1.
Natural disaster
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An adverse event will not rise to the level of a disaster if it occurs in an area without vulnerable population. In a vulnerable area, however, such as Nepal during the 2015 earthquake, a landslide is described as an outward and downward slope movement of an abundance of slope-forming materials including rock, soil, artificial, or even a combination of these things. During World War I, an estimated 40,000 to 80,000 soldiers died as a result of avalanches during the campaign in the Alps at the Austrian-Italian front. Many of the avalanches were caused by artillery fire, an earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earths crust that creates seismic waves. At the Earths surface earthquakes manifest themselves by vibration, shaking, earthquakes are caused by slippage within geological faults. The underground point of origin of the earthquake is called the seismic focus, the point directly above the focus on the surface is called the epicenter. Earthquakes by themselves rarely kill people or wildlife and it is usually the secondary events that they trigger such as building collapse, fires, tsunamis and volcanoes. Many of these could possibly be avoided by better construction, safety systems, when natural erosion or human mining makes the ground too weak to support the structures built on it, the ground can collapse and produce a sinkhole. Volcanoes can cause destruction and consequent disaster in several ways. The effects include the eruption itself that may cause harm following the explosion of the volcano or falling rocks. Second, lava may be produced during the eruption of a volcano, third, volcanic ash generally meaning the cooled ash – may form a cloud, and settle thickly in nearby locations. When mixed with water forms a concrete-like material. In sufficient quantity ash may cause roofs to collapse under its weight, since the ash has the consistency of ground glass it causes abrasion damage to moving parts such as engines. It is believed that Pompeii was destroyed by a pyroclastic flow, a lahar is a volcanic mudflow or landslide. The 1953 Tangiwai disaster was caused by a lahar, as was the 1985 Armero tragedy in which the town of Armero was buried, a specific type of volcano is the supervolcano. It also killed three-quarters of all plant life in the northern hemisphere, the main danger from a supervolcano is the immense cloud of ash, which has a disastrous global effect on climate and temperature for many years. It is a violent, sudden and destructive change either in quality of water or in distribution or movement of water on land below the surface or in atmosphere. A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land, the EU Floods Directive defines a flood as a temporary covering by water of land which is usually not covered by water
2.
Small business
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Small businesses are privately owned corporations, partnerships, or sole proprietorships that have fewer employees and/or less annual revenue than a regular-sized business or corporation. Businesses are defined as small in terms of being able to apply for government support, some professionals operate as small businesses, such as lawyers, accountants, dentists and medical doctors. Small businesses vary a great deal in terms of size, revenues and regulatory authorization, some small businesses, such as a home accounting business, may only require a business license. However, owner-managers often do not delineate their behavior to accord with the separation between their personal and business interests. Lenders also often contract around organizational boundaries by seeking personal guarantees or accepting privately held assets as collateral, because of this behavior, researchers and analysts may wish to be cautious in the way they assess the organizational types and implied boundaries in contexts relating to owner-managed firms. These include analyses that use traditional accounting disclosures, and studies that view the firm as defined by some formal organizational structure, the term entrepreneur is often conflated with the term small business or used interchangeably with this term. While most entrepreneurial ventures start out as a business, not all small businesses are entrepreneurial in the strict sense of the term. Successful entrepreneurs have the ability to lead a business in a direction by proper planning, to adapt to changing environments and understand their own strengths. The legal definition of small business varies by country and by industry.5 million in receipts for most non manufacturing businesses. The European Union generally defines a business as one that has fewer than fifty employees. However, in Australia, a business is defined by the Fair Work Act 2009 as one with fewer than fifteen employees. By comparison, a business or mid-sized business has fewer than five hundred employees in the US. In addition to number of employees, other methods used to small companies include annual sales, value of assets and net profit. These criteria are followed by the European Union, for instance, Small businesses are usually not dominant in their field of operation. The table below serves as a guide to business size nomenclature. 9.9 million of these businesses in the United States were owned or led by a woman, African Americans have a long tradition of business ownership in the United States. Franchising is a way for business owners to benefit from the economies of scale of the big corporation. McDonalds and Subway are examples of a franchise, the small business owner can leverage a strong brand name and purchasing power of the larger company while keeping their own investment affordable
3.
Private trust
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A trust is a relationship whereby property is held by one party for the benefit of another. A trust is created by a settlor, who transfers property to a trustee, the trustee holds that property for the trusts beneficiaries. Trusts exist mainly in common law jurisdictions and similar systems existed since Roman times and this may be done for tax avoidance reasons or to control the property and its benefits if the settlor is absent, incapacitated, or deceased. Trusts are frequently created in wills, defining how money and property will be handled for children or other beneficiaries, the trustee is given legal title to the trust property, but is obligated to act for the good of the beneficiaries. The trustee may be compensated and have expenses reimbursed, but otherwise must turn over all profits from the trust properties, Trustees who violate this fiduciary duty are self-dealing. Courts can reverse self-dealing actions, order profits returned, and impose other sanctions, the trustee may be either an individual, a company, or a public body. There may be a trustee or multiple co-trustees. The trust is governed by the terms under which it was created, in most jurisdictions, this requires a contractual trust agreement or deed. A trust is created by a settlor, who transfers title to some or all of his or her property to a trustee, the trust is governed by the terms under which it was created. In most jurisdictions, this requires a contractual trust agreement or deed and it is possible for a single individual to assume the role of more than one of these parties, and for multiple individuals to share a single role. For example, in a living trust it is common for the grantor to be both a trustee and a beneficiary, while naming other contingent beneficiaries. Trusts have existed since Roman times and have one of the most important innovations in property law. Trust law has evolved through court rulings differently in different states, so statements in this article are generalizations, States are adapting the Uniform Trust Code to codify and harmonize their trust laws, but state-specific variations still remain. An owner placing property into trust turns over part of his or her bundle of rights to the trustee, separating the propertys legal ownership and control from its equitable ownership and benefits. This may be done for tax reasons or to control the property and its benefits if the settlor is absent, incapacitated, testamentary trusts may be created in wills, defining how money and property will be handled for children or other beneficiaries. While the trustee is given legal title to the trust property, in accepting the property title, the primary duties owed include the duty of loyalty, the duty of prudence, the duty of impartiality. A trustee may be held to a high standard of care in their dealings. In addition, a trustee has a duty to know, understand, the trustee may be compensated and have expenses reimbursed, but otherwise must turn over all profits from the trust properties
4.
