1.
First Person Plural: My Life As A Multiple
–
First Person Plural, My Life As A Multiple is a psychology-related autobiography written by Dr. Cameron West, who developed dissociative identity disorder as a result of childhood sexual abuse. In it, Dr. West describes his diagnosis, treatment, West recovers memories of early childhood sexual abuse and is diagnosed with DID as an adult. The book chronicles the first few years of his struggle to accept, West describes a system of 24 different personalities that emerge one by one. The presence of personalities is tied to flashbacks West experiences in which he is molested by his mother and grandmother as well as one or more unidentified male perpetrators. Alters emerge who either hold memories of Wests abuse, carry the pain of the experience, one personality, named Switch, physically injures Wests body in an effort to release pain. Unlike the classic Sybil, West experiences co-consciousness and doesnt have fugue states, throughout his long journey to acceptance, West undergoes intensive therapy, and through hospitalizations in DID-centered programs, meets many people who share his condition. His wife Rikkis constant support as well as his love for her and his son motivate West to accept his abuse, one chapter, written entirely from Rikkis point of view, depicts her attempts to understand. In the final pages, West allows himself to be videotaped as his alters emerge, after viewing this tape, West begins to fully realize and accept the exact nature of his condition and his denial begins to abate. West pursues the study of psychology and is awarded a Ph. D, West writes First Person Plural using a first-person omniscient style, in which he is typically the narrator, but the reader can still see scenes that dont involve him. West writes that he authored the book to present the public and treatment professionals with a first-hand account of DID so that others could more fully understand this often misdiagnosed condition. Furthermore, West states he wished to out to others like himself to show them that “they arent alone, that there is hope. ”A review in Time called the book awkwardly written. Sales of the book were boosted by the appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show. Screen rights for a film were purchased by Disney for $1.15 million. However the film was never completed
First Person Plural: My Life As A Multiple
–
First Person Plural: My Life as a Multiple
2.
Second Person Singular (novel)
–
Second Person Singular is a 2010 novel by the Arab Israeli writer Sayed Kashua. Kashua explores the identity of Arabs who are assimilated in Israeli culture, second Person Singular follows two Arab men, a successful criminal attorney and a social worker, whose fates meet in a curious way. The lawyer has a office in West Jerusalem where he has two fellow Arabs jurists working for him, Tariq and Samaah. Tariq also works as an attorney, Samaah works as his secretary. Although Samaah studied law, her diploma from the University of Jordan is not recognized in Israel, furthermore, the lawyer thought it would be useful to have the daughter of a high ranking Fatah member working for him. In an effort to sustain his image as a sophisticated Israeli Arab, on one evening, he buys a second-hand copy of Tolstoys The Kreutzer Sonata. His wife once asked him about this book, because it was mentioned all the time during her lectures on Freud. Inside he finds a white note in Arabic in his wife’s handwriting that looks like a love letter. In a blind rage over the betrayal the lawyer decides to hunt down the previous owner of the book. The previous owner –named Yonathan- had his name written down on the first page of the book, meanwhile a second plot-line unfolds about an Arab named Amir. Amir works as a worker in Jerusalem. One day a new intern, Laila, turns up at his office. After they go to a dance together where coincidentally all his coworkers are Amir decides to quit his job, Laila left him a note in the office explaining how she enjoyed the night and asking if he would call her back. Amir had already taken up a job, caring for a Jewish young man named Yonathan who is in a permanent vegetative state. Since he can’t afford his rent anymore with only one job, Amir moves in with Yonathan, Amir and Yonathan look similar enough for Amir to assume Yonathan’s identity. Amir uses his new Jewish identity to get into the prestigious Bezalel art school, after Yonathan dies, Yonathan is buried under Amir’s name and Amir keeps the identity of Yonathan. The lawyer’s research leads him to Amir and he confronts him about his assumed identity, Laila turns out to be the wife of the lawyer. Both she and Amir, tell the story that they never met each other after the dance
Second Person Singular (novel)
–
Cover of the English language edition.
3.
Romance languages
–
Today, around 800 million people are native speakers worldwide, mainly in Europe, Africa and the Americas, but also elsewhere. Additionally, the major Romance languages have many speakers and are in widespread use as lingua francas. This is especially the case for French, which is in use throughout Central and West Africa, Madagascar, Mauritius. The five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of speakers are Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian. Because of the difficulty of imposing boundaries on a continuum, various counts of the modern Romance languages are given, for example, Dalby lists 23 based on mutual intelligibility. Between 350 BC and 150 AD, the expansion of the Empire, together with its administrative and educational policies, Latin also exerted a strong influence in southeastern Britain, the Roman province of Africa, western Germany and the Balkans north of the Jireček Line. Despite other influences, the phonology, morphology, and lexicon of all Romance languages consist mainly of evolved forms of Vulgar Latin, however, some notable differences occur between todays Romance languages and their Roman ancestor. With only one or two exceptions, Romance languages have lost the system of Latin and, as a result, have SVO sentence structure. From this adverb the noun romance originated, which applied initially to anything written romanice, the word romance with the modern sense of romance novel or love affair has the same origin. In the medieval literature of Western Europe, serious writing was usually in Latin, while popular tales, often focusing on love, were composed in the vernacular, for example, the Portuguese word fresta is descended from Latin fenestra window, but now means skylight and slit. Cognates may exist but have become rare, such as finiestra in Spanish, the Spanish and Portuguese terms defenestrar meaning to throw through a window and fenestrado meaning replete with windows also have the same root, but are later borrowings from Latin. Galician has both fiestra and the frequently used ventá and xanela. As an alternative to lei, Italian has the pronoun ella, a cognate of the words for she. Sardinian balcone comes from Old Italian and is similar to other Romance languages such as French balcon, Portuguese balcão, Romanian balcon, Spanish balcón, Catalan balcó and Corsican balconi. Documentary evidence is limited about Vulgar Latin for the purposes of research. Many of its speakers were soldiers, slaves, displaced peoples, other scholars argue that the distinctions are more rightly viewed as indicative of sociolinguistic and register differences normally found within any language. Both were mutually intelligible as one and the language, which was true until the second half of the 7th century. Central Europe and the Balkans were occupied by the Germanic and Slavic tribes, as well as by the Huns, over the course of the fourth to eighth centuries, Vulgar Latin, by this time highly dialectalized, broke up into discrete languages that were no longer mutually intelligible
Romance languages
4.
Spanish language
–
Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
Spanish language
–
A page of
Cantar de Mio Cid, the oldest preserved Spanish
epic poem, in medieval Spanish.
Spanish language
–
Spanish is sole official language at the national level
Spanish language
–
Antonio de Nebrija, author of
Gramática de la lengua castellana, the first grammar of modern European languages.
Spanish language
–
Miguel de Cervantes author of
Don Quixote, considered the first modern European novel.
5.
