1.
Texas
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Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
County seat
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A county seat is an administrative center, seat of government, or capital city of a county or civil parish. The term is used in the United States, Canada, Romania, China, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, county towns have a similar function. In the United States, counties are the subdivisions of a state. Depending on the state, counties may provide services to the public, impose taxes. Some types of subdivisions, such as townships, may be incorporated or unincorporated. The city, town, or populated place that houses county government is known as the seat of its respective county, a county seat is usually, but not always, an incorporated municipality. The exceptions include the county seats of counties that have no incorporated municipalities within their borders, such as Arlington County, Virginia, likewise, some county seats may not be incorporated in their own right, but are located within incorporated municipalities. For example, Cape May Court House, New Jersey, though unincorporated, is a section of Middle Township, in some of the colonial states, county seats include or formerly included Court House as part of their name. Most counties have only one county seat, an example is Harrison County, Mississippi, which lists both Biloxi and Gulfport as county seats. The practice of multiple county seat towns dates from the days when travel was difficult, there have been few efforts to eliminate the two-seat arrangement, since a county seat is a source of pride for the towns involved. There are 36 counties with multiple county seats in 11 states, Coffee County, for example, the official county seat is Greensboro, but an additional courthouse has been located in nearby High Point since 1938. For example, Clearwater is the county seat of Pinellas County, Florida, in New England, the town, not the county, is the primary division of local government. Historically, counties in this region have served mainly as dividing lines for the judicial systems. Connecticut and Rhode Island have no county level of government and thus no county seats, in Vermont, Massachusetts, and Maine the county seats are legally designated shire towns. County government consists only of a Superior Court and Sheriff, both located in the shire town. Bennington County has two towns, but the Sheriff is located in Bennington. In Massachusetts, most government functions which would otherwise be performed by county governments in other states are performed by town governments. As such, Massachusetts has dissolved many of its county governments, two counties in South Dakota have their county seat and government services centered in a neighboring county
4.
Sherman, Texas
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Sherman is a city in and the county seat of Grayson County, Texas, United States. The citys population in 2010 was 38,315 and it is one of the two principal cities in the Sherman–Denison Metropolitan Statistical Area, and it is part of the Texoma region. Sherman was named after General Sidney Sherman, a hero of the Texas Revolution, the community was designated as the county seat by the act of the Texas legislature which created Grayson County on March 17,1846. In 1847, a post office began operation, Sherman was originally located at the center of the county, but in 1848 it was moved about 3 miles east to its current location. By 1850, Sherman had become a town under Texas law. It had also become a stop on the Butterfield Overland Mail route through Texas, by 1852, Sherman had a population of 300. It consisted of a square with a log court house, and several businesses, a district clerks office. During the 1850s and 1860s, Sherman continued to develop and to participate in regional politics, the first flour mill was built in 1861. In 1862 the publisher of Shermans anti-secessionist Whig newspaper, the Patriot, was murdered, during and after the Civil War, north Texas outlaw bands led by Jesse James and William Quantrill were seen in Sherman. Years later, James spent at least part of his honeymoon in Sherman, education developed in north Texas during this time. The Sherman Male and Female High School started accepting students during 1866 and it was one of three private schools in Sherman at the time. This school operated under several names until 1935 and it gradually lost Methodist support, after the opening of Southern Methodist University in 1915 in Dallas. In 1876, Austin College, the oldest continuously operating college in Texas, Sherman Female Institute, later known as Mary Nash College, opened in 1877 under sponsorship of the Baptist Church. It continued operation until 1901 when the campus was sold to Kidd-Key College, carr–Burdette College, a womens college affiliated with the Disciples of Christ, operated there from 1894 to 1929. Jews have had a history in Sherman, too, settling in the area. While there was general depression and lawlessness during Reconstruction, Sherman remained commercially active, during the 1870s Shermans population reached 6,000. In 1875, two fires destroyed many buildings east of the square and they were rebuilt with superior materials. This included a new Grayson County Courthouse built in 1876, in 1879, the Old Settlers Association of North Texas formed and met near Sherman
5.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
6.
