ICANN to extend the charter under which Employ Media is authorized to sell the. jobs domains. If accepted, Employ Media plans to create hundreds of thousands and perhaps a new, niche job boards. The International Association of Employment Web Sites and dozens of other employment services organizations have objected and it has been suggested that subdomains of other domains, such as jobs. example. com, can be used without any new registrations on the part of the companies involved. In 2013, Employ Media partnered with Cnjobs Technology which is headed by Dr. Renjun Bao to expand to greater China, participating Registrars ICANN press release Marketwatch. com
11.
NATO
–
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved
12.
IPv6
–
IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force to deal with the long-anticipated problem of IPv4 address exhaustion. IPv6 is intended to replace IPv4, every device on the Internet is assigned a unique IP address for identification and location definition. With the rapid growth of the Internet after commercialization in the 1990s, by 1998, the Internet Engineering Task Force had formalized the successor protocol. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address, theoretically allowing 2128, or approximately 3. 4×1038 addresses, the actual number is slightly smaller, as multiple ranges are reserved for special use or completely excluded from use. The total number of possible IPv6 addresses is more than 7. 9×1028 times as many as IPv4, the two protocols are not designed to be interoperable, complicating the transition to IPv6. However, several IPv6 transition mechanisms have been devised to permit communication between IPv4 and IPv6 hosts, IPv6 provides other technical benefits in addition to a larger addressing space. In particular, it permits hierarchical address allocation methods that facilitate route aggregation across the Internet, the use of multicast addressing is expanded and simplified, and provides additional optimization for the delivery of services. Device mobility, security, and configuration aspects have been considered in the design of the protocol, IPv6 was first formally described in Internet standard document RFC2460, published in December 1998. In addition to offering more addresses, IPv6 also implements features not present in IPv4 and it simplifies aspects of address assignment, network renumbering, and router announcements when changing network connectivity providers. It simplifies processing of packets in routers by placing the responsibility for packet fragmentation into the end points, Network security was a design requirement of the IPv6 architecture, and included the original specification of IPsec. IPv6 does not specify interoperability features with IPv4, but essentially creates a parallel, exchanging traffic between the two networks requires translator gateways employing one of several transition mechanisms, such as NAT64, or a tunneling protocol like 6to4, 6in4, or Teredo. Internet Protocol Version 4 was the first publicly used version of the Internet Protocol and it is currently described by IETF publication RFC791, which replaced an earlier definition. IPv4 included a system that used numerical identifiers consisting of 32 bits. These addresses are typically displayed in quad-dotted notation as decimal values of four octets, each in the range 0 to 255, thus, IPv4 provides an addressing capability of 232 or approximately 4.3 billion addresses. Address exhaustion was not initially a concern in IPv4 as this version was originally presumed to be a test of DARPAs networking concepts, during the first decade of operation of the Internet, it became apparent that methods had to be developed to conserve address space. The last unassigned top-level address blocks of 16 million IPv4 addresses were allocated in February 2011 by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority to the five regional Internet registries. However, each RIR still has available address pools and is expected to continue with standard address allocation policies until one /8 Classless Inter-Domain Routing block remains, after that, only blocks of 1024 addresses will be provided from the RIRs to a local Internet registry. This leaves African Network Information Center as the sole regional internet registry that is using the normal protocol for distributing IPv4 addresses
13.
Jon Postel
–
Jonathan Bruce Postel was an American computer scientist who made many significant contributions to the development of the Internet, particularly with respect to standards. He is known principally for being the Editor of the Request for Comment document series, in his lifetime he was known as the god of the Internet for his comprehensive influence on the medium. The Internet Societys Postel Award is named in his honor, as is the Postel Center at Information Sciences Institute and his obituary was written by Vint Cerf and published as RFC2468 in remembrance of Postel and his work. In 2012, Postel was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society, the Channel Islands Domain Registry building was named after him in early 2016. Postel attended Van Nuys High School, and then UCLA where he earned his B. S. as well as his M. A. in Engineering. He then went on to complete his Ph. D. there in Computer Science in 1974, Postel started work at UCLA on 23 December 1969 as a Postgraduate Research Engineer where he was involved in early work on the ARPANET. He worked there until 24 August 1973 when he left to join MITRE Corporation and he assisted with Network Information Center which was being set up at SRI by Elizabeth Feinler. In March 1977, he joined the Information Sciences Institute at the University of Southern California as an Assistant Professor, between 1982 and 1984 Postel co-authored the RFCs which became the foundation of todays DNS which were joined in 1995 by RFC1591 which he also co-wrote. In total, he wrote or co-authored more than 200 RFCs, Postel served on the Internet Architecture Board and its predecessors for many years. He was the Director of the names and number assignment clearinghouse and he was the first member of the Internet Society, and was on its Board of Trustees. He was the original and long-time. us Top-Level Domain administrator and he also managed the Los Nettos Network. ROOT-SERVERS. NET to IANAs DNSROOT. IANA. ORG. Though usage of the Internet was not interrupted, he received orders from senior government officials to undo this change. On October 16,1998, Postel died of complications from surgery in Los Angeles. He was recovering from a surgery to replace a heart valve. ARPANET Computer Networks, The Heralds of Resource Sharing History of the Internet Jonathan B. Postel Service Award STD8 Jon Postel at DMOZ postel. org Research center at USC/ISI created in his honor
14.