Linguistics
–
Linguistics is the scientific study of language, and involves an analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context. Linguists traditionally analyse human language by observing an interplay between sound and meaning, phonetics is the study of speech and non-speech sounds, and delves into their acoustic and articulatory properties. While the study of semantics typically concerns itself with truth conditions, Grammar is a system of rules which governs the production and use of utterances in a given language. These rules apply to sound as well as meaning, and include componential sub-sets of rules, such as those pertaining to phonology, morphology, modern theories that deal with the principles of grammar are largely based within Noam Chomskys ideological school of generative grammar. In the early 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure distinguished between the notions of langue and parole in his formulation of structural linguistics. According to him, parole is the utterance of speech, whereas langue refers to an abstract phenomenon that theoretically defines the principles. This distinction resembles the one made by Noam Chomsky between competence and performance in his theory of transformative or generative grammar. According to Chomsky, competence is an innate capacity and potential for language, while performance is the specific way in which it is used by individuals, groups. The study of parole is the domain of sociolinguistics, the sub-discipline that comprises the study of a system of linguistic facets within a certain speech community. Discourse analysis further examines the structure of texts and conversations emerging out of a speech communitys usage of language, Stylistics also involves the study of written, signed, or spoken discourse through varying speech communities, genres, and editorial or narrative formats in the mass media. In the 1960s, Jacques Derrida, for instance, further distinguished between speech and writing, by proposing that language be studied as a linguistic medium of communication in itself. Palaeography is therefore the discipline that studies the evolution of scripts in language. Linguistics also deals with the social, cultural, historical and political factors that influence language, through which linguistic, research on language through the sub-branches of historical and evolutionary linguistics also focus on how languages change and grow, particularly over an extended period of time. Language documentation combines anthropological inquiry with linguistic inquiry, in order to describe languages, lexicography involves the documentation of words that form a vocabulary. Such a documentation of a vocabulary from a particular language is usually compiled in a dictionary. Computational linguistics is concerned with the statistical or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective, specific knowledge of language is applied by speakers during the act of translation and interpretation, as well as in language education – the teaching of a second or foreign language. Policy makers work with governments to implement new plans in education, related areas of study also includes the disciplines of semiotics, literary criticism, translation, and speech-language pathology. Before the 20th century, the philology, first attested in 1716, was commonly used to refer to the science of language
Linguistics
–
Ancient
Tamil inscription at
Thanjavur
Linguistics
–
Topics and terminology
6.
Deixis
–
Words are deictic if their semantic meaning is fixed but their denotational meaning varies depending on time and/or place. Words or phrases that require contextual information to convey any meaning – for example, Deixis is closely related to anaphora, as will be further explained below. Although this article deals primarily with deixis in spoken language, the concept is applied to written language, gestures. In linguistic anthropology, deixis is treated as a subclass of the more general semiotic phenomenon of indexicality. Although this article draws examples primarily from English, deixis is believed to be a feature of all natural languages, the term’s origin is Ancient Greek, δεῖξις deixis display, demonstration, or reference, the meaning point of reference in contemporary linguistics having been taken over from Chrysippus. Possibly the most common categories of contextual information referred to by deixis are those of person, place, Person deixis concerns itself with the grammatical persons involved in an utterance, those directly involved, those not directly involved, and those mentioned in the utterance. In English, the distinctions are indicated by pronouns. I am going to the movies, would you like to have dinner. They tried to hurt me, but she came to the rescue, for example, To each his own. In English, it is now common to use the third-person plural, even when the antecedent is singular. In languages that distinguish between masculine and feminine pronouns, such as French or Serbo-Croatian, the masculine is again often used as default. Ils vont à la bibliothèque, Oni idu u biblioteku may refer either to a group of nouns or a group of both masculine and feminine nouns. One idu. would be used only for a group of feminine nouns, in many such languages, the gender of a noun is only tangentially related to the gender of the thing the noun represents. Place deixis, also known as space deixis, concerns itself with the locations relevant to an utterance. Similarly to person deixis, the locations may be either those of the speaker, the most salient English examples are the adverbs “here” and “there” and the demonstratives “this” and “that” - although those are far from being the only deictic words. Some examples, I enjoy living in this city, Here is where we will place the statue. Unless otherwise specified, place deictic terms are understood to be relative to the location of the speaker. Where “across the street” is understood to mean “across the street from where I am right now, so, although Here is a good spot, it is too sunny over there
Deixis
–
person deixis, place deixis and time deixis
7.
Addressee
–
Conversation is a form of interactive, spontaneous communication between two or more people. Typically, it occurs in spoken communication, as written exchanges are not referred to as conversations. The development of skills and etiquette is an important part of socialization. The development of skills in a new language is a frequent focus of language teaching and learning. Conversation analysis is a branch of sociology which studies the structure and organization of human interaction, no generally accepted definition of conversation exists, beyond the fact that a conversation involves at least two people talking together. Consequently, the term is defined by what it is not. A ritualized exchange such as a greeting is not a conversation. An interaction with a focused topic or purpose is also generally not considered a conversation. Summarizing these properties, one authority writes that Conversation is the kind of speech that happens informally, symmetrically, Conversations follow rules of etiquette because conversations are social interactions, and therefore depend on social convention. Specific rules for conversation arise from the cooperative principle, failure to adhere to these rules causes the conversation to deteriorate or eventually to end. Contributions to a conversation are responses to what has previously been said, Conversations may be the optimal form of communication, depending on the participants intended ends. Conversations may be ideal when, for example, each party desires a relatively equal exchange of information, on the other hand, if permanency or the ability to review such information is important, written communication may be ideal. Or if time-efficient communication is most important, a speech may be preferable, Conversation involves a lot more nuanced and implied context that lies beneath just the words. Banter is short witty sentences that bounce back and forth between individuals, often banter uses clever put-downs and witty insults, misunderstandings, zippy wisecracks, zingers, flirtation, and puns. The idea is each line of banter should top the one before it, every line in a banter should be able to evoke both an emotional response and ownership without hurting ones feelings. etc. It is important to quit the bantering with the sensibility of playground rules and it is as Shakespeare said Brevity is the soul of wit. One element of conversation is discussion, sharing opinions on subjects that are thought of during the conversation, in polite society the subject changes before discussion becomes dispute or controversial. For example, if theology is being discussed, no one is insisting a particular view be accepted, many conversations can be divided into four categories according to their major subject content, Subjective ideas, which often serve to extend understanding and awareness
Addressee
–
People conversing with each other on a path
Addressee
–
Professor and student in conversation at
Shimer College.
Addressee
–
Topics and terminology
8.
Verb
–
A verb, from the Latin verbum meaning word, is a word that in syntax conveys an action, an occurrence, or a state of being. In the usual description of English, the form, with or without the particle to, is the infinitive. In many languages, verbs are inflected to encode tense, aspect, mood, a verb may also agree with the person, gender or number of some of its arguments, such as its subject, or object. Verbs have tenses, present, to indicate that an action is being carried out, past, to indicate that an action has been done, future, in languages where the verb is inflected, it often agrees with its primary argument in person, number or gender. With the exception of the verb to be, English shows distinctive agreements only in the person singular, present tense form of verbs. The rest of the persons are not distinguished in the verb, Latin and the Romance languages inflect verbs for tense–aspect–mood, and they agree in person and number with the subject. Verbs vary by type, and each type is determined by the kinds of words that accompany it, classified by the number of their valency arguments, usually three basic types are distinguished, intransitives, transitives, ditransitives and double transitive verbs. In addition, verbs can be nonfinite, namely, not inflected for tense, an intransitive verb is one that does not have a direct object. Intransitive verbs may be followed by an adverb or end a sentence, for example, The woman spoke softly. The athlete ran faster than the official, a transitive verb is followed by a noun or noun phrase. These noun phrases are not called predicate nouns, but are called direct objects because they refer to the object that is being acted upon. For example, My friend read the newspaper, the teenager earned a speeding ticket. A way to identify a verb is to invert the sentence. For example, The newspaper was read by my friend, a speeding ticket was earned by the teenager. Ditransitive verbs precede either two noun phrases or a phrase and then a prepositional phrase often led by to or for. For example, The players gave their teammates high fives, the players gave high fives to their teammates. When two noun phrases follow a transitive verb, the first is an object, that which is receiving something, and the second is a direct object. Indirect objects can be noun phrases or prepositional phrases, double transitive verbs are followed by a noun phrase that serves as a direct object and then a second noun phrase, adjective, or infinitive phrase
Verb
–
A single-word verb in
Spanish contains information about time (past, present, future), person and number. The process of grammatically modifying a verb to express this information is called
conjugation.