Texas's 4th congressional district
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It also includes counties in East Texas such as Rains County. As of the 2000 census, District 4 represents 651,620 people who are predominantly Caucasian, Texas has had at least four congressional districts since the state was readmitted to the Union after the Civil War. The districts current seat dates from 1903, only four men have represented it since then, once a reliably Democratic district, the district swung rapidly into the Republican column as Dallas suburbs spilled into the western portion of the district. In fact, it has not supported a Democrat for president since 1964, in the process, District 4 was pushed slightly to the north, picking up Texarkana from District 1. Ralph Hall, the dean of the Texas congressional delegation. Originally a Democrat, he became a Republican in 2004, Halls voting record had been very conservative even by Texas Democratic standards, which served him well as the district abandoned its Democratic roots. By the turn of the century, he was the only elected Democrat above the county level in much of the district. He had been rumored as a party switcher for some time, Hall was defeated in the 2014 Republican primary by John Ratcliffe, a former United States Attorney and the former mayor of Heath, near Halls hometown of Rockwall. No Democrat even filed, though the district is so heavily Republican that any Democratic candidate would have faced nearly impossible odds in any event, Ratcliffe took office in January 2015, becoming only the fourth person to hold the seat. The districts best-known congressman was Sam Rayburn, the longtime Speaker of the House, president Dwight D. Eisenhower was born in the fourth district. Even as late as 1996, Bill Clinton carried 10 of the 16 counties currently in this district, the district was created in 1869, one of two new districts that Texas gained after the 1860 Census, but was not filled due to the Civil War and Reconstruction. List of United States congressional districts Martis, Kenneth C, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts, Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present
7.
Time in the United States
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The time zone boundaries and DST observance are regulated by the Department of Transportation. The clocks run by these services are synchronized with each other as well as with those of other international timekeeping organizations. It is the combination of the zone and daylight saving rules, along with the timekeeping services. The use of solar time became increasingly awkward as railways. American railroads maintained many different time zones during the late 1800s, each train station set its own clock making it difficult to coordinate train schedules and confusing passengers. Time calculation became a problem for people travelling by train. Every city in the United States used a different time standard so there were more than 300 local sun times to choose from, Time zones were therefore a compromise, relaxing the complex geographic dependence while still allowing local time to be approximate with mean solar time. Railroad managers tried to address the problem by establishing 100 railroad time zones, operators of the new railroad lines needed a new time plan that would offer a uniform train schedule for departures and arrivals. Four standard time zones for the continental United States were introduced at noon on November 18,1883, the conference therefore established the Greenwich Meridian as the prime meridian and Greenwich Mean Time as the worlds time standard. The US time-zone system grew from this, in all zones referred back to GMT on the prime meridian. It is, within about 1 second, mean time at 0°. It does not observe daylight saving time and it is one of several closely related successors to Greenwich Mean Time. For most purposes, UTC is considered interchangeable with GMT, standard time zones in the United States are currently defined at the federal level by law 15 USC §260. The federal law establishes the transition dates and times at which daylight saving time occurs. As of August 9,2007, the time zones are defined in terms of hourly offsets from UTC. Prior to this they were based upon the solar time at several meridians 15° apart west of Greenwich. Only the full-time zone names listed below are official, abbreviations are by common use conventions, the United States uses nine standard time zones. The Central standard time zone, which comprises roughly the Gulf Coast, Mississippi Valley, the Mountain standard time zone, which comprises roughly the states that include the Rocky Mountains
8.