Internet Society
–
The Internet Society is an American, non-profit organization founded in 1992 to provide leadership in Internet-related standards, education, access, and policy. It states that its mission is to promote the development, evolution. The Internet Society has its headquarters in Reston, Virginia, United States and it has a membership base of more than 140 organizations and more than 80,000 individual members. Members also form chapters based on either common geographical location or special interests, there are over 110 chapters around the world. The Internet Society was formed officially in 1992 by Vint Cerf, Vint Cerf, Bob Kahn, Lyman Chapin released a document, Announcing ISOC, which explained the rationale for establishing the Internet Society. To educate the academic and scientific communities and the public concerning the technology, use, to promote scientific and educational applications of Internet technology for the benefit of educational institutions at all grade levels, industry, and the public at large. To provide a forum for exploration of new Internet applications and to collaboration among organizations in their operation. Many of the forces of the Internet, such as the Internet Engineering Task Force. There was a growing need for support and organization structure. However, the Internet Society itself grew out of the IETF, the then Internet Activities Board sought to create a non-profit institution that could provide financial support for the IETF Secretariat among other things. CNRI served as the first host for the Internet Societys operation, the Internet Society conducts a great range of activities under three main categories, namely standards, public policy, access, and education. The Internet Society also seeks to promote understanding and appreciation of the Internet model of open, transparent processes, the Internet Society has a prominent function in Internet governance discussions, including significant involvement in the World Summit on the Information Society and Internet Governance Forum. The Internet Society is the parent company for the Public Interest Registry, ISOC has joint offices in Reston, Virginia, United States and Geneva, Switzerland. It has also established Regional Bureaus for Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa, Asia, North America, the Internet Society is governed by a board of trustees. The current list of trustees and their committee memberships is found on the organizations website
15.
.aero
–
. aero is a sponsored top-level domain used in the Domain Name System of the Internet. It is the first sponsored top-level domain based on an industrial theme. The aero domain is reserved for companies, organizations, associations, government agencies and it was created in 2002 and is operated by SITA. SITA created and operates the Dot Aero Council, two-letter codes under. aero are reserved for airlines according to the IATA Airline Designators. While three-letter codes were reserved for airports, they were released for registration by the larger aviation. The aero top-level domain was approved in 2001 for a 5-year term expiring December 17,2006 as part of a proof-of-concept of new top-level domains. The agreement was extended in October 2006 for a term until June 17,2007. In 2009, SITA and ICANN completed a new 10-year sponsorship agreement for the operation of aero
16.
.coop
–
The domain coop is a sponsored top-level domain in the Domain Name System of the Internet. It is intended for the use of cooperatives, their wholly owned subsidiaries, the proposal was backed by many cooperatives and similar trade groups around the world, including the International Co-operative Alliance. The technical infrastructure for the coop TLD was developed by the worker cooperative Poptel in the United Kingdom, the domains sponsoring organization is DotCooperation LLC, which is a wholly owned subsidiary of the National Cooperative Business Association. DotCooperation is responsible for the TLD operation, including the enforcement of registration requirements, in 2005, the Midcounties Co-operative assumed operation of the domain registry through a subsidiary unit. DynDNS was contracted as the sole DNS provider for the registry in 2006, active coop domains holders are automatically included in an online co-op directory and registrants receive a periodic newsletter. Registrations are processed via accredited ICANN domain name registrars or their resellers, Domain name IANA. coop WHOIS info. coop registry List of. coop accredited registrars
17.
.museum
–
In joint action with the J. The museum domain was entered into the DNS root on 20 October 2001, the purpose of this domain is to reserve a segment of the DNS name space reserved for the use of museums, a name space whose conventions are defined by the museum community. The museum TLD grants users a quick and intuitive way to verify the authenticity of a museum site, conversely, since it is a type of formal third-party certification, museums using this name space obtain a way to assure visitors of the sites validity. In addition to the eligibility requirements specified in the museum charter, extensive support is also being introduced for internationalized domain names, as described at about. museum. Registration are processed via accredited registrars, about. museum website. museum policies Index of names in. museum MuseDoma website
18.