9.
Noun
–
A noun is a word that functions as the name of some specific thing or set of things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas. Linguistically, a noun is a member of a large, open part of whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause. Lexical categories are defined in terms of the ways in which their members combine with other kinds of expressions, the syntactic rules for nouns differ from language to language. In English, nouns are words which can occur with articles and attributive adjectives. Word classes were described by Sanskrit grammarians from at least the 5th century BC, in Yāskas Nirukta, the noun is one of the four main categories of words defined. The Ancient Greek equivalent was ónoma, referred to by Plato in the Cratylus dialog, the term used in Latin grammar was nōmen. All of these terms for noun were also words meaning name, the English word noun is derived from the Latin term, through the Anglo-Norman noun. The word classes were defined partly by the forms that they take. In Sanskrit, Greek and Latin, for example, nouns are categorized by gender and inflected for case, because adjectives share these three grammatical categories, adjectives are placed in the same class as nouns. Similarly, the Latin nōmen includes both nouns and adjectives, as originally did the English word noun, the two types being distinguished as nouns substantive and nouns adjective, many European languages use a cognate of the word substantive as the basic term for noun. Nouns in the dictionaries of languages are demarked by the abbreviation s. or sb. instead of n. which may be used for proper nouns or neuter nouns instead. In English, some authors use the word substantive to refer to a class that includes both nouns and noun phrases. It can also be used as a counterpart to attributive when distinguishing between a noun being used as the head of a phrase and a noun being used as a noun adjunct. For example, the knee can be said to be used substantively in my knee hurts. Nouns have sometimes been defined in terms of the categories to which they are subject. Such definitions tend to be language-specific, since nouns do not have the categories in all languages. Nouns are frequently defined, particularly in contexts, in terms of their semantic properties. Nouns are described as words that refer to a person, place, thing, event, substance, quality, quantity, however this type of definition has been criticized by contemporary linguists as being uninformative
Noun
–
Adjectives
10.
Caribbean English
–
Caribbean English is a broad term for the dialects of the English language spoken in the Caribbean and Liberia, most countries on the Caribbean coast of Central America, and Guyana. Caribbean English is influenced by the English-based Creole varieties spoken in the region, in the Caribbean, there is a great deal of variation in the way English is spoken. Scholars generally agree that although the dialects themselves vary significantly in each of countries, they all have roots in 17th-century English. The English in daily use in the Caribbean include a different set of pronouns, typically, me, meh, or mi, you, yuh, he, she, it, we, wi or alawe, wunna or unu, and dem or day. I, mi, my, he, she, ih, it, we, wi or alawe, allayu or unu, other features, Consonant changes like h-dropping or th-stopping are common. Standard English, Where is that boy, /hwɛər ɪz ðæt bɔɪ/ Barbados, Wherr dah boi. San Andrés and Providencia, Weh dah boi deh, jamaica, Weh dah bwoy deh deh. or Wey iz dat boi. ) Belize, Weh iz dat bwoy deh, Guyana and Tobago, Weyr iz daht boy/bai. or Wey dat boy dey. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Wey dah boy deh deh, Belize, Nicaragua, the Bay Islands, Limón, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands, Wehr iz daht booy. Dominica, Weh dat boy nuh. /Weh dat boy be nuh, the written form of the English language in the former and current British controlled Caribbean countries conforms to the spelling and grammar styles of Britain. Regional Outlook Caribbeanspeak The areas languages range from Creole to Patois, and therein lies a growing dispute involving power and equality. Eastern Caribbean English-derived language varieties, morphology and syntax, a handbook of varieties of English, a multimedia reference tool, vol.2 Editors, Edgar Werner Schneider, Bernd Kortmann,439. Linguistic map of Caribbean English dialects from Muturzikin. com Caribbean English Cross-Referencing West Indian Dictionary Bajan dialect in NYC at the Wayback Machine
Caribbean English
11.
Thou
–
The word thou is a second person singular pronoun in English. It is now archaic, having been replaced in almost all contexts by you. It is used in parts of Northern England and by Scots, Thou is the nominative form, the oblique/objective form is thee, and the possessive is thy or thine. In Middle English, thou was sometimes abbreviated by putting a small u over the letter thorn, originally, thou was simply the singular counterpart to the plural pronoun ye, derived from an ancient Indo-European root. The use of the pronoun is also present in poetry. Early English translations of the Bible used the singular form of the second person. The familiar and singular form is used when speaking to God, in French, German, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Yiddish, Turkish, Lithuanian, and Scottish Gaelic. In addition, the translators of the King James Version of the Bible attempted to maintain the distinction found in Hebrew between singular and plural second person pronouns, as such, they used thou for singular, and you for plural. In standard modern English, thou continues to be used only in religious contexts, in literature that seeks to reproduce archaic language. For this reason, many associate the pronoun with solemnity or formality, ye remains common in some parts of Ireland but these examples just given vary regionally and are usually restricted to colloquial speech. Because thou has passed out of use, its traditional forms are often confused by those imitating old speech. These forms are used for strong and weak verbs. Typical examples of the present and past tense forms follow. The e in the ending is optional, early English spelling had not yet been standardized, in verse, the choice about whether to use the e often depended upon considerations of meter. This came down unchanged from Indo-European and can be seen in quite distantly related Indo-European languages, Russian знаешь, znayesh, thou knowest, Latin amas and this is most readily observed in German, liebes du → liebstu → liebst du. The three languages belong to the West Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages, of which Frisian is the closest to English, in the subjunctive and imperative moods, the ending in -st is dropped. The subjunctive forms are used when a statement is doubtful or contrary to fact, as such, they occur after if. If thou be Johan, I tell it thee, right with a good advice, be Thou my vision, O Lord of my heart
Thou
–
Most modern English speakers encounter "thou" predominantly in the works of
Shakespeare, in the works of other renaissance, medieval and early modern writers, and in the
King James Bible.
Thou
–
þ u, abbreviation for thou, from Adam and Eve, from a ca. 1415 manuscript, England
12.