Central Time Zone
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The North American Central Time Zone is a time zone in parts of Canada, the United States, Mexico, Central America, some Caribbean Islands, and part of the Eastern Pacific Ocean. Central Standard Time is six hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, during summer most of the zone uses daylight saving time, and changes to Central Daylight Time which is five hours behind UTC. The province of Manitoba is the province or territory in Canada that observes Central Time in all areas. Also, most of the province of Saskatchewan is on Central Standard Time year-round, major exceptions include Lloydminster, a city situated on the boundary between Alberta and Saskatchewan. The city charter stipulates that it shall observe Mountain Time and DST, putting the community on the time as all of Alberta, including the major cities of Calgary. As a result, during the summer, clocks in the province match those in Alberta. The Central Time Zone is the second most populous in the US after the Eastern Time Zone, lanett and Valley observe Eastern Time historically because they were textile mill towns and the original home office of their mills was in West Point, Georgia. Some eastern counties observe Central Time because they are close to the border of the Middle Tennessee counties surrounding the Nashville metropolitan area. Louisiana Michigan, All of Michigan observes Eastern Time except the four Upper Peninsula counties that border Wisconsin, other westernmost counties from this area such as Ontonagon observe Eastern Time. South Dakota, Eastern half as divided by the Missouri river adjacent to the state capital, note, the metropolitan area of Pierre is Central, including Fort Pierre. Wisconsin Most of Mexico—roughly the eastern three-fourths—lies in the Central Time Zone, except for six northwestern states, the federal entities of Mexico that observe Central Time, Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua all use Central Standard Time year-round. The Galápagos Islands in Ecuador uses Central Standard Time all year-round, Daylight saving time is in effect in much of the Central time zone between mid-March and early November. The modified time is called Central Daylight Time and is UTC−5, in Canada, Saskatchewan does not observe a time change. One reason that Saskatchewan does not take part in a change is that, geographically. The province elected to move onto permanent daylight saving by being part of the Central Time Zone, Mexico decided not to go along with this change and observes their horario de verano from the first Sunday in April to the last Sunday in October. In December 2009, the Mexican Congress allowed ten border cities, eight of which are in states that observe Central Time, to adopt the U. S. daylight time schedule effective in 2010
9.
Coordinated Universal Time
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Coordinated Universal Time, abbreviated to UTC, is the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time. It is within about 1 second of mean time at 0° longitude. It is one of closely related successors to Greenwich Mean Time. For most purposes, UTC is considered interchangeable with GMT, the first Coordinated Universal Time was informally adopted on 1 January 1960. This change also adopted leap seconds to simplify future adjustments, a number of proposals have been made to replace UTC with a new system that would eliminate leap seconds, but no consensus has yet been reached. Leap seconds are inserted as necessary to keep UTC within 0.9 seconds of universal time, see the Current number of leap seconds section for the number of leap seconds inserted to date. The official abbreviation for Coordinated Universal Time is UTC and this abbreviation arose from a desire by the International Telecommunication Union and the International Astronomical Union to use the same abbreviation in all languages. English speakers originally proposed CUT, while French speakers proposed TUC, the compromise that emerged was UTC, which conforms to the pattern for the abbreviations of the variants of Universal Time. Time zones around the world are expressed using positive or negative offsets from UTC, the westernmost time zone uses UTC−12, being twelve hours behind UTC, the easternmost time zone, theoretically, uses UTC+12, being twelve hours ahead of UTC. In 1995, the nation of Kiribati moved those of its atolls in the Line Islands from UTC-10 to UTC+14 so that the country would all be on the same day. UTC is used in internet and World Wide Web standards. The Network Time Protocol, designed to synchronise the clocks of computers over the internet, computer servers, online services and other entities that rely on having a universally accepted time use UTC as it is more specific than GMT. If only limited precision is needed, clients can obtain the current UTC from a number of official internet UTC servers, for sub-microsecond precision, clients can obtain the time from satellite signals. UTC is also the standard used in aviation, e. g. for flight plans. Weather forecasts and maps all use UTC to avoid confusion about time zones, the International Space Station also uses UTC as a time standard. Amateur radio operators often schedule their radio contacts in UTC, because transmissions on some frequencies can be picked up by many time zones, UTC is also used in digital tachographs used on large goods vehicles under EU and AETR rules. UTC divides time into days, hours, minutes and seconds, days are conventionally identified using the Gregorian calendar, but Julian day numbers can also be used. Each day contains 24 hours and each hour contains 60 minutes, the number of seconds in a minute is usually 60, but with an occasional leap second, it may be 61 or 59 instead
10.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
11.