Government
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A government is the system by which a state or community is controlled. In the Commonwealth of Nations, the government is also used more narrowly to refer to the collective group of people that exercises executive authority in a state. This usage is analogous to what is called an administration in American English, finally, government is also sometimes used in English as a synonym for governance. In the case of its broad definition, government normally consists of legislators, administrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. A form of government, or form of governance, refers to the set of political systems. Government of any kind currently affects every human activity in many important ways, in political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of polities. as typologies of political systems are not obvious. It is especially important in the science fields of comparative politics. On the surface, identifying a form of government appears to be simple, the United States is a constitutional republic, while the former Soviet Union was a socialist republic. However self-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, for example, elections are a defining characteristic of an electoral democracy, but in practice elections in the former Soviet Union were not free and fair and took place in a one-party state. Voltaire argued that the Holy Roman Empire is neither Holy, nor Roman, many governments that officially call themselves a democratic republic are not democratic, nor a republic, they are usually a dictatorship de facto. Communist dictatorships have been prone to use this term. For example, the name of North Vietnam was The Democratic Republic of Vietnam. China uses a variant, The Peoples Republic of China, thus in many practical classifications it would not be considered democratic. Experience with those movements in power, and the ties they may have to particular forms of government. For example, The meaning of conservatism in the United States has little in common with the way the words definition is used elsewhere, as Ribuffo notes, what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism. Since the 1950s conservatism in the United States has been associated with the Republican Party. However, during the era of segregation many Southern Democrats were conservatives, values are sorted from 1–100 based on level of democracy and political accountability
5.
Post-secondary
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Higher education, post-secondary education, or third level education is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completion of secondary education. Tertiary education at non-degree level is referred to as further education or continuing education as distinct from higher education. The right of access to education is mentioned in a number of international human rights instruments. In Europe, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1950, in the days when few pupils progressed beyond primary education, the term higher education was often used to refer to secondary education, which can create some confusion. Higher education includes teaching, research, exacting applied work, within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level, and beyond that, graduate-level. The latter level of education is referred to as graduate school. Higher education is important to national economies, both as an industry, in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. College educated workers have commanded a measurable wage premium and are less likely to become unemployed than less educated workers. However, the admission of so many students of average ability to higher education inevitably requires a decline in academic standards. There is some question as to whether advanced mathematical skills or talent are in fact necessary for such as history, English, philosophy. In contrast, the higher education and training that takes place at vocational universities and schools usually concentrates on practical applications. Requirements for admission to such high-level graduate programs is extremely competitive, in the United States, there are large differences in wages and employment associated with different degrees. Medical doctors and lawyers are generally the highest paid workers, and have among the lowest unemployment rates and it may encompass using insights to conceive, model and scale an appropriate solution to a problem or objective. Engineering disciplines include, aerospace, biological, civil, chemical, computer, electrical, industrial, examples are painting, sculpture, and drawing, etc. Higher educational institutions in these arts include Film schools and Art schools, Higher vocational education and training takes place at the non-university tertiary level. Such education combines teaching of practical skills and theoretical expertise. Higher education differs from other forms of education such as that offered by institutions of vocational education. Higher vocational education might be contrasted with education in a broader scientific field
6.
Education
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Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
7.
Institution
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Institutions are stable, valued, recurring patterns of behavior. As structures or mechanisms of social order, they govern the behaviour of a set of individuals within a given community, Institutions are identified with a social purpose, transcending individuals and intentions by mediating the rules that govern living behavior. Primary or meta-institutions are institutions such as the family that are enough to encompass other institutions. As structures and mechanisms of social order, institutions are an object of study in social sciences such as political science, anthropology, economics. Institutions are also a concern for law, the formal mechanism for political rule-making. That is, institutions arise, develop and function in a pattern of social self-organization beyond conscious intentions of the individuals involved, as mechanisms of social interaction, institutions manifest in both formal organizations, such as the U. S. Formal institutions are set forth by a relevant authority and informal institutions are generally unwritten societal rules, norms. Primary or meta-institutions are institutions that encompass many other institutions, both formal and informal (e. g. the family, government, the economy, education, most important institutions, considered abstractly, have both objective and subjective aspects, examples include money and marriage. The subjective experience of money is so pervasive and persuasive that economists talk of the illusion and try to disabuse their students of it. Examples of institutions include, Family, The family is the center of the childs life, the family teaches children cultural values and attitudes about themselves and others - see sociology of the family. Children learn continuously from the environment that adults create, Children also become aware of class at a very early age and assign different values to each class accordingly. Religion, Some believe religion is like an ethnic or cultural category, making it likely for the individuals to break from religious affiliations. Parental religious participation is the most influential part of religious socialization—more so than religious peers or religious beliefs, see sociology of religion and civil religion. Peer groups, A peer group is a group whose members have interests, social positions. This is where children can escape supervision and learn to form relationships on their own, the influence of the peer group typically peaks during adolescence however peer groups generally only affect short term interests unlike the family which has long term influence. Capitalist society may encourage the growth of centralization and interdependence under the control of an elite, socialism encourages democratic, bottom-up control by the people and their communities. Legal systems, Children are pressured from both parents and peers to conform and obey certain laws or norms of the group/community, parents’ attitudes toward legal systems influence children’s views as to what is legally acceptable. For example, children whose parents are continually in jail are more accepting of incarceration, see jurisprudence, philosophy of law, sociology of law
8.
Loan
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In finance, a loan is the lending of money from one individual, organization or entity to another individual, organization or entity. A loan entails the reallocation of the asset for a period of time. The loan is provided at a cost, referred to as interest on the debt. In a legal loan, each of these obligations and restrictions is enforced by contract, although this article focuses on monetary loans, in practice any material object might be lent. Acting as a provider of loans is one of the tasks for financial institutions such as banks. For other institutions, issuing of debt such as bonds is a typical source of funding. A secured loan is a loan in which the borrower pledges some asset as collateral, a mortgage loan is a very common type of loan, used by many individuals to purchase things. In this arrangement, the money is used to purchase the property, the financial institution, however, is given security – a lien on the title to the house – until the mortgage is paid off in full. If the borrower defaults on the loan, the bank would have the right to repossess the house and sell it. In some instances, a loan out to purchase a new or used car may be secured by the car. The duration of the period is considerably shorter – often corresponding to the useful life of the car. There are two types of loans, direct and indirect. A direct auto loan is where a bank gives the loan directly to a consumer, an indirect auto loan is where a car dealership acts as an intermediary between the bank or financial institution and the consumer. Unsecured loans are loans that are not secured against the borrowers assets. These may or may not be regulated by law, in the United Kingdom, when applied to individuals, these may come under the Consumer Credit Act 1974. Interest rates on unsecured loans are nearly always higher than for secured loans, an unsecured lender must sue the borrower, obtain a money judgment for breach of contract, and then pursue execution of the judgment against the borrowers unencumbered assets. In insolvency proceedings, secured lenders traditionally have priority over unsecured lenders when a court divides up the borrowers assets, thus, a higher interest rate reflects the additional risk that in the event of insolvency, the debt may be uncollectible. Demand loans are short term loans that are typically in that they do not have fixed dates for repayment and they can be called for repayment by the lending institution at any time
9.