Quakers
–
Quakers are members of a historically Christian group of religious movements generally known as the Religious Society of Friends. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional Quaker understandings of Christianity, to differing extents, the different movements that make up the Religious Society of Friends/Friends Church avoid creeds and hierarchical structures. In 2007, there were about 359,000 adult Quakers, in 2012, there were 377,055 adult Quakers. Some meetings of both types have Recorded Ministers in their meetings—Friends recognised for their gift of vocal ministry, the first Quakers lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, some of these early Quaker ministers were women. They emphasized a personal and direct experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible. Quakers focused their private life on developing behaviour and speech reflecting emotional purity, in the past, Quakers were known for their use of thee as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism. & J. Clark and the big three British confectionery makers Cadbury, Rowntree and Frys, and philanthropic efforts, including abolition of slavery, prison reform, during and after the English Civil War many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man named George Fox was dissatisfied with the teachings of the Church of England and he had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered. Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands, and Barbados preaching and teaching with the aim of converting new adherents to his faith, the central theme of his Gospel message was that Christ has come to teach his people himself. His followers considered themselves to be the restoration of the true Christian church, in 1650, Fox was brought before the magistrates Gervase Bennet and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religious blasphemy. According to George Foxs autobiography, Bennet was the first that called us Quakers and it is thought that George Fox was referring to Isaiah 66,2 or Ezra 9,4. Thus, the name Quaker began as a way of ridiculing George Foxs admonition, Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, and the numbers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680. This was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689, with the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women, Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing holy conversation in her children and husband. Quaker women were responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in meetings that regulated marriage. The persecution of Quakers in North America began in 1656 when English Quaker missionaries Mary Fisher and they were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the Inner Light. They were imprisoned and banished by the Massachusetts Bay Colony and their books were burned, and most of their property was confiscated. They were imprisoned in terrible conditions, then deported, in 1660, English Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged on Boston Common for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony
Quakers
–
Heritage-listed Quaker meeting house,
Sydney,
Australia
Quakers
–
Symbol used by Friends' service organizations since the late 19th century
Quakers
–
James Nayler, a prominent Quaker leader, being pilloried and whipped
Quakers
–
William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, as a young man
13.
English-based creole languages
–
An English-based creole language is a creole language derived from the English language – i. e. for which English is the lexifier. Most English creoles were formed in British colonies, following the expansion of British naval military power. The main categories of English-based creoles are Atlantic and Pacific and it is disputed to what extent the various English-based creoles of the world share a common origin. Jamaican Patois, sometimes called Jamaican Creole, is an English-based creole language spoken in Jamaica, distinct from Jamaican Standard English and it derives from a history of contact among many different types of speakers with many ethnic, linguistic, and social backgrounds. Belizean Creole or Belize Kriol, Most speakers live in Belize City and it is the lingua franca in much of the country. Reported to be close to Mískito Coast, and Islander creoles. Historically an extension of Mískito Coast Creole, dahufra was a creole used in the 16th to 18th centuries. Jamaican Patois is different in orthography and grammar and it is used by foresters, agriculturalists, fishermen, industrial, construction, and commerce workers, as well as government officials and teachers in everyday life. Gullah, Gullah is an English-based creole spoken in the Sea Islands, Samaná English is spoken by about 8,000 people in the Samaná Peninsula, Dominican Republic, a mostly Spanish-speaking country. The speakers of Samaná English are the descendants of American former slaves who settled there in 1824 and it is reported that there was a settlement of African slaves here in the early 1500s. The language is described a creole language, a dialect of English. Samaná English is related to that of the Bahamian Creole language, southern Virgin Islands Creole, Spoken in the Virgin Islands and ex–Netherlands Antilles. Saint Martin Creole English, Spoken in Saba, Sint Eustatius, leeward Islands Creole, Spoken on the Commonwealth islands between Guadeloupe and the Virgin Islands. Anguillan Creole, Spoken in Anguilla, many similarities to British Virgin Islands, antiguan Creole, Spoken in Antigua and Barbuda Montserrat Creole, Spoken in Montserrat Saint Kitts Creole, Spoken in Saint Kitts and Nevis. Bajan, Spoken in Barbados, sometimes called Bajan dialect, is an English-based creole language spoken in Barbados, vincentian Creole Grenadian Creole Guyanese Creole, Spoken throughout Guyana. The creole varies across the regions within the country, Krio, Is the vernacular language of Sierra Leone. It is mutually intelligible and bears resemblance with Nigerian Pidgin and Cameroon pidgin too, Spoken by the Aku people in the Gambia, who are descendants of Sierra Leone Creole people. It is mutually intelligible with Jamaican Patois, Nigerian Pidgin, While rudimentally spoken all over Nigeria, English is the accepted language of transaction and communication
English-based creole languages
–
A Ndyuka letter written in the
Afaka syllabary
14.
Southern American English
–
Southern American English or Southern U. S. English is a collection of related American English dialects spoken throughout the Southern United States, though increasingly in more rural areas, commonly in the United States, the dialects are together simply referred to as Southern. Other, much more recent ethno-linguistic terms within American linguistics include Southern White Vernacular English, with this younger and more unified pronunciation system, Southern American English now comprises the largest American regional accent group by number of speakers. As of 2006, its Southern accent is strongly reported throughout the U. S. Louis in eastern Missouri, African American Vernacular English has many common points with Southern English dialects due to the strong historical ties of African Americans to the region. Southern American English dialects can also be found in southern parts of Missouri, Maryland, Delaware. Upheavals such as the Great Depression, the Dust Bowl and World War II caused mass migrations of those, the South proper as a present-day dialect region generally includes all of these pronunciation features below, which are popularly recognized in the United States as a Southern accent. However, there is still actually wide variation in Southern speech regarding potential differences based on factors like a speakers exact sub-region, age, ethnicity, Stage 1 is now complete for a majority of Southern dialects. Some traditional East Coast Southern accents do not exhibit this Stage 1 glide deletion, particularly in Charleston, SC and possibly Atlanta and Savannah, an example is that, to other English speakers, the Southern pronunciation of yap sounds something like yeah-up. At the same time, the pushing of /æ/ into the vicinity of /ɛ/, forces /ɛ/ itself into a higher and fronter position, /ɛ/ also often acquires an in-glide, thus. An example is that, to other English speakers, the Southern pronunciation of yep sounds something like yay-up, Stage 2 is most common in heavily stressed syllables. Southern accents originating from cities that formerly had the greatest influence, Stage 3, By the same pushing and pulling domino effects described above, /ɪ/ and /i/ follow suit by both possibly becoming diphthongs whose nuclei switch positions. /ɪ/ may be pushed into a diphthong with a raised beginning, an example is that, to other English speakers, the Southern pronunciation of fin sounds something like fee-in, while meal sounds something like mih-eel. Like the other stages of the Southern shift, Stage 3 is most common in stressed syllables. This short front vowel gliding phenomenon is recognized as the Southern drawl. This phenomenon is on the decline, being most typical of Southern speakers born before 1960, unstressed, word-final /ŋ/ →, The phoneme /ŋ/ in an unstressed syllable at the end of a word fronts to, so that singing /ˈsɪŋɪŋ/ is sometimes written phonetically as singin. This is common in vernacular English dialects around the world, lacking or transitioning cot–caught merger, The historical distinction between the two vowels sounds /ɔː/ and /ɒ/, in words like caught and cot or stalk and stock is mainly preserved. In much of the South during the 1900s, there was a trend to lower the vowel found in words like stalk and caught, often with an upglide, so that the most common result today is the gliding vowel. However, the merger is becoming increasingly common throughout the United States, thus affecting Southern dialects
Southern American English
–
Approximate extent of Southern American English, based upon multiple dialect studies.