County (United States)
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In the United States, an administrative or political sub-division of a state is a county, which is a region having specific boundaries and usually some level of governmental authority. The term county is used in 48 U. S. states, while Louisiana and Alaska have functionally equivalent subdivisions called parishes, most counties have subdivisions which may include municipalities and unincorporated areas. Others have no divisions, or may serve as a singular consolidated city-county. Some municipalities are in multiple counties, New York City is uniquely partitioned into multiple counties/boroughs, the U. S. federal government uses the term county equivalent to describe non-county administrative or statistical areas that are comparable to counties. Alaskas Unorganized Borough is divided into 11 census areas that are equivalent to counties. As of 2013, the United States has 3,007 counties and 137 county equivalents for a total of 3,144 counties, the number of counties per state ranges from the 3 counties of Delaware to the 254 counties of Texas. Counties have significant governmental functions in all states except Rhode Island and Connecticut, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts has removed most government functions from eight of its 14 counties. The county with the largest population, Los Angeles County, counties were among the earliest units of local government established in the Thirteen Colonies that would become the United States. Virginia created the first counties in order to ease the workload in Jamestown. Americas oldest intact county court records can be found at Eastville, Virginia, in Northampton County, maryland established its first county, St. Marys, in 1637, and Massachusetts followed in 1643. When independence came, the framers of the Constitution did not provide for local governments, rather, they left the matter to the states. Subsequently, early state constitutions generally conceptualized county government as an arm of the state, in some states, these powers are partly or mostly devolved to the counties smaller divisions usually called townships, though in New York, New England and Wisconsin they are called towns. The county may or may not be able to override its townships on certain matters, the newest county in the United States is the city and county of Broomfield, Colorado, established in 2001 as a consolidated city-county. The newest county-equivalents are the Alaskan boroughs of Skagway established in 2007, Wrangell established in 2008, there are 40 consolidated city-counties in the U. S. Similarly, some of Alaskas boroughs have merged with their principal cities creating unified city-boroughs. Some such consolidations and mergers have created cities that rank among the geographically largest cities in the world, see also, #County names, regarding Louisiana. Independent cities, These are cities that legally belong to no county, Washington, D. C. outside the jurisdiction of any state, has a special status. The city of Washington comprises the entirety of the District of Columbia, when founded in 1801, the District consisted of two counties and three cities. In 1846, Alexandria County – including the then–City of Alexandria – was given back to Virginia, in 1871, the three remaining entities – the City of Washington, Georgetown City, and Washington County – were merged into a consolidated government by an act of Congress
12.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
13.
