1.
Natural disaster
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An adverse event will not rise to the level of a disaster if it occurs in an area without vulnerable population. In a vulnerable area, however, such as Nepal during the 2015 earthquake, a landslide is described as an outward and downward slope movement of an abundance of slope-forming materials including rock, soil, artificial, or even a combination of these things. During World War I, an estimated 40,000 to 80,000 soldiers died as a result of avalanches during the campaign in the Alps at the Austrian-Italian front. Many of the avalanches were caused by artillery fire, an earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earths crust that creates seismic waves. At the Earths surface earthquakes manifest themselves by vibration, shaking, earthquakes are caused by slippage within geological faults. The underground point of origin of the earthquake is called the seismic focus, the point directly above the focus on the surface is called the epicenter. Earthquakes by themselves rarely kill people or wildlife and it is usually the secondary events that they trigger such as building collapse, fires, tsunamis and volcanoes. Many of these could possibly be avoided by better construction, safety systems, when natural erosion or human mining makes the ground too weak to support the structures built on it, the ground can collapse and produce a sinkhole. Volcanoes can cause destruction and consequent disaster in several ways. The effects include the eruption itself that may cause harm following the explosion of the volcano or falling rocks. Second, lava may be produced during the eruption of a volcano, third, volcanic ash generally meaning the cooled ash – may form a cloud, and settle thickly in nearby locations. When mixed with water forms a concrete-like material. In sufficient quantity ash may cause roofs to collapse under its weight, since the ash has the consistency of ground glass it causes abrasion damage to moving parts such as engines. It is believed that Pompeii was destroyed by a pyroclastic flow, a lahar is a volcanic mudflow or landslide. The 1953 Tangiwai disaster was caused by a lahar, as was the 1985 Armero tragedy in which the town of Armero was buried, a specific type of volcano is the supervolcano. It also killed three-quarters of all plant life in the northern hemisphere, the main danger from a supervolcano is the immense cloud of ash, which has a disastrous global effect on climate and temperature for many years. It is a violent, sudden and destructive change either in quality of water or in distribution or movement of water on land below the surface or in atmosphere. A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land, the EU Floods Directive defines a flood as a temporary covering by water of land which is usually not covered by water
2.
Small business
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Small businesses are privately owned corporations, partnerships, or sole proprietorships that have fewer employees and/or less annual revenue than a regular-sized business or corporation. Businesses are defined as small in terms of being able to apply for government support, some professionals operate as small businesses, such as lawyers, accountants, dentists and medical doctors. Small businesses vary a great deal in terms of size, revenues and regulatory authorization, some small businesses, such as a home accounting business, may only require a business license. However, owner-managers often do not delineate their behavior to accord with the separation between their personal and business interests. Lenders also often contract around organizational boundaries by seeking personal guarantees or accepting privately held assets as collateral, because of this behavior, researchers and analysts may wish to be cautious in the way they assess the organizational types and implied boundaries in contexts relating to owner-managed firms. These include analyses that use traditional accounting disclosures, and studies that view the firm as defined by some formal organizational structure, the term entrepreneur is often conflated with the term small business or used interchangeably with this term. While most entrepreneurial ventures start out as a business, not all small businesses are entrepreneurial in the strict sense of the term. Successful entrepreneurs have the ability to lead a business in a direction by proper planning, to adapt to changing environments and understand their own strengths. The legal definition of small business varies by country and by industry.5 million in receipts for most non manufacturing businesses. The European Union generally defines a business as one that has fewer than fifty employees. However, in Australia, a business is defined by the Fair Work Act 2009 as one with fewer than fifteen employees. By comparison, a business or mid-sized business has fewer than five hundred employees in the US. In addition to number of employees, other methods used to small companies include annual sales, value of assets and net profit. These criteria are followed by the European Union, for instance, Small businesses are usually not dominant in their field of operation. The table below serves as a guide to business size nomenclature. 9.9 million of these businesses in the United States were owned or led by a woman, African Americans have a long tradition of business ownership in the United States. Franchising is a way for business owners to benefit from the economies of scale of the big corporation. McDonalds and Subway are examples of a franchise, the small business owner can leverage a strong brand name and purchasing power of the larger company while keeping their own investment affordable
3.
Education
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Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
4.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
5.