Southern American English
–
On this U.S. dialect map, Southern English is designated by the dark orange area numbered "6," including its core dialect areas of "6a" (
Texan English) and "6b" (
Inland Southern English). The larger Southeastern super-region essentially incorporates all of "6" along with most of "5" (
Midland English), plus the unnumbered white areas adjoining the South, such as Florida.
Southern American English
–
Frequency of either "Y'all" or "You all" to address multiple people, according to an Internet survey of American dialect variation.
Southern American English
–
Frequency of just "Y'all" to address multiple people, according to an Internet survey of American dialect variation.
15.
Yinz
–
Yinz is a second-person plural pronoun used mainly in Western Pennsylvania including Pittsburgh, but it is also found throughout the Appalachians. Yinz is the most recent derivation from the original Scots-Irish form you ones or yous ones, when standard-English speakers talk in the first person or third person, they use different pronouns to distinguish between singular and plural. In the first person, for example, speakers use the singular I, but when speaking in the second person, you performs double duty as both the singular form and the plural form. The following therefore is the most likely path from you ones to yinz, in other parts of the U. S. Irish or Scots-Irish speakers encountered the same gap in the second-person plural, a similar form with similar Irish/Scots roots is found further north in the Atlantic Provinces of Canada. Rarely written, it is spelled yous, and is pronounced as or something between and. It is sometimes combined with all for emphasis, as in Are yous all coming to the party, yinzs place as one of Pittsburghs most famous regionalisms makes it both a badge of pride and a way to show self-deprecation. For example, a group of Pittsburgh area radical cheerleaders call themselves Yinz Cheer, and a literary magazine is The New Yinzer. A DJ crew of Philadelphia-based Pittsburgh ex-pats bills itself as Philadelphyinz and those perceived to be stereotypical blue collar Pittsburghers are often referred to as Yinzers. Yinztagram is a program with a Pittsburgh theme. YinzCam is a Pittsburgh-based software development company, yinzFans. com is a Fan site for Pittsburgh sports fans located outside of the Pittsburgh area. At the end of episode of VH-1s Top 20 Countdown host Jim Shearer always says Im Jim Shearer. Ye Yall You, Informal plural forms Crozier, A, the Scotch-Irish influence on American English. Professor of Smoot History and Cultural Impact, Johnstone, B. and Danielson, A. Pittsburghese in the Daily Papers, 1910-1998, Historical Sources of Ideology about Variation, New Ways of Analyzing Variation Conference, October 2001. Bhasin, N. and Wittkowski, D. Dahntahn Pittsburgh, Monophthongal /aw/, johnston, Barbara, Speaking Pittsburghese, The Story of a Dialect. Pittsburgh Speech and Society A site for non-linguists, created by Carnegie Mellon University linguist Barbara Johnstone, Pittsburghese. com What Do You Call a Steeler Fan. PBS Series, Do You Speak American, Pittsburgh City Paper, Philadelphyinz Reps The Burgh with Brotherly Love
Yinz
–
"Yinz Are Welcome" sign at
Occupy Pittsburgh in 2011.
Yinz
–
Tunnels
16.
Scots language
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Scots is the Germanic language variety spoken in Lowland Scotland and parts of Ulster. It is sometimes called Lowland Scots to distinguish it from Scottish Gaelic, the Celtic language which was restricted to most of the Highlands. The language developed during the Middle English period as a distinct entity, although a number of paradigms for distinguishing between languages and dialects do exist, these often render contradictory results. Broad Scots is at one end of a linguistic continuum. Scots is often regarded as one of the ancient varieties of English, alternatively, Scots is sometimes treated as a distinct Germanic language, in the way Norwegian is closely linked to, yet distinct from, Danish. In the 2011 Scottish census, a question on Scots language ability was featured, native speakers sometimes refer to their vernacular as braid Scots or use a dialect name such as the Doric, or the Buchan Claik. The old-fashioned Scotch, an English loan, occurs occasionally, especially in Northern Ireland, the term Lallans, a variant of the Modern Scots word lawlands, is also used, though this is more often taken to mean the Lallans literary form. Scots in Ireland is known in circles as Ulster-Scots or Ullans. Scots is a contraction of Scottis, the Older Scots and northern version of late Old English Scottisc, before the end of the 15th century, English speech in Scotland was known as English, whereas Scottish referred to Gaelic. From 1495 the term Scottis was increasingly used to refer to the Lowland vernacular and Erse, meaning Irish, the Gaelic of Scotland is now usually called Scottish Gaelic. Northumbrian Old English had been established in what is now southeastern Scotland as far as the River Forth by the seventh century and it remained largely confined to this area until the thirteenth century, continuing in common use while Gaelic was the language of the Scottish court. Scots also includes loan words resulting from contact with Gaelic, Early medieval legal documents include a body of Gaelic legal and administrative loans. Contemporary Gaelic loans are mainly for geographical and cultural features, such as ceilidh, loch, from the thirteenth century Early Scots spread further into Scotland via the burghs, proto-urban institutions which were first established by King David I. The growth in prestige of Early Scots in the century. By the sixteenth century Middle Scots had established orthographic and literary norms largely independent of those developing in England, from 1610 to the 1690s during the Plantation of Ulster large numbers of Scots-speaking Lowlanders, some 200,000, settled there. In the core areas of Scots settlement, Scots outnumbered English settlers by five or six to one, Modern Scots is used to describe the language after 1700 when southern Modern English was generally adopted as the literary language though Scots remained the vernacular. In Scotland, Scots is spoken in the Scottish Lowlands, the Northern Isles, Caithness, Arran, in Ulster it is spoken in the Counties of Down, Antrim, Londonderry and Donegal. Dialects include Insular Scots, Northern Scots, Central Scots, Southern Scots, many speakers are either diglossic and/or able to code-switch along the continuum depending on the situation in which they find themselves
Scots language
–
Lufe God abufe al and yi nychtbour as yi self ("Love God above all and thy neighbour as thyself"), an example of
Early Scots on
John Knox House,
Edinburgh
Scots language
–
Areas where the Scots language was spoken in the 20th century
Scots language
–
Statue of
Robert Burns in
Canberra, Australia
Scots language
–
William Wye Smith-The
New Testament in Braid Scots.
17.