Republic of Texas
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The Republic of Texas was an independent sovereign country in North America that existed from March 2,1836, to February 19,1846. The citizens of the republic were known as Texians, the Mexican province of Tejas declared its independence from Mexico during the Texas Revolution in 1836. The United States recognized the Republic of Texas in March 1837, the Republic-claimed borders were based upon the Treaties of Velasco between the newly created Texas Republic and Antonio López de Santa Anna of Mexico. The republics southern and western boundary with Mexico continued to be disputed throughout the republics existence, Texas claimed the Rio Grande as its southern boundary, while Mexico insisted that the Nueces River was the boundary. However, the United States again inherited the southern and western border dispute with Mexico, Texas had been one of the Provincias Internas of New Spain, a region known historiographically as Spanish Texas. Though claimed by Spain, it was not formally colonized by them until competing French interests at Fort St. Louis encouraged Spain to establish permanent settlements in the area. Sporadic missionary incursions occurred into the area during the period from the 1690s–1710s, in 1762, France ceded to Spain most of its claims to the interior of North America, including its claim to Texas, as well as the vast interior that became Spanish Louisiana. During the years 1799 to 1803, the height of the Napoleonic Empire, Spain returned Louisiana back to France, starting in 1810, the territories of New Spain north of the Isthmus of Panama sought independence in the Mexican War of Independence. Many Americans fought on the side of Mexico against Spain in filibustering expeditions, one of these, the Gutiérrez–Magee Expedition consisted of a group of about 130 Americans under the leadership of Bernardo Gutiérrez de Lara. Gutierrez de Lara initiated Mexicos secession from Spain with efforts contributed by Magee, bolstered by new recruits, and led Samuel Kemper, the expedition gained a series of victories against soldiers led by the Spanish governor, Manuel María de Salcedo. Their victory at the Battle of Rosillo Creek convinced Salcedo to surrender on April 1,1813, on April 6,1813, the victorious Republican Army of the North drafted a constitution and declared the independent Republic of Texas, with Gutiérrez as its president. Soon disillusioned with the Mexican leadership, the Americans under Kemper returned to the United States, the ephemeral Republic of Texas came to an end following the August 18,1813 Battle of Medina, where the Spanish Army crushed the Republican Army of the North. Since Mexican independence had been ratified by Spain shortly thereafter, Austin would later travel to Mexico City to secure the support of the new country in his right to settle. The establishment of Mexican Texas coincided with the Austin-led settlement, leading to animosity between Mexican authorities and ongoing American settlement of Texas, the First Mexican Empire was short lived, being replaced by a republican form of government in 1823. Following Austins lead, additional groups of settlers, known as Empresarios, in 1830, Mexican President Anastasio Bustamante outlawed American immigration to Texas, following several conflicts with the Empresarios over the status of slavery in the region. Angered at the interference of the Mexican government, the Empresarios held the Convention of 1832, on the eve of war, the American settlers in the area outnumbered Mexicans by a considerable margin. Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna revoked the 1824 Constitution of Mexico, the Texian leadership under Austin began to organize its own military, and hostilities broke out on October 2,1835 at the Battle of Gonzales, the first engagement of the Texas Revolution. In November,1835 a provisional government known as the Consultation was established to oppose the Santa Anna regime, on March 1,1836 the Convention of 1836 came to order, and the next day declared independence from Mexico, establishing the Republic of Texas
14.
Denison, Texas
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Denison is a city in Grayson County, Texas, United States. It is 75 miles north of Dallas, the population was 22,682 at the 2010 census. Denison is part of the Texoma region and is one of two cities in the Sherman–Denison Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is best known for being the birthplace of Dwight D. Eisenhower, Denison was founded in 1872 in conjunction with the Missouri–Kansas–Texas Railroad or Katy depot. It was named after the wealthy Katy vice president George Denison, because the town was established close to where the MKT crossed the Red River, it came to be an important commercial center in the 19th century American West. In 1875, Doc Holliday had offices in Denison, in 1901 the first electric Interurban railway in Texas, the Denison and Sherman Railway, was completed between Denison and Sherman. In 1915, the Kentucky-based evangelist Mordecai Ham held a meeting in Denison. Denison played host to 20th century notables such as the Marx Brothers and President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Denison is located in northeastern Grayson County, with the city limits extending north to the Red River, which forms the Oklahoma state line. It is bordered to the south by the city of Sherman, the city centers are 11 miles apart. According to the United States Census Bureau, Denison has an area of 23.4 square miles, of which 23.0 square miles are land and 0.46 square miles. Denison Dam, which forms Lake Texoma on the Red River, is 5 miles north of Denison, the city is in the center of the Texoma region, encompassing parts of Texas and Oklahoma. Denison has a subtropical climate. At the census of 2000, there were 22,773 people,9,185 households, the population density was 1,008.1 people per square mile. There were 10,309 housing units at a density of 456.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 84. 02% White,8. 62% African American,1. 67% Native American,0. 46% Asian,0. 06% Pacific Islander,2. 19% from other races, and 2. 98% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5. 23% of the population,29. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the family size was 2.97. In the city, the population was out with 24. 6% under the age of 18,8. 8% from 18 to 24,26. 7% from 25 to 44,22. 4% from 45 to 64
15.