National Institutes of Health
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The National Institutes of Health is a biomedical research facility primarily located in Bethesda, Maryland. An agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, it is the agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical. The NIH comprises 27 separate institutes and centers that conduct research in different disciplines of biomedical science, NIHs roots extend back to a Marine Hospital Service in the late 1790s that provided medical relief to sick and disabled men in the U. S. Navy. By 1870, a network of hospitals had developed and was placed under the charge of a medical officer within the Bureau of the Treasury Department. In 1887 a laboratory for the study of bacteria, the Hygienic Laboratory, was established at the Marine Hospital in New York, in the early 1900s, Congress began appropriating funds for the Marine Hospital Service. By 1922, this changed its name to Public Health Services. This marked the beginning of a partnership with universities, in 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was re-designated as the National Institute of Health by the Ransdell Act and was given $750,000 to construct two NIH buildings. Over the next few decades, Congress would increase its funding tremendously to the NIH, in 1944, the Public Health Service Act was approved, and National Cancer Institute became a division of NIH. In 1948, the changed from National Institute of Health to National Institutes of Health. In the 1960s prominent virologist and cancer researcher Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into patients at the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital, when three doctors resigned after refusing to inject patients without their consent, this experiment gained considerable media attention. The NIH was a source of funding for Southam’s research and had required all research involving human subjects to obtain their consent prior to any experimentation. }Upon investigating all of their grantee institutions. From then on, the NIH has required all grantee institutions to approve any research involving human experimentation with review boards. In 1967 the Division of Regional Medical Programs was created to administer grants for research for heart disease, cancer, and strokes. That same year, the NIH director lobbied the White House for increased funding in order to increase research. An advisory committee was formed to further development of the NIH. The funding of NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress and this contention was seen most dramatically during the 1980s, when President Reagan repeatedly tried to cut funding for research, only to see Congress partly restore funding. But it was not until July 1987, as NIH celebrated its 100th anniversary, by the 1990s, the focus of the NIH committee had shifted to DNA research, and the Human Genome Project was launched. In 2009, President Obama reinstated federally funded research, revoking the ban imposed by President Bush in 2001
6.
European Commission
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Commissioners swear an oath at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, pledging to respect the treaties and to be completely independent in carrying out their duties during their mandate. The Commission operates as a government, with 28 members of the Commission. There is one member per state, but members are bound by their oath of office to represent the general interest of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. One of the 28 is the Commission President proposed by the European Council, the current Commission is the Juncker Commission, which took office in late 2014. The procedural languages of the Commission are English, French and German, the Members of the Commission and their cabinets are based in the Berlaymont building in Brussels. The first Commission originated in 1951 as the nine-member High Authority under President Jean Monnet, the High Authority was the supranational administrative executive of the new European Coal and Steel Community. It took office first on 10 August 1952 in Luxembourg, in 1958 the Treaties of Rome had established two new communities alongside the ECSC, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. However their executives were called Commissions rather than High Authorities, the reason for the change in name was the new relationship between the executives and the Council. Some states such as France expressed reservations over the power of the High Authority, louis Armand led the first Commission of Euratom. Walter Hallstein led the first Commission of the EEC, holding the first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Château of Val-Duchesse, Hallstein notably began the consolidation of European law and started to have a notable impact on national legislation. The three bodies, collectively named the European Executives, co-existed until 1 July 1967 when, under the Merger Treaty, the Rey Commission completed the Communitys customs union in 1968 and campaigned for a more powerful, elected, European Parliament. Despite Rey being the first President of the communities, Hallstein is seen as the first President of the modern Commission. The Malfatti and Mansholt Commissions followed with work on monetary co-operation, with that enlargement the Commissions membership increased to thirteen under the Ortoli Commission, which dealt with the enlarged community during economic and international instability at that time. Following the Jenkins Commission, Gaston Thorns Commission oversaw the Communitys enlargement to the south, the Commission headed by Jacques Delors was seen as giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism. Delors and his team are considered as the founding fathers of the euro. The International Herald Tribune noted the work of Delors at the end of his term in 1992. He arrived when Europessimism was at its worst, although he was a little-known former French finance minister, he breathed life and hope into the EC and into the dispirited Brussels Commission. The successor to Delors was Jacques Santer, the entire Santer Commission was forced to resign in 1999 by the Parliament as result of a fraud and corruption scandal, with a central role played by Édith Cresson
7.