Scottish English
–
Scottish English refers to the varieties of English spoken in Scotland. The main, formal variety is called Scottish Standard English or Standard Scottish English, Scottish Standard English may be defined as the characteristic speech of the professional class and the accepted norm in schools. IETF language tag for Scottish Standard English is en-Scotland, Scottish Standard English is at one end of a bipolar linguistic continuum, with focused broad Scots at the other. Scottish English may be influenced to varying degrees by Scots, many Scots speakers separate Scots and Scottish English as different registers depending on social circumstances. Some speakers code switch clearly from one to the other while others style shift in a less predictable, generally there is a shift to Scottish English in formal situations or with individuals of a higher social status. Scottish English results from contact between Scots and the Standard English of England after the 17th century. Furthermore, the process was influenced by interdialectal forms, hypercorrections. Convention traces the influence of the English of England upon Scots to the 16th-century Reformation, printing arrived in London in 1476, but the first printing press was not introduced to Scotland for another 30 years. Texts such as the Geneva Bible, printed in English, were distributed in Scotland in order to spread Protestant doctrine. King James VI of Scotland became King James I of England in 1603, since England was the larger and richer of the two Kingdoms, James moved his court to London in England. The poets of the court therefore moved south and began adapting the language, to this event McClure attributes he sudden and total eclipse of Scots as a literary language. The continuing absence of a Scots translation of the Bible meant that the translation of King James into English was used in worship in both countries, the Acts of Union 1707 amalgamated the Scottish and English Parliaments. However the church, educational and legal structures remained separate and this leads to important professional distinctions in the definitions of some words and terms. There are therefore words with precise definitions in Scottish English which have no place in English English or have a different definition. The speech of the classes in Scotland tends to conform to the grammatical norms of the written standard. Highland English is slightly different from the variety spoken in the Lowlands in that it is more phonologically, grammatically, similarly, the English spoken in the North-East of Scotland tends to follow the phonology and grammar of Doric. Although other dialects have merged non-intervocalic /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /ʌ/ before /r/, many varieties contrast /o/ and /ɔ/ before /r/ so that hoarse and horse are pronounced differently. /or/ and /ur/ are contrasted so that shore and sure are pronounced differently, as are pour, an epenthetic vowel may occur between /r/ and /l/ so that girl and world are two-syllable words for some speakers
Scottish English
–
A Book of Psalms printed in the reign of James VI and I
Scottish English
–
An example of "outwith" on a sign in Scotland
18.
Pittsburgh English
–
Speakers with the strongest accent of this dialect, associated with the white working class of Pittsburgh, have been historically called Yinzers. Scots-Irish, Pennsylvania German, and Slavic-speaking immigrants to the area all provided certain loanwords to the dialect, since the time of Kuraths study, one of western Pennsylvanias defining features, the cot–caught merger, has expanded into central Pennsylvania, moving eastward until being blocked at Harrisburg. Speakers of Pittsburgh English are sometimes called Yinzers, in reference to their use of the 2nd-person plural pronoun yinz, the word yinzer is sometimes heard as pejorative, indicating a lack of sophistication, although the term is now used in a variety of ways. Older men are likely to use the accent than women. possibly because of a stronger interest in displaying local identity. A defining feature of Western Pennsylvania English is the cot–caught merger, therefore, cot and caught are both pronounced, Don and dawn are both. The /oʊ/ sound as in oh begins more fronted in the mouth, similarly, /uː/ as in food and rude is fronted, and often diphthongized, as in much of the American South, Midland, and West. The diphthong /aʊ/, as in ow, is monophthongized to in environments, including before nasal consonants. This monophthongization does not occur, however, in word-final positions and this sound may be the result of contact from Slavic languages during the early twentieth century. Monopthongization also occurs for the sound /aɪ/, as in eye, before consonants, so that tile is pronounced, pile is pronounced. Due to this phenomenon, tire may merge with the sound of tar, an epenthetic /r/ sound may occur after vowels in a small number of words, such as in water pronounced like warter, and wash like warsh. A number of vowel mergers occur uniquely in Western Pennsylvania English before the consonant /l/, the pair of vowels /iː/ and /ɪ/ may each merge before the /l/ consonant, cause both steel and still to be pronounced as something like. Similarly, /u/, /oʊ/, and /ʊ/ may merge before /l/, so that pool, pull, the /iː/~/ɪ/ merger is found in western Pennsylvania, as well as parts of the southern United States, including Alabama, Texas and the west. On the other hand, the merger is consistently found only in western Pennsylvania. The /iː/~/ɪ/ merger towards may also appear before /ɡ/, the vowel /ʌ/ before /l/, may lower into the vowel of the cot–caught merger mentioned above, so that mull can sound identical to mall/maul. L-vocalization is also common in the Western Pennsylvania dialect, in which an /l/ sounds like a /w/, an example is that well is pronounced as, milk as or, role as, and cold as. This phenomenon is common in African American Vernacular English. All adj. all gone Further explanation, When referring to consumable products, for example, the phrase the butters all would be understood as the butter is all gone. Babushka n. headscarf Further explanation, In Russian, Slovak, and many other Slavic languages, in Pittsburgh English, the word also denotes a type of headscarf that might be worn by an old woman
Pittsburgh English
–
A sign using "Dahntahn" to mean "Downtown"
Pittsburgh English
–
Tunnels
19.
Canadian English
–
Canadian English is the set of varieties of the English language native to Canada. A larger number,28 million people, reported using English as their dominant language, 82% of Canadians outside the province of Quebec reported speaking English natively, but within Quebec the figure was just 7. 7% as most of its residents are native speakers of Quebec French. Canadian English contains elements of British English and American English, as well as many Canadianisms, the construction of identities and English-language varieties across political borders is a complex social phenomenon. The term Canadian English is first attested in a speech by the Reverend A. Constable Geikie in an address to the Canadian Institute in 1857, Canadian English is the product of five waves of immigration and settlement over a period of more than two centuries. Studies on earlier forms of English in Canada are rare, yet connections with other work to historical linguistics can be forged, an overview of diachronic work on Canadian English, or diachronically-relevant work, is Dollinger. Until the 2000s, basically all commentators on the history of CanE have argued from the language-external history, an exception has been in the area of lexis, where Avis et als Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, offered real-time historical data though its quotations. Recently, historical linguists have started to study earlier Canadian English on historical linguistic data, dCHP-1 is now available in open access. )Most notably, Dollinger pioneered the historical corpus linguistic approach for English in Canada with CONTE and offers a developmental scenario for 18th and 19th century Ontario. Recently, Reuter, with a 19th-century newspaper corpus from Ontario, has confirmed the scenario laid out in Dollinger, Canadian spelling of the English language combines British and American conventions. Words such as realize and paralyze are usually spelled with -ize or -yze rather than -ise or -yse, french-derived words that in American English end with -or and -er, such as color or center, often retain British spellings. While the United States uses the Anglo-French spelling defense and offense, some nouns, as in British English, take -ice while matching verbs take -ise – for example, practice and licence are nouns while practise and license are the respective corresponding verbs. Canadian spelling sometimes retains the British practice of doubling consonants when adding suffixes to words even when the syllable is not stressed. Compare Canadian travelled, counselling, and marvellous to American traveled, counseling, in American English, such consonants are only doubled when stressed, thus, for instance, controllable and enthralling are universal. In other cases, Canadians and Americans differ from British spelling, such as in the case of nouns like curb and tire, Canadian spelling conventions can be partly explained by Canadas trade history. For instance, the British spelling of the word cheque probably relates to Canadas once-important ties to British financial institutions, Canadas political history has also had an influence on Canadian spelling. Canadas first prime minister, John A. Macdonald, once directed the Governor General of Canada to issue an order-in-council directing that government papers be written in the British style, a contemporary reference for formal Canadian spelling is the spelling used for Hansard transcripts of the Parliament of Canada. Many Canadian editors, though, use the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, often along with the chapter on spelling in Editing Canadian English, and, throughout part of the 20th century, some Canadian newspapers adopted American spellings, for example, color as opposed to the British-based colour. Some of the most substantial historical spelling data can be found in Dollinger, the use of such spellings was the long-standing practice of the Canadian Press perhaps since that news agencys inception, but visibly the norm prior to World War II. The practice of dropping the letter u in such words was also considered a labour-saving technique during the days of printing in which movable type was set manually
Canadian English
–
A Canadian-built Curtiss JN-4C "Canuck" training biplane of 1918, with a differing vertical tail to the original U.S. version
Canadian English
–
Based on Labov et al.; averaged F1/F2 means for speakers from Western and Central Canada. Note that /ɒ/ and /ɔ/ are indistinguishable; /æ/ and /ɛ/ are very open.