.asia
–
. asia is the official designated regional domain extension for Asia and the Pacific. The. Asia web address was introduced to the public through a comprehensive launch involving a multiphased Sunrise and it became available on a first-come-first-served registration basis on March 26,2008. It offered businesses and individuals an opportunity to own and build on any. Asia domain before the TLD opened its doors to mass public registration, applicants were asked to submit a brief business plan for the domain of choice and make a marketing deposit of US$10,000. The full deposit was returned to successful applicants against proof of marketing attributed to the promotion of the built out. Asia website. The Pioneer Domains Program marks the first time ever a domain registry is opening its doors for domains based on the quality of proposals received for any name of choice. Similar programs were implemented by other domain launches since. Asia founded the first Pioneer Domains Program on July 20,2007 and it offered businesses and individuals an opportunity to own and build on any. Asia domain before the TLD opened its doors to mass public registration. Applicants were asked to submit a business plan for the domain of choice. The full deposit was returned to successful applicants against proof of marketing attributed to the promotion of the built out. Asia website. The Pioneer Domains Program marks the first time ever a domain registry is opening its doors for domains based on the quality of proposals received for any name of choice. Similar programs were implemented by other domain launches since, while the. Asia TLD aims to serve Asian communities worldwide as avowed on their website. Beyond the region itself. Asia appeals to Asian communities globally, including Asian Americans, Chinatowns, Korean Towns, Little Indias, the registry has adopted the boundaries as defined by ICANN for the Asia / Australia / Pacific region as a basis for its scope of eligibility. Every. Asia domain must be associated with a Charter Eligibility Contact to be eligible, allegations of insider trading and conflict of interest have been levelled at Pool. com, exclusive auction service provider for the. Asia Sunrise and Landrush. Mr Schreier specifies that he not have any ownership interest in the corporations involved. As of 15 May 2008, it is unclear whether Mr Schreier has control over the domains in question, if there is such an affiliation, it would almost certainly be illegal under Australian competition law. com. These claims would have been validated by the. ASIA validation partner and where multiple applications were received, over 10,000 domains were applied during the Sunrise and Landrush launch. Chinese, Japanese and Korean. Asia IDN domains started selling on a basis on June 21,2012. Asia plans to launch other Asian language IDN. Asia domains at a later date. The DotAsia Organisation, registry operator of the. Asia domain, is a not-for-profit, membership-based organization with a mandate to promote Internet development and adoption in Asia. DotAsia is headquartered in Hong Kong and formed as an open consortium of national / official top-level domain authorities around the region
19.
.cat
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. cat is a sponsored top-level domain intended to be used to highlight the Catalan language and culture. Its policy has been developed by ICANN and Fundació puntCAT and it was approved in September 2005. Before. cat was available, and given the reluctance of certain Catalan institutions, companies, to solve this matter, in September 2005 the. cat TLD was approved, designed to meet the wishes and needs of the Catalan linguistic and cultural community on the Internet. This community is made up of those who use Catalan for their communications, and/or promote the different aspects of Catalan culture online. The initial registration period went from February 13,2006, to April 21,2006, the registry was open to everybody starting April 23,2006. The. cat domain is not territorial, but applies to the whole Catalan-speaking community, in order to be granted a. cat domain, one needs to belong to the Catalan linguistic and cultural community on the Internet. Develop activities to promote the Catalan culture and language, are endorsed by 3 people or 1 institution already using a. cat domain name. Despite the restrictions, the domain has been exploited for feline-related domain hacks, information and register process Peter Gerrand,2006, Cultural diversity in cyberspace, The Catalan campaign to win the new. cat top level domain The European Cultural and Linguistic Domains Network
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.mobi
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The domain name mobi is a top-level domain in the Domain Name System of the Internet. Its name is derived from the mobile, indicating it is used by mobile devices for accessing Internet resources via the Mobile Web. The domain was approved by ICANN on 11 July 2005, and is managed by the mTLD global registry, in February 2010, Afilias acquired mTLD Top-Level Domain Ltd. DotMobi domain names have been available for registration by the public since 26 September 2006, dotMobi engaged with the W3C Mobile Web Initiative to help formulate the MWI Best Practices for mobile content. The practices outlined a number of ways to achieve good user experiences on mobile Web-enabled devices, MTLD has released a free testing tool called Ready. mobi to analyze the mobile readiness of websites. It does a free page analysis and gives a. mobi Ready score from 1 to 5 and this report tests