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee
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Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees are centrally important in applying laws about animal research in the United States. Most research involving laboratory animals is funded by the United States National Institutes of Health or, to lesser extents, the NIH Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare has been directed by law to develop policies that describe the role of Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees. Every institution that uses animals for federally funded laboratory research must have an Institutional Animal Care, each local IACUC reviews research protocols and conducts evaluations of the institutions animal care and use, which includes the results of inspections of facilities that are required by law. The corresponding, parallel, and equivalent local ethical body responsible for overseeing U. S. federally funded research involving humans is the Institutional Review Board, the history of IACUCs evolved from the history of regulation of animal welfare in the USA. Prior to 1963, regulation was conducted solely by investigators, and research laboratories had inconsistent animal care policies, subsequent editions of the Guide were supported by NIH and published by the Institute of Laboratory Animal Research branch of the National Academy of Science. Currently, the Guide is in its eighth edition, an accreditation committee was formed in 1963, and it was independently incorporated from the ACP. Its name was AAALAC, the American Association for the Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care, public opinion was particularly galvanized by the case of a pet dog that was stolen from her owners in Pennsylvania and later died during an experimental surgery at a hospital in New York. Thus catalyzed, and spurred by the efforts of Representative Joseph Y, resnick, Congress created the Animal Welfare Act, which named the USDA the responsible agency. It inspected animal use facilities, but did not inspect or regulate individual laboratories, in 1971, the Animal Welfare Act was revised, and compliance by institutions could be achieved through an animal care committee or via AAALAC accreditation. Compliance required adhering to the Guide, the Animal Welfare Act, public Health Service policy took over, requiring an animal care committee for each animal-using grantee institution and expanding the species covered to include all vertebrates. The animal care committee was required to have five members with expertise to regulate animal welfare at that institution, the term IACUC was formally introduced in 1986 with an amendment to the Animal Welfare Act and corresponding changes in PHS policy. Although much of the welfare law comes from the Animal Welfare Act, which is enforced by the USDA. Twice-yearly inspections of animal use facilities were mandated, the modern composition of IACUCs was thus established. The IACUC must have a minimum of three members, one of whom is a Chairman appointed by the institution, the appointed members must be qualified to regulate animal care at that institution. A member may cover more than one of these roles, if there are more than three members then no more than three may be affiliated with the same department at the institution. Each local IACUC reviews research protocols and conducts evaluations of the animal care. The evaluations include inspections of all animal use facilities every six months, the IACUC is required to report significant noncompliance with animal use protocols to OLAW, as well as IACUC actions taken to correct the noncompliance. Each animal use protocol must be reviewed by full IACUC committee each three years or more often, the protocol must cover at least these points, a
10.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
11.
National Institutes of Health
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The National Institutes of Health is a biomedical research facility primarily located in Bethesda, Maryland. An agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, it is the agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical. The NIH comprises 27 separate institutes and centers that conduct research in different disciplines of biomedical science, NIHs roots extend back to a Marine Hospital Service in the late 1790s that provided medical relief to sick and disabled men in the U. S. Navy. By 1870, a network of hospitals had developed and was placed under the charge of a medical officer within the Bureau of the Treasury Department. In 1887 a laboratory for the study of bacteria, the Hygienic Laboratory, was established at the Marine Hospital in New York, in the early 1900s, Congress began appropriating funds for the Marine Hospital Service. By 1922, this changed its name to Public Health Services. This marked the beginning of a partnership with universities, in 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was re-designated as the National Institute of Health by the Ransdell Act and was given $750,000 to construct two NIH buildings. Over the next few decades, Congress would increase its funding tremendously to the NIH, in 1944, the Public Health Service Act was approved, and National Cancer Institute became a division of NIH. In 1948, the changed from National Institute of Health to National Institutes of Health. In the 1960s prominent virologist and cancer researcher Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into patients at the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital, when three doctors resigned after refusing to inject patients without their consent, this experiment gained considerable media attention. The NIH was a source of funding for Southam’s research and had required all research involving human subjects to obtain their consent prior to any experimentation. }Upon investigating all of their grantee institutions. From then on, the NIH has required all grantee institutions to approve any research involving human experimentation with review boards. In 1967 the Division of Regional Medical Programs was created to administer grants for research for heart disease, cancer, and strokes. That same year, the NIH director lobbied the White House for increased funding in order to increase research. An advisory committee was formed to further development of the NIH. The funding of NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress and this contention was seen most dramatically during the 1980s, when President Reagan repeatedly tried to cut funding for research, only to see Congress partly restore funding. But it was not until July 1987, as NIH celebrated its 100th anniversary, by the 1990s, the focus of the NIH committee had shifted to DNA research, and the Human Genome Project was launched. In 2009, President Obama reinstated federally funded research, revoking the ban imposed by President Bush in 2001
12.
Center for Scientific Review
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The Center for Scientific Review is the portal for United States National Institutes of Health grant applications and their review for scientific merit. The CSR organizes the peer groups or study sections that evaluate the majority of the research grant applications sent to NIH. It also receives all grant applications for NIH, as well as for other components of the United States Department of Health. CSR receives nearly 80,000 applications a year and recruits over 18,000 external experts to review its portion of them in its study sections, which often meet three times during the year. Shorten the review process so applicants can revise and resubmit their applications in the next round if necessary. Shortening the review process by 45 days could thus reduce the time to resubmit by four months, recruit and retain the best reviewers so NIH and applicants receive the best advice. Foster a culture more favorable to innovative applications, so that NIH can fund research that promises larger advances in science, address the concern that clinical research is not properly evaluated, so this important research is well represented in the NIH program. Increase the transparency, accountability, and uniformity of NIH peer review, United States Department of Health and Human Services grant CSR Website NIH Website
13.
National Science Foundation
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The National Science Foundation is a United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health, with an annual budget of about US$7.0 billion, the NSF funds approximately 24% of all federally supported basic research conducted by the United States colleges and universities. In some fields, such as mathematics, computer science, economics, and the social sciences, the current NSF director, confirmed in March 2014, is astronomer France A. Córdova, former president of Purdue University. The NSF seeks to fulfill its mission chiefly by issuing competitive, the NSF also makes some contracts. Some proposals are solicited, and some are not, the NSF funds both kinds, the NSF does not operate its own laboratories, unlike other federal research agencies, notable examples being the NASA and the National Institutes of Health. The NSF receives over 50,000 such proposals each year and those funded are typically projects that are ranked highest in a merit review process, the current version of which was introduced in 1997. For example, reviewers cannot work at the NSF itself, nor for the institution that employs the proposing researchers, all proposal evaluations are confidential, the proposing researchers may see them, but they do not see the names of the reviewers. However, both already had been mandated for all NSF merit review procedures in the 2010 re-authorization of the America COMPETES Act. The Act also includes an emphasis on promoting potentially transformative research, most NSF grants go to individuals or small groups of investigators, who carry out research at their home campuses. Other grants provide funding for research centers, instruments. Still, others fund national-scale facilities that are shared by the community as a whole. In addition to researchers and research facilities, NSF grants also support science, engineering, Undergraduates can receive funding through Research Experiences for Undergraduates summer programs. K-12 and some community college instructors are eligible to participate in compensated Research Experiences for Teachers programs, the NSFs workforce numbers about 1,700, nearly all working at its Arlington headquarters. In June 2013 it was announced that the NSF would relocate its headquarters to Alexandria, Virginia in 2017. S, examples include initiatives in, Nanotechnology The science of learning Digital libraries The ecology of infectious diseases The NSF was established by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950. Its stated mission is To promote the progress of science, to advance the health, prosperity, and welfare. Some historians of science have argued that the result was a compromise between too many clashing visions of the purpose and scope of the federal government. The NSF was certainly not the government agency for the funding of basic science. By 1950, support for areas of research had already become dominated by specialized agencies such as the National Institutes of Health
14.