20.
Australian English
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Australian English is a major variety of the English language, used throughout Australia. Although English has no status in the Constitution, Australian English is the countrys de facto official language and is the first language of the majority of the population. Australian English began to diverge from British English after the founding of the Colony of New South Wales in 1788 and was recognised as being different from British English by 1820. It arose from the intermingling of early settlers from a variety of mutually intelligible dialectal regions of the British Isles. Australian English differs from other varieties of English in vocabulary, accent, pronunciation, register, grammar, the earliest form of Australian English was first spoken by the children of the colonists born into the colony of New South Wales. This first generation of children created a new dialect that was to become the language of the nation, the Australian-born children in the new colony were exposed to a wide range of dialects from all over the British Isles, in particular from Ireland and South East England. The native-born children of the created the new dialect from the speech they heard around them. Even when new settlers arrived, this new dialect was strong enough to blunt other patterns of speech, a quarter of the convicts were Irish. Many had been arrested in Ireland, and some in Great Britain, many, if not most, of the Irish spoke Irish and either no English at all, or spoke it poorly and rarely. There were other significant populations of convicts from non-English speaking part of Britain, such as the Scottish Highlands, anthony Burgess writes that Australian English may be thought of as a kind of fossilised Cockney of the Dickensian era. According to linguist Bruce Moore, the input of the various sounds that went into constructing the Australian accent was from south-east England. Some elements of Aboriginal languages have adopted by Australian English—mainly as names for places, flora and fauna. Many such are localised, and do not form part of general Australian use, while others, such as kangaroo, boomerang, budgerigar, wallaby, other examples are cooee and hard yakka. The former is used as a call, for attracting attention. Cooee is also a distance, if hes within cooee. Hard yakka means hard work and is derived from yakka, from the Jagera/Yagara language once spoken in the Brisbane region, also of Aboriginal origin is the word bung, from the Sydney pidgin English, meaning dead, with some extension to broken or useless. Many towns or suburbs of Australia have also influenced or named after Aboriginal words. The best-known example is the capital, Canberra, named after a local word meaning meeting place
Australian English
–
English is the primary language spoken throughout Australia.
Australian English
–
The
Australian gold rushes saw many external influences on the language.
Australian English
–
Bush poets such as
Banjo Paterson captured the Australian vocabulary of the 19th century in their
bush ballads.
21.
New York City English
–
New York City English, or Metropolitan New York English, is a regional dialect of American English spoken by many people in New York City and much of its surrounding metropolitan area. The origins of New York City English are diverse, and the sources of many features are not recoverable. New York City English, largely with the major pronunciation system popularly recognized today, was first reproduced in literature. It was then, and still mostly is, associated with ethnically diverse European-American native-English speakers and this non-rhotic aristocratic pronunciation can be heard, for instance, in recordings of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Today, most New York City English is variably rhotic, a remnant of the older non-rhotic pronunciation, grammatical structures, such as the lack of inversion in indirect questions, have the flavor of contact with an immigrant language. As stated above, many words common in the city are of immigrant roots, the Philadelphia dialect is now retreating away from many of the traditional features it once shared in common with New York City. Due to an influx of immigrants from New York City and neighboring New Jersey to Florida, unsurprisingly, some New York City dialect features also appear in New York Latino English. Documented loss of New York City accent features includes the loss of, the merger, non-rhoticity. The pronunciation system of New York City English, popularly known as a New York accent, is heard in New York City, western Long Island, see the article International Phonetic Alphabet for explanations of the phonetic symbols used, as indicated between square brackets. These sounds are kept distinct from the /ɑː/ in words like father, palm, wash. Labov concludes that speakers tend to display more accent features in a relaxed conversation. Father–bother variability, Conservative speakers retain three separate low back vowels, lot, palm, and thought, thus with no father-bother merger, in addition, the palm class contains a number of words that are lot in most US varieties. These include descendants of Middle English short O with final voiced consonants, /dʒ/, or /m/, however, Labov et al do report that which words fall into the lot class and which words fall into the palm class may vary from speaker to speaker. In the former set of words, historical /æ/ is raised and tensed to a gliding vowel of the type or even. The latter set of words, meanwhile, retains a lax, low-front, a strongly related split has occurred in the Philadelphia and Baltimore dialects. Although the lax and the reflexes of /æ/ are separate phonemes in these dialects. Click show below for details of this short-a system. Conservative /oʊ/ and /u/, /oʊ/ as in goat does not undergo fronting, instead, it remains and this groups New York with the North class of dialects rather than the Midland, in which /oʊ/ is fronted
New York City English
–
Timeline
22.
Inland Northern American English
–
Great Lakes region, to eastern Iowa. The most advanced Inland Northern accents are spoken in the cities of Chicago, Illinois, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Detroit, Michigan, Cleveland, Ohio, and Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse, New York. This is the dialect spoken in part of Americas chief industrial region, erie, Pennsylvania, though in the geographic area of the Inland North, never underwent the Northern Cities Shift and now shares more features with Western Pennsylvania English. Several more vowels proceeded in rapid succession, each filling in the left by the last. Residents across the region are continuing to more and more features of the dialect. Paul Ryan, the 54th Speaker of the U. S. House of Representatives is an example of a prominent Republican politician demonstrating features of the dialect. A Midwestern accent, Chicago accent, or Great Lakes accent are all names in the United States for the sound quality produced by speakers of this dialect. Many of the characteristics listed here are not necessarily unique to the region and are found elsewhere in the Midwest. Rhoticity, As in General American, Inland North speech is rhotic, and this merger is widespread throughout the Midwest, West, and Canada. Northern Cities Vowel Shift, This chain shift is primarily in the Inland North—in fact, it is the feature that largely defines the Inland North. The second stage is the fronting of /ɒ/, which in most American accents is, towards —in words like not, wasp, blah, and coupon —which occupies a place close to the former /æ/. However, there is a scattering of Inland North speakers who are in a state of transition towards a cot–caught merger. The fourth stage is the backing and lowering of /ɛ/, almost towards, during the fifth stage, /ʌ/ is backed in the mouth. In the sixth stage, /ɪ/ is lowered and backed, although it is distinct from /ɛ/ in all phonetic environments. However, unlike General American, the raising occurs even before certain voiced consonants, including in the fire, tiger, iron. The nucleus of /aʊ/ may be more backed than in other common North American accents, the nucleus of /oʊ/, like /aʊ/, remains a back vowel, not undergoing the fronting that is common in other regions and General American. Similarly, the high back vowel /uː/ tends to be conservative and less fronted in the North than in other regions. /ɑːr/ is centralized or fronted for many speakers in this region and this was parodied in the comedy sketch Bill Swerskis Superfans, in which characters hailing from Chicago pronounce The Bears as Da Bears
Inland Northern American English
–
This map shows the approximate extent of the Inland North dialect, as defined by Labov et al. (2006).