the mobile-readiness of the site using dotMobis recommended best practices. DotMobi does not itself mandate any particular technology, but does require that. mobi sites produce user experiences consistent with their guidelines, the domain has been the target of criticism due to allegedly breaking the principles of device independence. There are technical solutions that provide similar benefits as mobi, compressing/downsampling proxy servers and microbrowsers, like Opera Mobile, however, these browsers must still download an entire page which, if not optimized for mobile phones, can be time-consuming and expensive to download. To improve the issue, the two adaptation techniques can be used together. However. mobi replaces the intermediary step with the adaptation of content for viewing on a mobile phone. The W3C is also developing new authoring languages, such as DIAL, some adaptation solutions already support the use of DIAL and similar languages in creating sites that can be used with. mobi domain names. Other open source initiatives include WURFL which addresses the problem with a database of browser identification strings. All mobi sites must be optimized for viewing on a phone, providing the major advantage of the domain, from the users perspective. Although other top-level domains can technically employ the same optimizations for mobile phones, in practice, only a fraction of them do and these retrofit the content to target devices independent from the original process of creating the site. On the other hand, dotMobi promotes creating two separate device-dependent World Wide Webs, one desktop-based and the other mobile-based, and thus risks producing redundant content, from a content provider perspective, having to maintain two separate websites also represents more work. For example, I may want to look up a restaurant on my laptop, bookmark it, and then, or, my travel agent may send me a pointer to my itinerary for a business trip. I may view the itinerary from my office on a screen and want to see the map. Currently, much web development is changing to a mobile first, responsive design methodology, reducing the need for separate mobile sites and restricting the market for. mobi domain names
21.
.tel
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The domain name. tel is a top-level domain in the Domain Name System of the Internet. It was approved by ICANN as a sponsored top-level domain, and is operated by Telnic, Telnic announced in January 2011 that over 300,000 domains had been registered since the start of general availability on 24 March 2009. The domains purpose is to provide a name space for Internet communications services. Additionally, as of July 2010, every tel domain acts as an OpenID, the TLD implementation also supports the hCard micro-format. Telnic started publicly accepting applications for name registrations on 3 February 2009 after a closed Sunrise period for trademark holders. When viewed over the Web, all tel domains point directly to a Telnic proxy webpage that is populated on the fly presenting the respective domain name owners contact data stored within the DNS system. Tel domains can also be accessed without opening a browser on many devices through open source applications or through direct DNS lookups, for example, a user who registers a. tel subdomain cannot create a type A Resource Record with the IP address of their own host. This makes hosting a web site on your own web server with a. tel subdomain impossible. However, after the period of registrations restricted to trademark holders only. Furthermore, during General Availability, anyone is able to register any name without paying a premium price, the information held under the. tel domain is no more accurate or trustworthy than any other user defined data held in the DNS system. It will be down to individual. tel owners to choose what they wish to store there, as with all other gTLDs, trademark owners can utilize the Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy to claim trademarked domains back. However, tel is about publishing contact data, phone numbers, SIP addresses and so on directly in the DNS, whereas the focus of the. mobi domain is providing web sites and other content formatted specifically for the user interface available on mobile phones and other mobile devices. Pulver. com also submitted an application for the tel TLD and this proposal involved telephone number style numeric identifiers. Alternative viewpoints claimed that this either complemented or conflicted with Telephone Number Mapping, Telnic –. tel sponsoring organization IANA –. tel whois information Official TelPages Directory
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.mail
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. mail is a generic top-level domain proposed by The Spamhaus Project in 2004, but unapproved by ICANN. The sTLD would contain the actual hostnames of servers used to send mail, the structure of the. mail domain consists of existing domain names with the new TLD appended, such as example. net. mail, associated with example. net. Unlike other domains, the. example. net. mail would go to an organization which monitors spam complaints and it would provide important information to law enforcement addressing crimes such as phishing, and a host of other Internet-based crimes. It could make it easier for responsible entities to provide better email anonymity services, if approved. mail would likely experience cyber attacks from spammers. Advocates say they would use the existing high-volume expertise of Spamhaus, VeriSign, and eNom to deal with this problem
23.