Council of Europe
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The Council of Europe is an international organisation focused on protecting human rights, democracy, rule of law in Europe and promoting European culture. Founded in 1949, it has 47 member states, covers approximately 820 million people, No country has ever joined the EU without first belonging to the Council of Europe. Unlike the EU, the Council of Europe cannot make binding laws, the best known body of the Council of Europe is the European Court of Human Rights, which enforces the European Convention on Human Rights. The Commissioner for Human Rights is an independent institution within the Council of Europe, mandated to promote awareness of, the Secretary General heads the secretariat of the organisation. Other major CoE bodies include the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines, the headquarters of the Council of Europe are in Strasbourg, France. English and French are its two official languages, the Committee of Ministers, the Parliamentary Assembly and the Congress also use German, Italian, Russian, and Turkish for some of their work. In a speech at the University of Zurich on 19 September 1946, Sir Winston Churchill called for a kind of United States of Europe and he had spoken of a Council of Europe as early as 1943 in a radio broadcast. There were two schools of thought competing, some favoured a classical international organisation with representatives of governments, both approaches were finally combined through the creation of the Committee of Ministers and the Parliamentary Assembly under the Statute of the Council of Europe. The Council of Europe was founded on 5 May 1949 by the Treaty of London and those conventions and decisions are developed by the member states working together at the Council of Europe. Both organizations function as concentric circles around the foundations for European co-operation and harmony. The European Union could be seen as the circle with a much higher level of integration through the transfer of powers from the national to the EU level. The Council of Europe and the European Union, different roles, Council of Europe conventions/treaties are also open for signature to non-member states, thus facilitating equal co-operation with countries outside Europe. The Convention created the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, the Court supervises compliance with the European Convention on Human Rights and thus functions as the highest European court. It is to court that Europeans can bring cases if they believe that a member country has violated their fundamental rights. The various activities and achievements of the Council of Europe can be found in detail on its official website, Promotion of the right to education under Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights and several conventions on the recognition of university studies and diplomas. Promotion of fair sport through the Anti-Doping Convention Promotion of European youth exchanges and co-operation through European Youth Centres in Strasbourg and Budapest, Promotion of the quality of medicines throughout Europe by the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and its European Pharmacopoeia. The institutions of the Council of Europe are, The Secretary General, mr Thorbjørn Jagland, the former Prime Minister of Norway was elected Secretary General of the Council of Europe in September 2009. In June 2014, he was re-elected, and his term in office commenced on 1 October 2014
8.
Science Foundation Ireland
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The agency was established in 2003 under the Industrial Development Act 2003 and is run by a board appointed by the Minister for Jobs, Enterprise and Innovation. SFI is one of three state agencies of the Department of Jobs, Enterprise and Innovation along with Enterprise Ireland. Science Foundation Ireland is the foundation for investment in scientific. SFI makes grants based upon the review of distinguished scientists. SFI also facilitates co-operative efforts among education, government, and industry that support its fields of emphasis, eligible research areas, or themes, may vary according to the scope and objectives of an individual programme and are described in the relevant call documentation. Details of individual programmes are included in the SFI Annual Plan, agenda 2020 is a strategic plan to position Ireland as a global knowledge leader, a society with scientific and engineering research at its core, driving economic, social and cultural development. It has four objectives, To be the best science funding agency in the world at creating impact from excellent research. To be the exemplar in building partnerships that fund excellent science and drive it out into the market, to have the most engaged and scientifically informed public To represent the ideal modern public service organisation, staffed in a lean and flexible manner, with efficient and effective management. In 2006, under the next National Development Plan, under the Strategy for Science, Technology & Innovation, a more recent and significant amendment to the SFI Act in 2013 widened SFI’s remit further to include both oriented basic research and applied research. The extension of SFI’s remit to include applied research enables the outcome of oriented basic research funded by SFI to be closer to market. Proposals are evaluated in open competitions via a combination of international peer review and these partnerships work, in some cases, by sharing the funding costs between the two agencies or in others, by facilitating Irish entry into the UK based fellowship. SFI-HRB-Wellcome Trust Re-entry programme is for postdoctoral scientists who have decided to recommence a scientific research career after a continuous break of at least two years. It gives such scientists the opportunity to return to research, with the potential to undertake refresher or further training, the fellowship is particularly suitable for applicants wishing to return to research after a break for family commitments. The scheme covers all areas of life and physical sciences, including engineering but excluding clinical medicine, successful candidates will be awarded a fellowship by the Royal Society, the cost of which will be met by Science Foundation Ireland. The SIRG award is an opportunity for early-career-stage investigators to carry out their own project in the fields of science, technology, engineering. SFI-HRB-Wellcome Trust Senior Research Fellowship funds postdoctoral scientists based in academic institutions in the UK, candidates are expected to have an excellent track record in their scientific field and be able to demonstrate their ability to carry out independent research. SFI Career Development Award Programme funds early- and mid-career researchers who hold a salaried, independent research post. This new call was announced in late 2015 and will expand on the current SFI PIYRA programme, bBSRC-Science Foundation Ireland joint funding of research funds applications from teams led by researchers from the UK and Ireland
9.