European Commission
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Commissioners swear an oath at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, pledging to respect the treaties and to be completely independent in carrying out their duties during their mandate. The Commission operates as a government, with 28 members of the Commission. There is one member per state, but members are bound by their oath of office to represent the general interest of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. One of the 28 is the Commission President proposed by the European Council, the current Commission is the Juncker Commission, which took office in late 2014. The procedural languages of the Commission are English, French and German, the Members of the Commission and their cabinets are based in the Berlaymont building in Brussels. The first Commission originated in 1951 as the nine-member High Authority under President Jean Monnet, the High Authority was the supranational administrative executive of the new European Coal and Steel Community. It took office first on 10 August 1952 in Luxembourg, in 1958 the Treaties of Rome had established two new communities alongside the ECSC, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. However their executives were called Commissions rather than High Authorities, the reason for the change in name was the new relationship between the executives and the Council. Some states such as France expressed reservations over the power of the High Authority, louis Armand led the first Commission of Euratom. Walter Hallstein led the first Commission of the EEC, holding the first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Château of Val-Duchesse, Hallstein notably began the consolidation of European law and started to have a notable impact on national legislation. The three bodies, collectively named the European Executives, co-existed until 1 July 1967 when, under the Merger Treaty, the Rey Commission completed the Communitys customs union in 1968 and campaigned for a more powerful, elected, European Parliament. Despite Rey being the first President of the communities, Hallstein is seen as the first President of the modern Commission. The Malfatti and Mansholt Commissions followed with work on monetary co-operation, with that enlargement the Commissions membership increased to thirteen under the Ortoli Commission, which dealt with the enlarged community during economic and international instability at that time. Following the Jenkins Commission, Gaston Thorns Commission oversaw the Communitys enlargement to the south, the Commission headed by Jacques Delors was seen as giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism. Delors and his team are considered as the founding fathers of the euro. The International Herald Tribune noted the work of Delors at the end of his term in 1992. He arrived when Europessimism was at its worst, although he was a little-known former French finance minister, he breathed life and hope into the EC and into the dispirited Brussels Commission. The successor to Delors was Jacques Santer, the entire Santer Commission was forced to resign in 1999 by the Parliament as result of a fraud and corruption scandal, with a central role played by Édith Cresson
15.
Structural Funds and Cohesion Fund
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The Structural Funds and the Cohesion Fund are financial tools set up to implement the regional policy of the European Union. They aim to reduce disparities in income, wealth and opportunities. Europes poorer regions receive most of the support, but all European regions are eligible for funding under the various funds. The current Regional Policy framework is set for a period of seven years, the Structural Funds are made up of the European Regional Development Fund and the European Social Fund. Together with the Common Agricultural Policy, the Structural Funds and the Cohesion Fund make up the bulk of EU funding. Apart from funds under the Cohesion policy, there are funds that have the potential to contribute to the regional development. The Structural Funds and the Cohesion Fund make up one of the largest items of the budget of the European Union, sections below present information about objectives that have been defined for the current programming period, which runs from 1 January 2007 to 31 December 2013. The overall budget for this period is €347bn, €201bn for the European Regional Development Fund, €76bn for the European Social Fund, the objectives setup shapes the main focus of interventions and the overall allocations of funds from the EU budget. The key indicator for the division of regions under singular objectives is the Gross National Product per capita level and this is subject to criticism based on the fact that GDP p. c. is unable to reflect the real socio-economic reality of regions. Some groups and organisations propose the creation of a set of indicators that could substitute the GDP. This objective covers regions whose GDP per capita is below 75% of the EU average and it is financed by the ERDF, the ESF and the Cohesion Fund. The priorities under this objective are human and physical capital, innovation, knowledge society, environment, the budget allocated to this objective is €283. 3bn in current prices. This objective covers all regions of the EU territory, except those already covered by the Convergence objective and it aims at reinforcing competitiveness, employment and attractiveness of these regions. Innovation, the promotion of entrepreneurship and environment protection are the themes of this objective. The funding – €55bn in current prices – comes from the ERDF, regions and cities from different Member States are encouraged to work together, learning from each other and developing joint projects and networks. With the Convergence Objective and the Regional Competitiveness and Employment Objective it aims at contributing to reduce regional disparities across Unions territory, history The European Territorial Cooperation Objective replaced the previous INTERREG Community Initiative and thus many European Territorial Cooperation programmes bear the name INTERREG. The Single European Act, that entered into force in 1987, institutionalised the goal of completing the internal market with a total borders opening, Regional competition would be tighter and a Cohesion Policy was needed to mitigate the negative side effects of market unification. The objectives were created to discipline the capture of funds in terms of economic
16.
Council of Europe
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The Council of Europe is an international organisation focused on protecting human rights, democracy, rule of law in Europe and promoting European culture. Founded in 1949, it has 47 member states, covers approximately 820 million people, No country has ever joined the EU without first belonging to the Council of Europe. Unlike the EU, the Council of Europe cannot make binding laws, the best known body of the Council of Europe is the European Court of Human Rights, which enforces the European Convention on Human Rights. The Commissioner for Human Rights is an independent institution within the Council of Europe, mandated to promote awareness of, the Secretary General heads the secretariat of the organisation. Other major CoE bodies include the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines, the headquarters of the Council of Europe are in Strasbourg, France. English and French are its two official languages, the Committee of Ministers, the Parliamentary Assembly and the Congress also use German, Italian, Russian, and Turkish for some of their work. In a speech at the University of Zurich on 19 September 1946, Sir Winston Churchill called for a kind of United States of Europe and he had spoken of a Council of Europe as early as 1943 in a radio broadcast. There were two schools of thought competing, some favoured a classical international organisation with representatives of governments, both approaches were finally combined through the creation of the Committee of Ministers and the Parliamentary Assembly under the Statute of the Council of Europe. The Council of Europe was founded on 5 May 1949 by the Treaty of London and those conventions and decisions are developed by the member states working together at the Council of Europe. Both organizations function as concentric circles around the foundations for European co-operation and harmony. The European Union could be seen as the circle with a much higher level of integration through the transfer of powers from the national to the EU level. The Council of Europe and the European Union, different roles, Council of Europe conventions/treaties are also open for signature to non-member states, thus facilitating equal co-operation with countries outside Europe. The Convention created the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, the Court supervises compliance with the European Convention on Human Rights and thus functions as the highest European court. It is to court that Europeans can bring cases if they believe that a member country has violated their fundamental rights. The various activities and achievements of the Council of Europe can be found in detail on its official website, Promotion of the right to education under Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights and several conventions on the recognition of university studies and diplomas. Promotion of fair sport through the Anti-Doping Convention Promotion of European youth exchanges and co-operation through European Youth Centres in Strasbourg and Budapest, Promotion of the quality of medicines throughout Europe by the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and its European Pharmacopoeia. The institutions of the Council of Europe are, The Secretary General, mr Thorbjørn Jagland, the former Prime Minister of Norway was elected Secretary General of the Council of Europe in September 2009. In June 2014, he was re-elected, and his term in office commenced on 1 October 2014
17.