Internationalized domain name
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These writing systems are encoded by computers in multi-byte Unicode. Internationalized domain names are stored in the Domain Name System as ASCII strings using Punycode transcription, internationalized domain names can only be used with applications that are specifically designed for such use, they require no changes in the infrastructure of the Internet. IDN was originally proposed in December 1996 by Martin Dürst and implemented in 1998 by Tan Juay Kwang and Leong Kok Yong under the guidance of Tan Tin Wee. After much debate and many competing proposals, a system called Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications was adopted as a standard, in IDNA, the term internationalized domain name means specifically any domain name consisting only of labels to which the IDNA ToASCII algorithm can be successfully applied. In March 2008, the IETF formed a new IDN working group to update the current IDNA protocol, in May 2010 the first IDN ccTLD were installed in the DNS root zone. Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications is a defined in 2003 for handling internationalized domain names containing non-ASCII characters. These names either are Latin letters with diacritics or are written in languages or scripts which do not use the Latin alphabet, Arabic, Hangul, Hiragana and Kanji for instance. Although the Domain Name System supports non-ASCII characters, applications such as e-mail, IDNA specifies how this conversion between names written in non-ASCII characters and their ASCII-based representation is performed. An IDNA-enabled application is able to convert between the internationalized and ASCII representations of a domain name and it uses the ASCII form for DNS lookups but can present the internationalized form to users who presumably prefer to read and write domain names in non-ASCII scripts such as Arabic or Hiragana. Applications that do not support IDNA will not be able to handle domain names with non-ASCII characters, but will still be able to access such domains if given the ASCII equivalent. ICANN issued guidelines for the use of IDNA in June 2003, several other top-level domain registries started accepting registrations in 2004 and 2005. IDN Guidelines were first created in June 2003, and have been updated to respond to phishing concerns in November 2005, mozilla 1.4, Netscape 7.1, Opera 7.11 were among the first applications to support IDNA. A browser plugin is available for Internet Explorer 6 to provide IDN support, Internet Explorer 7.0 and Windows Vistas URL APIs provide native support for IDN. The conversions between ASCII and non-ASCII forms of a name are accomplished by algorithms called ToASCII and ToUnicode. These algorithms are not applied to the name as a whole. For example, if the name is www. example. com, then the labels are www, example. ToASCII or ToUnicode are applied to each of three separately. The details of these two algorithms are complex, and are specified in RFC3490, the following gives an overview of their function
24.
Catalan language
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Catalan is a Romance language derived from Vulgar Latin and named after the medieval Principality of Catalonia, in northeastern modern Spain and adjoining parts of France. It is the national and only language of Andorra, and a co-official language of the Spanish autonomous communities of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands. It also has status in the commune of Alghero, situated on the northwestern coast of the island of Sardinia. All these territories are often called Catalan Countries. 4% with Catalan and 47. 5% only Spanish, in order to integrate newcomers, the Generalitat de Catalunya spends part of its annual budget on the promotion of the use of Catalan in Catalonia and in other territories. Catalan evolved from Vulgar Latin in the Middle Ages around the eastern Pyrenees, during the Low Middle Ages it saw a golden age as the literary and dominant language of the Crown of Aragon, and was widely used all over the Mediterranean. The union of Aragon with the territories of Spain in 1479 marked the start of the decline of the language. In 1659 Spain ceded Northern Catalonia to France, and Catalan was banned in both states in the early 18th century, 19th-century Spain saw a Catalan literary revival, which culminated in the 1913 orthographic standardization, and the official status of the language during the Second Spanish Republic. However, the Francoist dictatorship banned the use of Catalan in schools and in the public administration, there is no parallel in Europe for such a large, bilingual, non-state speech community. Catalan dialects are relatively uniform, and are mutually intelligible and they are divided into two blocks, Eastern and Western, differing mostly in pronunciation. The terms Catalan and Valencian are two varieties of the same language, there are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, the Institute of Catalan Studies in Catalonia and the Valencian Academy of the Language in the Valencian Community. Catalan shares many traits with its neighboring Romance languages, thus, the similarities are naturally most notable with eastern Occitan. Nouns have two genders, and two numbers, pronouns additionally can have a neuter gender, and some are also inflected for case and politeness, and can be combined in very complex ways. Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, mood, in terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages. The word Catalan derives from the territory of Catalonia, itself of disputed etymology, in English, the term referring to a person first appears in the mid 14th century as Catelaner, followed in the 15th century as Catellain. It is attested a language name since at least 1652, Catalan can be pronounced as /ˈkætəlæn/, /kætəˈlæn/ or /ˈkætələn/. The endonym is pronounced /kə. təˈɫa/ in the Eastern Catalan dialects, in the Valencian Community, the term valencià is frequently used instead. The names Catalan and Valencian are two names for the same language, see also status of Valencian below. By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved from Vulgar Latin on both sides of the end of the Pyrenees, as well as the territories of the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis to the south