Google
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Google is an American multinational technology company specializing in Internet-related services and products. These include online advertising technologies, search, cloud computing, software, Google was founded in 1996 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were Ph. D. students at Stanford University, in California. Together, they own about 14 percent of its shares, and they incorporated Google as a privately held company on September 4,1998. An initial public offering took place on August 19,2004, in August 2015, Google announced plans to reorganize its various interests as a conglomerate called Alphabet Inc. Google, Alphabets leading subsidiary, will continue to be the company for Alphabets Internet interests. Upon completion of the restructure, Sundar Pichai became CEO of Google, replacing Larry Page, rapid growth since incorporation has triggered a chain of products, acquisitions, and partnerships beyond Googles core search engine. The company leads the development of the Android mobile operating system, the Google Chrome web browser, and Chrome OS, the new hardware chief, Rick Osterloh, stated, a lot of the innovation that we want to do now ends up requiring controlling the end-to-end user experience. Google has also experimented with becoming an Internet carrier, alexa, a company that monitors commercial web traffic, lists Google. com as the most visited website in the world. Several other Google services also figure in the top 100 most visited websites, including YouTube, Googles mission statement, from the outset, was to organize the worlds information and make it universally accessible and useful, and its unofficial slogan was Dont be evil. In October 2015, the motto was replaced in the Alphabet corporate code of conduct by the phrase Do the right thing, Google began in January 1996 as a research project by Larry Page and Sergey Brin when they were both PhD students at Stanford University in Stanford, California. They called this new technology PageRank, it determined a websites relevance by the number of pages, and the importance of those pages, Page and Brin originally nicknamed their new search engine BackRub, because the system checked backlinks to estimate the importance of a site. Originally, Google ran under Stanford Universitys website, with the domains google. stanford. edu, the domain name for Google was registered on September 15,1997, and the company was incorporated on September 4,1998. It was based in the garage of a friend in Menlo Park, craig Silverstein, a fellow PhD student at Stanford, was hired as the first employee. The first funding for Google was an August 1998 contribution of $100,000 from Andy Bechtolsheim, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, given before Google was incorporated. At least three other investors invested in 1998, Amazon. com founder Jeff Bezos, Stanford University computer science professor David Cheriton. Author Ken Auletta claims that each invested $250,000, early in 1999, Brin and Page decided they wanted to sell Google to Excite. They went to Excite CEO George Bell and offered to sell it to him for $1 million, vinod Khosla, one of Excites venture capitalists, talked the duo down to $750,000, but Bell still rejected it. Googles initial public offering took place five years later, on August 19,2004, at that time Larry Page, Sergey Brin, and Eric Schmidt agreed to work together at Google for 20 years, until the year 2024
10.
Charitable organization
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A charitable organization is a type of non-profit organization. It differs from types of NPOs in that it centers on philanthropic goals as well as social well-being. The legal definition of charitable organization varies according to the country, the regulation, tax treatment, and the way in which charity law affects charitable organizations also varies. Financial figures are important indicators to assess the sustainability of a charity. This information can impact a charitys reputation with donors and societies, and thus, Charitable organizations often depend partly on donations from for-profit-organizations. Such donations to charitable organizations represent a form of corporate philanthropy. Until the mid-18th century, charity was mainly distributed through parish relief, churches, almshouses, Charities were also responsible for education, health, housing and even prisons. It was in the Enlightenment era that charitable and philanthropic activity among voluntary associations, societies, gentlemans clubs, and mutual associations began to flourish in England and the upper-classes increasingly adopted a philanthropic attitude toward the disadvantaged. This new social activism was channeled into the establishment of charitable organizations and this emerging upper-class fashion for benevolence resulted in the incorporation of the first charitable organizations. This was the first such charity in the world and served as the precedent for incorporated associational charities everywhere. Jonas Hanway, another notable philanthropist of the era established The Marine Society in 1756 as the first seafarers charity, by 1763, the Society had recruited over 10,000 men and it was incorporated by an Act of Parliament in 1772. Hanway was also instrumental in establishing the Magdalen Hospital to rehabilitate prostitutes and these organizations were funded by subscription and run as voluntary associations. Charities also began to adopt campaigning roles, where they would champion a cause, the process was however a lengthy one being finally concluded when Saudi Arabia abolished slavery in 1962. This period also saw growing philosophical debate between those who championed state intervention and those who believed that private charities should provide welfare, thomas Malthus, the political economist, criticized poor relief for paupers on economic and moral grounds and proposed leaving charity entirely to the private sector. His views were influential and informed the Victorian laissez-faire attitude toward state intervention for the poor. During the 19th century, a profusion of charitable organizations were set up to alleviate the conditions of the working class in the slums. The Labourers Friend Society, chaired by Lord Shaftesbury in the United Kingdom in 1830, was set up to working class conditions. This included the promotion of allotment of land to labourers for cottage husbandry that later became the allotment movement and this was one of the first housing associations, a philanthropic endeavour that flourished in the second half of the nineteenth century brought about by the growth of the middle class
11.