Irish Research Council
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The Irish Research Council is an independent and autonomous research funding and monitoring body established in March 2012. Recipients are designated as Government of Ireland Scholars, in addition to its primary interest in doctoral and masters level funding, the IRC also provides support and financial assistance to post-doctoral researchers. It was also designed to ensure that Ireland would become and remain an attractive location for high-level research. The emphasis of its programs was on exploratory research aimed at yielding new concepts, findings. Funding is made available on a basis through a series of competitive calls for applicants. Selection for funding is based upon merit, and the decision process is overseen by independent assessment panels. The chairperson of the Irish Research Council is Professor Orla Feely of the School of Electrical, Electronic, and Communications Engineering in UCD,2001, Established in June of this year by the Minister for Education and Science in Ireland. The aim is to promote Ireland as a centre of excellence and achievement in research by encouraging students
18.
Science Foundation Ireland
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The agency was established in 2003 under the Industrial Development Act 2003 and is run by a board appointed by the Minister for Jobs, Enterprise and Innovation. SFI is one of three state agencies of the Department of Jobs, Enterprise and Innovation along with Enterprise Ireland. Science Foundation Ireland is the foundation for investment in scientific. SFI makes grants based upon the review of distinguished scientists. SFI also facilitates co-operative efforts among education, government, and industry that support its fields of emphasis, eligible research areas, or themes, may vary according to the scope and objectives of an individual programme and are described in the relevant call documentation. Details of individual programmes are included in the SFI Annual Plan, agenda 2020 is a strategic plan to position Ireland as a global knowledge leader, a society with scientific and engineering research at its core, driving economic, social and cultural development. It has four objectives, To be the best science funding agency in the world at creating impact from excellent research. To be the exemplar in building partnerships that fund excellent science and drive it out into the market, to have the most engaged and scientifically informed public To represent the ideal modern public service organisation, staffed in a lean and flexible manner, with efficient and effective management. In 2006, under the next National Development Plan, under the Strategy for Science, Technology & Innovation, a more recent and significant amendment to the SFI Act in 2013 widened SFI’s remit further to include both oriented basic research and applied research. The extension of SFI’s remit to include applied research enables the outcome of oriented basic research funded by SFI to be closer to market. Proposals are evaluated in open competitions via a combination of international peer review and these partnerships work, in some cases, by sharing the funding costs between the two agencies or in others, by facilitating Irish entry into the UK based fellowship. SFI-HRB-Wellcome Trust Re-entry programme is for postdoctoral scientists who have decided to recommence a scientific research career after a continuous break of at least two years. It gives such scientists the opportunity to return to research, with the potential to undertake refresher or further training, the fellowship is particularly suitable for applicants wishing to return to research after a break for family commitments. The scheme covers all areas of life and physical sciences, including engineering but excluding clinical medicine, successful candidates will be awarded a fellowship by the Royal Society, the cost of which will be met by Science Foundation Ireland. The SIRG award is an opportunity for early-career-stage investigators to carry out their own project in the fields of science, technology, engineering. SFI-HRB-Wellcome Trust Senior Research Fellowship funds postdoctoral scientists based in academic institutions in the UK, candidates are expected to have an excellent track record in their scientific field and be able to demonstrate their ability to carry out independent research. SFI Career Development Award Programme funds early- and mid-career researchers who hold a salaried, independent research post. This new call was announced in late 2015 and will expand on the current SFI PIYRA programme, bBSRC-Science Foundation Ireland joint funding of research funds applications from teams led by researchers from the UK and Ireland
19.
Foundation for Polish Science
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The Foundation For Polish Science is an independent, non-profit making organisation which aim at improving the opportunities for doing research in Poland. Established in 1991, the Foundations mission is to provide assistance and its effort is widely regarded as crucial in transforming Polish science after 1989. Foundation offers scholarships and grants for outstanding researchers at every career stage, stypendia START The new FNP Headquarters are located in Wierzbno, in a World War II surviving building. The building has recently renovated and the facade is now covered in greenery. The Living Wall is the first in Poland and apart from the benefits it helps blend the building with the green surroundings. Polish science and technology Polish Childrens Fund The National Science Centre Foundation For Polish Science Foundation for Polish Science Headquarters design by FAAB Architektura
20.
Charitable organization
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A charitable organization is a type of non-profit organization. It differs from types of NPOs in that it centers on philanthropic goals as well as social well-being. The legal definition of charitable organization varies according to the country, the regulation, tax treatment, and the way in which charity law affects charitable organizations also varies. Financial figures are important indicators to assess the sustainability of a charity. This information can impact a charitys reputation with donors and societies, and thus, Charitable organizations often depend partly on donations from for-profit-organizations. Such donations to charitable organizations represent a form of corporate philanthropy. Until the mid-18th century, charity was mainly distributed through parish relief, churches, almshouses, Charities were also responsible for education, health, housing and even prisons. It was in the Enlightenment era that charitable and philanthropic activity among voluntary associations, societies, gentlemans clubs, and mutual associations began to flourish in England and the upper-classes increasingly adopted a philanthropic attitude toward the disadvantaged. This new social activism was channeled into the establishment of charitable organizations and this emerging upper-class fashion for benevolence resulted in the incorporation of the first charitable organizations. This was the first such charity in the world and served as the precedent for incorporated associational charities everywhere. Jonas Hanway, another notable philanthropist of the era established The Marine Society in 1756 as the first seafarers charity, by 1763, the Society had recruited over 10,000 men and it was incorporated by an Act of Parliament in 1772. Hanway was also instrumental in establishing the Magdalen Hospital to rehabilitate prostitutes and these organizations were funded by subscription and run as voluntary associations. Charities also began to adopt campaigning roles, where they would champion a cause, the process was however a lengthy one being finally concluded when Saudi Arabia abolished slavery in 1962. This period also saw growing philosophical debate between those who championed state intervention and those who believed that private charities should provide welfare, thomas Malthus, the political economist, criticized poor relief for paupers on economic and moral grounds and proposed leaving charity entirely to the private sector. His views were influential and informed the Victorian laissez-faire attitude toward state intervention for the poor. During the 19th century, a profusion of charitable organizations were set up to alleviate the conditions of the working class in the slums. The Labourers Friend Society, chaired by Lord Shaftesbury in the United Kingdom in 1830, was set up to working class conditions. This included the promotion of allotment of land to labourers for cottage husbandry that later became the allotment movement and this was one of the first housing associations, a philanthropic endeavour that flourished in the second half of the nineteenth century brought about by the growth of the middle class
21.