Inland Northern American English
–
This map shows the approximate extent of the Northern Cities Vowel Shift, and thus the approximate area where the Inland North dialect predominates. Note that the region surrounding
Erie, Pennsylvania, is excluded; the dialect spoken there more closely resembles that of
Pittsburgh.
23.
Central Lowlands
–
The Central Lowlands or Midland Valley is a geologically defined area of relatively low-lying land in southern Scotland. It consists of a valley between the Highland Boundary Fault to the north and the Southern Uplands Fault to the south. The Central Lowlands is largely underlain by Paleozoic formations, many of these sedimentary rocks have economic significance for it is here that the coal and iron bearing rocks that fueled Scotlands industrial revolution are to be found. This area has also experienced intense volcanism, Arthurs Seat in Edinburgh being the remnant of a much larger volcano active in the Carboniferous period some 300 million years ago. This area is relatively low-lying, although even here hills such as the Ochils, in common with the rest of Scotland the whole region was affected by Pleistocene glaciations. The fault was active during the Caledonian orogeny, a tectonic collision which took place from Mid Ordovician to Mid Devonian periods. The fault allowed the Midland Valley to descend as a rift by as much as 4000 metres. This earlier vertical movement was replaced by a horizontal shear. The Southern Uplands Fault runs from the Rhins of Galloway in the west towards Dunbar on the east coast 30 miles from Edinburgh. The major cities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Stirling and Dundee all lie in the Central Lowlands, Central Scotland Geology of Scotland Scottish Lowlands Gillen, Con Geology and landscapes of Scotland. Keay, J. & Keay, J. Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland, mcKirdy, Alan Gordon, John & Crofts, Roger Land of Mountain and Flood, The Geology and Landforms of Scotland
Central Lowlands
–
Arthur's Seat in Edinburgh
24.
Scouse
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Scouse is an accent and dialect of English found primarily in the Metropolitan county of Merseyside, and closely associated with the city of Liverpool. The accent extends as far as Flintshire in Wales, Runcorn in Cheshire, the Scouse accent is highly distinctive, and has little in common with those used in the neighbouring regions of Cheshire and Lancashire. The accent itself is not specific to all of Merseyside, with the accents of residents of St Helens and Southport, for example, inhabitants of Liverpool are called Liverpudlians or Liverpolitans but are more often described by the colloquialism Scousers. The word scouse is a form of lobscouse, derived from the Norwegian lapskaus, Swedish lapskojs and Danish labskovs. In the 19th century, poorer people in Liverpool, Birkenhead, Bootle, outsiders tended to call these people scousers. Originally a small fishing village, Liverpool developed as a port, trading particularly with Ireland, the Scandinavians introduced the dish Scouse. Until the mid-19th century, the dominant local accent was similar to that of neighbouring areas of Lancashire, the influence of Irish and Welsh incomers, combined with European accents, contributed to a distinctive local Liverpool accent. The first reference to a distinctive Liverpool accent was in 1890, Scouse is notable in some circumstances for a fast, highly accented manner of speech, with a range of rising and falling tones not typical of most of northern England. Words such as book and cook can be pronounced with the same vowel as in GOOSE. This is true to other towns from the midlands, northern England, the use of a long /uː/ in such words was once used across the whole of Britain, but is now confined to the more traditional accents of Northern England and Scotland. Oddly enough words such as took and look, unlike some other accents in northern towns, not all Liverpudlians are brought up to speak with this variation but this does not make it any less Scouse. The Scouse accent of the early 21st century is different in certain respects from that of earlier decades, The Liverpool accent of the 1950s. But since then, as with most accents and dialects, Scouse has been subject to phonemic evolution, changes have taken place in Scouse vowels, which show length and exaggeration at times in words like read, conversely shorter than standard in a word like sleep. A final er is a sound that, although pronounced as a schwa in surrounding Lancashire and Cheshire, is emphasised as strongly as the e in pet /pɛt/, in a strong Scouse accent, the phoneme /k/ can be realised at the ends of some words as or sometimes. The last condition may not apply if the word begins with a vowel and is pronounced without a pause, so the sentence the floor is dirty is often pronounced. The use of the stop as an allophone of /t/ can occur in various positions. This is called T-glottalisation and is common amongst the younger speakers of the Scouse accent. The letter /t/ may also be flapped intervocalically, /t/ and /d/ are often pronounced similarly to the fricatives /s/, the loss of dental fricatives, /ð/ and /θ/, is commonly attributed to Irish English influence
Scouse
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Location of Merseyside within England
25.
Cumbrian
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As in any county, there is a gradual drift in accent towards its neighbours. Barrow-in-Furness has an accent to much of Lancashire whilst the northern parts of Cumbria have a more North-East English sound to them. Whilst clearly being an English accent approximately between Lancashire and the North-East, it shares much vocabulary with Scots, there is, however, a more contemporary and lighthearted Cumbrian Dictionary and Phrase Book available based on the long running online GonMad Cumbrian Dictionary. Despite the modern county being created only in 1974 from the counties of Cumberland, Westmorland and north Lancashire and parts of Yorkshire, before the arrival of the Romans the area was the home of the Carvetii tribe, which was later assimilated to the larger Brigantes tribe. Remnants of Brythonic and Cumbric are most often seen in names, in elements such as caer fort as in Carlisle, pen hill as in Penrith and craig crag. The most well known Celtic element in Cumbrian dialect is the sheep counting numerals which are used in various forms by shepherds throughout the area. The word Yan, for example, is prevalent throughout Cumbria and is often used, especially by non-speakers of received pronunciation and children. That yan owr there, or Can I have yan of those, the Northern subject rule may be attributable to Celtic Influence. A far stronger influence on the dialect was Old Norse, spoken by Norwegian settlers who probably arrived in Cumbria in the 10th century via Ireland. The majority of Cumbrian place names are of Norse origin, including Ulverston from Ulfrs tun, Kendal from Kent dalr, many of the traditional dialect words are also remnants of Norse settlement, including beck, laik, lowp and glisky. Old Norse seems to have survived in Cumbria until fairly late, once Cumbrians had assimilated to speaking English, there were few further influences on the dialect. In the Middle Ages, much of Cumbria frequently swapped hands between England and Scotland but this had little effect on the language used. One of the lasting characteristics still found in the dialect of Cumbria today is an inclination to drop vowels. Unlike the Lancashire dialect, where the is abbreviated to th, or simply a t and in sentences sounds as if it is attached to the previous word, for example int instead of in the ont instead of on the. Cumbria is an area with several relatively isolated districts, so there is quite a large variation in accent. There are some features that should be taken into account when pronouncing dialect words. It is generally common in the north of England than in the south. The words cure, pure, sure may be pronounced with a triphthong, most consonants are pronounced as they are in other parts of the English speaking world
Cumbrian
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Location of Cumbria within England.