Fundraising
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Fundraising is a significant way that non-profit organizations may obtain the money for their operations. Many non-profit organizations take advantage of the services of professional fundraisers and these fundraisers may be paid for their services either through fees unrelated to the amounts of money to be raised, or by retaining a percentage of raised funds. The latter approach is expressly forbidden under the Code of Ethics of the Association of Fundraising Professionals, however, by far the most common practice of American non-profits is to employ a staff person whose main responsibility is fund raising. This person is paid a salary like any employee, and is usually a part of the top management staff of the organization. Some non-profit organizations nonetheless engage fundraisers who are paid a percentage of the funds they raise, in the United States, this ratio of funds retained to funds passed on to the non-profit is subject to reporting to a number of states Attorneys General or Secretaries of state. This ratio is variable and subject to change over time and place. Although potentially confusing, the distinction is an important one to note, the CFRE credential is administered by CFRE International, an independent 5016 whose sole mission is dedicated to setting standards in philanthropy through a valid and reliable certification process. A specialty within the profession is the grant professional. Grant professionals with at least three years experience, and other requirements, can become certified as Grant Professional Certified, equally important are fundraising efforts by virtually every recognized religious group throughout the world. These efforts are organized on a local, national, and global level, sometimes, such funds will go exclusively toward assisting the basic needs of others, while money may at other times be used only for evangelism or proselytism. Usually, religious organizations mix the two, which can cause tension. Fundraising also plays a role in political campaigns. This fact, despite numerous campaign finance laws, continues to be a highly controversial topic in American politics. Political action committees are the organizations that back candidates and political parties. Some advocacy organizations conduct fundraising for-or-against policy issues in an attempt to influence legislation, while public broadcasters are completely government-funded in much of the world, there are many countries where some funds must come from donations from the public. In the United States less than 15% of local broadcasting stations funding comes from the federal government. Pledge drives, a type of annual giving, commonly occur three times each year, usually lasting one to two weeks each time. Viewership and listenership often declines significantly during funding periods, so special programming may be aired in order to regular viewers and listeners interested
12.
Corporate social responsibility
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Corporate social responsibility is a form of corporate self-regulation integrated into a business model. CSR policy functions as a mechanism whereby a business monitors and ensures its active compliance with the spirit of the law, ethical standards. The binary choice between complying with the law and going beyond the law must be qualified with some nuance, weak law must not be confused with soft law. CSR strategies encourage the company to make a impact on the environment and stakeholders including consumers, employees, investors, communities. Proponents argue that corporations increase long-term profits by operating with a CSR perspective, political sociologists became interested in CSR in the context of theories of globalization, neoliberalism and late capitalism. CSR is titled to aid an organizations mission as well as serve as a guide to what the company represents for its consumers, Business ethics is the part of applied ethics that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business environment. ISO26000 is the international standard for CSR. Public sector organizations adhere to the bottom line. It is widely accepted that CSR adheres to principles. The term corporate social responsibility became popular in the 1960s and has remained a term used indiscriminately by many to cover legal and moral responsibility more narrowly construed, Business Dictionary defines CSR as A company’s sense of responsibility towards the community and environment in which it operates. Companies express this citizenship through their waste and pollution reduction processes, by contributing educational and social programs, a broader definition expands from a focus on stakeholders to include philanthropy and volunteering. Most consumers agree that while achieving business targets, companies should do CSR at the same time, most consumers believe companies doing charity will receive a positive response. Somerville also found that consumers are loyal and willing to spend more on retailers that support charity, consumers also believe that retailers selling local products will gain loyalty. Smith shares the belief that marketing local products will gain consumer trust, however, environmental efforts are receiving negative views given the belief that this would affect customer service. Oppewal et al. found that not all CSR activities are attractive to consumers and they recommended that retailers focus on one activity. Becker-Olsen found that if the social initiative done by the company is not aligned with other company goals it will have a negative impact, mohr et al. and Groza et al. also emphasise the importance of reaching the consumer. Some commentators have identified a difference between the Canadian, the Continental European and the Anglo-Saxon approaches to CSR, and even within Europe the discussion about CSR is very heterogeneous. A more common approach to CSR is corporate philanthropy and this includes monetary donations and aid given to nonprofit organizations and communities