National Lottery (United Kingdom)
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The National Lottery is the state-franchised national lottery in the United Kingdom. It is operated by Camelot Group, to whom the licence was granted in 1994,2001, the lottery is regulated by the National Lottery Commission, and was established by the government of John Major in 1994. All prizes are paid as a sum and are tax-free. 5% to cover operating costs and 0. 5% as profit. Lottery tickets and scratch cards may be only by people of at least 16 years of age. A statute of 1698 provided that in England lotteries were by default illegal unless specifically authorised by statute, early English state lotteries included the Million Lottery and the Malt Lottery. These Lotteries were part of a series of experiments by the English government including recoinage. A1934 Act, further liberalised in 1956 and 1976, legalised small lotteries, the UKs state-franchised lottery was set up under government licence by the government of John Major in 1993. The National Lottery is franchised to an operator, the Camelot Group was awarded the franchise on 25 May 1994. The first draw took place on 19 November 1994 with a programme presented by Noel Edmonds. The first numbers drawn were 30,3,5,44,14 and 22, the bonus was 10, tickets became available on the Isle of Man on 2 December 1999 at the request of Tynwald. The National Lottery undertook a rebranding programme in late 2002 designed to combat falling sales. The main game was renamed Lotto, and the National Lottery Extra became Lotto Extra, the stylized crossed-fingers logo was modified. However, the games as a collective are still known as the National Lottery and it is one of the most popular forms of gambling in the United Kingdom. In November 2009 Camelot replaced its older Lotto draw machines, the new machines are named Arthur, Guinevere, Lancelot and Merlin, reusing the names of older machines. At the same time, new machines for the Thunderball game were introduced, the new Lotto machines are the Magnum II model, manufactured by Smartplay International Inc. and the new Thunderball machines are the Smartplay Halogen II model. The ticket purchaser for a syndicate, typically its manager, must meet the eligibility criteria for ticket purchase, in the draw, six numbered balls are drawn without replacement from a set of 59 balls numbered from 1 to 59. A further Bonus Ball is also drawn, which only players who match five numbers. Prizes are awarded to players who match at least three of the six numbers, with prizes increasing for matching more of the drawn numbers
22.
Charitable trust
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A charitable trust is an irrevocable trust established for charitable purposes and, in some jurisdictions, a more specific term than charitable organization. In the Islamic Republic of Iran religious charitable trusts, or Bonyads, make up a part of the countrys economy. Unlike some other Muslim-majority countries, the bonyads receive large and controversial subsidies from the Iranian government, in England and Wales, charitable trusts are a form of express trust dedicated to charitable goals. There are a variety of advantages to charitable trust status, including exception from most forms of tax, to be a valid charitable trust, the organisation must demonstrate both a charitable purpose and a public benefit. There is also a requirement that the trusts purposes benefit the public, such trusts will be invalid in several circumstances, charitable trusts are not allowed to be run for profit, nor can they have purposes that are not charitable. In addition, it is considered unacceptable for charitable trusts to campaign for political or legal change, charitable trusts, as with other trusts, are administered by trustees, but there is no relationship between the trustees and the beneficiaries. This results in two things, firstly, the trustees of a charitable trust are far freer to act than other trustees and secondly, beneficiaries cannot bring a court case against the trustees. Rather, the beneficiaries are represented by the Attorney General for England and Wales as a parens patriae, jurisdiction over charitable disputes is shared equally between the High Court of Justice and the Charity Commission. The Commission, the first port of call, is tasked with regulating and promoting charitable trusts, as well as providing advice, where there are flaws with a charity, the High Court can administer schemes directing the function of the charity. In the United States, many individuals use charitable trusts to leave all or a portion of their estate to charity when they die, charitable trusts may be set up inter vivos or as a part of a trust or will at death. There are two types of US charitable trusts. The first is a lead trust, wherein the charity is paid first, the second is a remainder trust, wherein the charity is paid last after termination of the trust, after other beneficiaries have received payments. Payments may be fixed amount, annuity trust, or a percentage of principal and these split interest trusts are defined in §664 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 as amended and are normally tax-exempt. A section 664 trust makes its payments, either of an amount or a percentage of trust principal. At the end of the trust term, which may be based on either lives or a term of years, parents who have a child with a disability should ensure that the inheritance they leave for their child does not affect their childs eligibility for social assistance programs. A Henson trust can be useful to ensure this, charitable lead trusts make payments, either of a fixed amount or a percentage of trust principal, to charity during its term. At the end of the trust term, the remainder can either go back to the donor or to heirs named by the donor. The donor may sometimes claim a charitable tax deduction or a gift/estate tax deduction for making a lead trust gift
23.
Corporate social responsibility
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Corporate social responsibility is a form of corporate self-regulation integrated into a business model. CSR policy functions as a mechanism whereby a business monitors and ensures its active compliance with the spirit of the law, ethical standards. The binary choice between complying with the law and going beyond the law must be qualified with some nuance, weak law must not be confused with soft law. CSR strategies encourage the company to make a impact on the environment and stakeholders including consumers, employees, investors, communities. Proponents argue that corporations increase long-term profits by operating with a CSR perspective, political sociologists became interested in CSR in the context of theories of globalization, neoliberalism and late capitalism. CSR is titled to aid an organizations mission as well as serve as a guide to what the company represents for its consumers, Business ethics is the part of applied ethics that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business environment. ISO26000 is the international standard for CSR. Public sector organizations adhere to the bottom line. It is widely accepted that CSR adheres to principles. The term corporate social responsibility became popular in the 1960s and has remained a term used indiscriminately by many to cover legal and moral responsibility more narrowly construed, Business Dictionary defines CSR as A company’s sense of responsibility towards the community and environment in which it operates. Companies express this citizenship through their waste and pollution reduction processes, by contributing educational and social programs, a broader definition expands from a focus on stakeholders to include philanthropy and volunteering. Most consumers agree that while achieving business targets, companies should do CSR at the same time, most consumers believe companies doing charity will receive a positive response. Somerville also found that consumers are loyal and willing to spend more on retailers that support charity, consumers also believe that retailers selling local products will gain loyalty. Smith shares the belief that marketing local products will gain consumer trust, however, environmental efforts are receiving negative views given the belief that this would affect customer service. Oppewal et al. found that not all CSR activities are attractive to consumers and they recommended that retailers focus on one activity. Becker-Olsen found that if the social initiative done by the company is not aligned with other company goals it will have a negative impact, mohr et al. and Groza et al. also emphasise the importance of reaching the consumer. Some commentators have identified a difference between the Canadian, the Continental European and the Anglo-Saxon approaches to CSR, and even within Europe the discussion about CSR is very heterogeneous. A more common approach to CSR is corporate philanthropy and this includes monetary donations and aid given to nonprofit organizations and communities
24.
Google
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Google is an American multinational technology company specializing in Internet-related services and products. These include online advertising technologies, search, cloud computing, software, Google was founded in 1996 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were Ph. D. students at Stanford University, in California. Together, they own about 14 percent of its shares, and they incorporated Google as a privately held company on September 4,1998. An initial public offering took place on August 19,2004, in August 2015, Google announced plans to reorganize its various interests as a conglomerate called Alphabet Inc. Google, Alphabets leading subsidiary, will continue to be the company for Alphabets Internet interests. Upon completion of the restructure, Sundar Pichai became CEO of Google, replacing Larry Page, rapid growth since incorporation has triggered a chain of products, acquisitions, and partnerships beyond Googles core search engine. The company leads the development of the Android mobile operating system, the Google Chrome web browser, and Chrome OS, the new hardware chief, Rick Osterloh, stated, a lot of the innovation that we want to do now ends up requiring controlling the end-to-end user experience. Google has also experimented with becoming an Internet carrier, alexa, a company that monitors commercial web traffic, lists Google. com as the most visited website in the world. Several other Google services also figure in the top 100 most visited websites, including YouTube, Googles mission statement, from the outset, was to organize the worlds information and make it universally accessible and useful, and its unofficial slogan was Dont be evil. In October 2015, the motto was replaced in the Alphabet corporate code of conduct by the phrase Do the right thing, Google began in January 1996 as a research project by Larry Page and Sergey Brin when they were both PhD students at Stanford University in Stanford, California. They called this new technology PageRank, it determined a websites relevance by the number of pages, and the importance of those pages, Page and Brin originally nicknamed their new search engine BackRub, because the system checked backlinks to estimate the importance of a site. Originally, Google ran under Stanford Universitys website, with the domains google. stanford. edu, the domain name for Google was registered on September 15,1997, and the company was incorporated on September 4,1998. It was based in the garage of a friend in Menlo Park, craig Silverstein, a fellow PhD student at Stanford, was hired as the first employee. The first funding for Google was an August 1998 contribution of $100,000 from Andy Bechtolsheim, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, given before Google was incorporated. At least three other investors invested in 1998, Amazon. com founder Jeff Bezos, Stanford University computer science professor David Cheriton. Author Ken Auletta claims that each invested $250,000, early in 1999, Brin and Page decided they wanted to sell Google to Excite. They went to Excite CEO George Bell and offered to sell it to him for $1 million, vinod Khosla, one of Excites venture capitalists, talked the duo down to $750,000, but Bell still rejected it. Googles initial public offering took place five years later, on August 19,2004, at that time Larry Page, Sergey Brin, and Eric Schmidt agreed to work together at Google for 20 years, until the year 2024
25.
AdWords
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Google AdWords is an online advertising service, developed by Google, where advertisers pay to display brief advertising copy to web users. Google AdWords system is based partly on cookies and partly on keywords determined by advertisers, Google uses these characteristics to place advertising copy on pages where it is relevant. Advertisers pay when users divert their browsing to click on the advertising copy, partner websites receive a portion of the generated income. AdWords has evolved into Googles main source of revenue, contributing to Googles total advertising revenues of USD $43.7 billion in 2012, AdWords offers services such as pay-per-click advertising and cost-per-acquisition advertising. The AdWords program includes local, national, and international distribution, Googles text advertisements are short, consisting of one headline with a maximum of 30 characters, two text lines of 35 characters each, and a display URL of 40 characters. These mimic what the search result looks like on Google. Image ads can be one of the different standardized sizes as designated by the Interactive Advertising Bureau. In May 2016, Google announced its reformatting of ads to help consumers and advertisers succeed in a mobile-first world, the new format, called Expanded Text Ads, allows for 23% more text. This new format is available on both the Google Search Network and the Google Display network and it features two headlines with 30 characters each, replacing the standard of a single headline with 30 characters. The display URL has been replaced with two 15 character paths, not including the root domain. Sales and support for Googles AdWords division in the United States are based in Mountain View, California, with secondary offices in Hyderabad, Dublin, Singapore, Ann Arbor. The third-largest US facility is the headquarters, located in Mountain View, Google AdWords engineering is based at the headquarters, with major secondary offices in Los Angeles and New York. Google has an official public help and support community maintained and frequented by highly experienced AdWords users. As of 2011, AdWords represented 96% of Googles revenue, in addition to controlling ad placements through targeting audiences based on location and language usage, ad placements can be refined with Internet Protocol address exclusion. This feature enables advertisers to exclude specified IP address ranges if they do not want their ads to appear there, advertisers can exclude up to 500 IP addresses per campaign. Google AdWords Express is a feature aimed at businesses as it reduces the difficulty of managing ad campaigns by automatically managing keywords. AdWords Express was previously known as Google Boost, AdWords Express also supports small businesses that do not have a website, allowing them to direct customers to their place page. Google Partners, originally known as Google AdWords Certification Program or Google AdWords Certification, is a Google AdWords partner certification program and it replaced Google Advertising Professionals in April 2010, with updates ranging from amended criteria for entries and changes to the exam requirements
26.
Fundraising
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Fundraising is a significant way that non-profit organizations may obtain the money for their operations. Many non-profit organizations take advantage of the services of professional fundraisers and these fundraisers may be paid for their services either through fees unrelated to the amounts of money to be raised, or by retaining a percentage of raised funds. The latter approach is expressly forbidden under the Code of Ethics of the Association of Fundraising Professionals, however, by far the most common practice of American non-profits is to employ a staff person whose main responsibility is fund raising. This person is paid a salary like any employee, and is usually a part of the top management staff of the organization. Some non-profit organizations nonetheless engage fundraisers who are paid a percentage of the funds they raise, in the United States, this ratio of funds retained to funds passed on to the non-profit is subject to reporting to a number of states Attorneys General or Secretaries of state. This ratio is variable and subject to change over time and place. Although potentially confusing, the distinction is an important one to note, the CFRE credential is administered by CFRE International, an independent 5016 whose sole mission is dedicated to setting standards in philanthropy through a valid and reliable certification process. A specialty within the profession is the grant professional. Grant professionals with at least three years experience, and other requirements, can become certified as Grant Professional Certified, equally important are fundraising efforts by virtually every recognized religious group throughout the world. These efforts are organized on a local, national, and global level, sometimes, such funds will go exclusively toward assisting the basic needs of others, while money may at other times be used only for evangelism or proselytism. Usually, religious organizations mix the two, which can cause tension. Fundraising also plays a role in political campaigns. This fact, despite numerous campaign finance laws, continues to be a highly controversial topic in American politics. Political action committees are the organizations that back candidates and political parties. Some advocacy organizations conduct fundraising for-or-against policy issues in an attempt to influence legislation, while public broadcasters are completely government-funded in much of the world, there are many countries where some funds must come from donations from the public. In the United States less than 15% of local broadcasting stations funding comes from the federal government. Pledge drives, a type of annual giving, commonly occur three times each year, usually lasting one to two weeks each time. Viewership and listenership often declines significantly during funding periods, so special programming may be aired in order to regular viewers and listeners interested
27.
Charities Aid Foundation
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The Charities Aid Foundation is a registered UK charity. CAF provides services and assistance to UK and international charities and their donors and its head office is located in the Kings Hill business park, West Malling, Kent with a second office in London on St Bride Street, EC4A 4AD. In 1924 the National Council of Social Service set up a Charities Department to encourage efficient giving to charity and this department was later renamed the Charities Aid Fund while the National Council of Social Service became the National Council for Voluntary Organisations. The Charities Aid Foundation took its current name in 1974 when it was spun off from the NCVO as an independent organisation and its projects include the CAF Venturesome, a high-risk investment fund, and Charity Bank, which became independent in 2002. CAF provides services to charities, businesses and individuals in the UK and abroad, including help with fund raising, consultancy, CAF owns and operates CAF Bank which offers banking services to UK charities. Products include current accounts, free online banking including dual authorisation, term loans, development funding, working capital facilities, overdraft facilities, on the 17th October 2016 CAF will be changing their terms and conditions, including introducing a £5 monthly charge for every cash account held. It was the first bank to offer its services exclusively to not-for-profit organisations, CAF Bank Limited is authorised and regulated by the Financial Services Authority and is covered by the Financial Ombudsman Service. In 2016 CAF announced that the platform had processed over £50 million in donations to 2,300 charities. CAF Give As You Earn is the most popular payroll giving scheme in the UK, CAF Company Accounts enable companies to give tax effectively and to donate safely to any charitable organisation around the world. CAF also produce a report examining corporate giving by the FTSE100. CAF operates a Charity Account scheme, a system acts like a current account for charitable giving. The account allows account holders to donate to charities through an account, by phone, post or online. Donations are eligible for tax relief under the Gift Aid rules, donations may be anonymous and, because payments can only be made to registered charities, the account prevents account holders from donating to bogus charities. Financial journalist Martin Lewis uses a Charity Account to hold the £10 million he pledged to charity following the sale of MoneySavingExpert, myanmar topped the CAF World Giving Index 2015 CAF are responsible for the UK arm of Giving Tuesday, the global day of giving
28.
Land grant
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The United States historically gave out numerous land grants as Homesteads to individuals desiring to prove a farm. Roman soldiers were given pensions at the end of their service including cash or land, augustus fixed the amount in AD5 at 3,000 denarii and by the time of Caracalla it had risen to 5,000 denarii. One denarius was roughly equivalent to a days wages for an unskilled laborer, starting from 1788, the British crown granted land to released convicts in the colony of New South Wales. Males were allowed 30 acres, plus 20 acres if they were married, instructions were issued on 20 August 1789 that non-commissioned Marine Officers were to be entitled to 100 acres additional and privates to 50 acres additional. Governor Macquarie canceled land grants issued during the Rum Rebellion 1808-09, Land grants started to be phased out when private tendering was introduced, and stricter limits were placed on grants without purchase. The instructions to Governor Brisbane were issued on 17 July 1825, eventually, on 9 January 1831, Viscount Goderich commanded that all land was to be sold at public auction. There were also significant land grants in the Swan River Colony, in 1886, the Midland Railway of Western Australia was granted land concessions to build and operate a railway from Midland, near Perth, to Walkaway, near Geraldton. This was built, but taken over by the government railway in the 1950s and it was and is 1,067 mm gauge. In 1889, a land grant railway was from Roebuck Bay in Western Australia to Angle Pole in the Northern Territory or South Australia was proposed and this would have been 1000 miles long. Angle Pole was a locality where the Telegraph line had bend in it, the gauge would have been 1,600 mm. In 1897, a transcontinental North-South land grant railway was proposed to complete the link between Oodnadatta and Darwin, the latter then called Palmerston or Port Darwin. This was still-born, though the government railway was extended in the 1920s from Oodnadatta to Alice Springs and it was originally 1,067 mm gauge, but was replaced by a new 1,435 mm gauge line on a different route. In 1909, a land grant railway was proposed in Queensland from Charleville to Point Parker on the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, but this was stillborn. The Hudsons Bay Company was incorporated in 1670 with the grant of Ruperts Land by King Charles II of England, following the Ruperts Land Act in the British Parliament, Ruperts Land was sold in 1869 to the newly formed Canadian Government for the nominal sum of £300,000. The Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company built and operated the 134 km Wellington-Manawatu Line north of Wellington to the Manawatu from 1881, the company was New Zealand owned. It was taken over by the government in 1908, and the became part of the North Island Main Trunk. In America, starting in the 16th century, land grants were given for the purpose of establishing settlements, missions, countries granting land included Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands, and Britain. Under colonial law, a patentee had to improve the land, under this doctrine of planting and seeding, the patentee was required to cultivate 1-acre of land and build a small house on the property, otherwise the patent would revert to the government
29.
Funding
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Finance is a field that deals with the study of investments. It includes the dynamics of assets and liabilities over time under conditions of different degrees of uncertainty, Finance can also be defined as the science of money management. Finance aims to price assets based on their level and their expected rate of return. Finance can be broken into three different sub-categories, public finance, corporate finance and personal finance. g, health and property insurance, investing and saving for retirement. Personal finance may also involve paying for a loan, or debt obligations, net worth is a persons balance sheet, calculated by adding up all assets under that persons control, minus all liabilities of the household, at one point in time. Household cash flow totals up all the sources of income within a year. From this analysis, the financial planner can determine to what degree, adequate protection, the analysis of how to protect a household from unforeseen risks. These risks can be divided into the following, liability, property, death, disability, health, some of these risks may be self-insurable, while most will require the purchase of an insurance contract. Determining how much insurance to get, at the most cost effective terms requires knowledge of the market for personal insurance, business owners, professionals, athletes and entertainers require specialized insurance professionals to adequately protect themselves. Since insurance also enjoys some tax benefits, utilizing insurance investment products may be a piece of the overall investment planning. Tax planning, typically the income tax is the single largest expense in a household, managing taxes is not a question of if you will pay taxes, but when and how much. Government gives many incentives in the form of tax deductions and credits, most modern governments use a progressive tax. Typically, as ones income grows, a marginal rate of tax must be paid. Understanding how to take advantage of the tax breaks when planning ones personal finances can make a significant impact in which it can later save you money in the long term. Investment and accumulation goals, planning how to accumulate enough money - for large purchases, major reasons to accumulate assets include, purchasing a house or car, starting a business, paying for education expenses, and saving for retirement. Achieving these goals requires projecting what they will cost, and when you need to withdraw funds that will be necessary to be able to achieve these goals, a major risk to the household in achieving their accumulation goal is the rate of price increases over time, or inflation. Using net present value calculators, the planner will suggest a combination of asset earmarking. In order to overcome the rate of inflation, the investment portfolio has to get a higher rate of return, managing these portfolio risks is most often accomplished using asset allocation, which seeks to diversify investment risk and opportunity