Dallas
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Dallas is a major city in the U. S. state of Texas. It is the most populous city in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, the citys population ranks ninth in the U. S. and third in Texas after Houston and San Antonio. The citys prominence arose from its importance as a center for the oil and cotton industries. The bulk of the city is in Dallas County, of which it is the county seat, however, sections of the city are located in Collin, Denton, Kaufman, and Rockwall counties. According to the 2010 United States Census, the city had a population of 1,197,816, the United States Census Bureaus estimate for the citys population increased to 1,300,092 as of July 1,2015. In 2016 DFW ascended to the one spot in the nation in year-over-year population growth. In 2014, the metropolitan economy surpassed Washington, D. C. to become the fifth largest in the U. S. with a 2014 real GDP over $504 billion, as such, the metropolitan areas economy is the 10th largest in the world. As of January 2017, the job count has increased to 3,558,200 jobs. The citys economy is based on banking, commerce, telecommunications, technology, energy, healthcare and medical research. The city is home to the third-largest concentration of Fortune 500 companies in the nation. Located in North Texas, Dallas is the core of the largest metropolitan area in the South. Dallas and nearby Fort Worth were developed due to the construction of railroad lines through the area allowing access to cotton, cattle. Later, France also claimed the area but never established much settlement, the area remained under Spanish rule until 1821, when Mexico declared independence from Spain, and the area was considered part of the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas. In 1836, the Republic of Texas, with majority Anglo-American settlers, in 1839, Warren Angus Ferris surveyed the area around present-day Dallas. John Neely Bryan established a permanent settlement near the Trinity River named Dallas in 1841, the origin of the name is uncertain. The Republic of Texas was annexed by the United States in 1845, Dallas was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1856. With construction of railroads, Dallas became a business and trading center and it became an industrial city, attracting workers from Texas, the South and the Midwest. The Praetorian Building of 15 stories, built in 1909, was the first skyscraper west of the Mississippi and it marked the prominence of Dallas as a city
16.
Fort Worth, Texas
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Fort Worth is the 16th-largest city in the United States and the fifth-largest city in the state of Texas. The city is in North Central Texas and covers nearly 350 square miles in the counties of Denton, Parker, Wise, according to the 2015 census, estimates, Fort Worths population is 833,319. The city is the second-largest in the Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington metropolitan area, the city was established in 1849 as an Army outpost on a bluff overlooking the Trinity River. Today, Fort Worth still embraces its Western heritage and traditional architecture, USS Fort Worth is the first ship of the United States Navy named after the city. Fort Worth is home to the Van Cliburn International Piano Competition, also of note is the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, designed by Tadao Ando. The Amon Carter Museum of American Art, designed by Philip Johnson, the Sid Richardson Museum, redesigned by David M. Schwarz, has one of the most focused collections of Western Art in the U. S. emphasizing Frederic Remington and Charles Russell. The Treaty of Birds Fort between the Republic of Texas and several Native American tribes was signed in 1843 at Birds Fort in present-day Arlington, Texas. Article XI of the treaty provided that no one may pass the line of trading houses without permission of the President of Texas and these trading houses were later established at the junction of the Clear Fork and West Fork of the Trinity River in present-day Fort Worth. At this river junction, the U. S, War Department established Fort Worth in 1849 as the northernmost of a system of 10 forts for protecting the American Frontier following the end of the Mexican–American War. The City of Fort Worth continues to be known as where the West begins, originally 10 forts had been proposed by Major General William Jenkins Worth, who commanded the Department of Texas in 1849. In January 1849, Worth proposed a line of 10 forts to mark the western Texas frontier from Eagle Pass to the confluence of the West Fork, One month later, Worth died from cholera in South Texas. General William S. Harney assumed command of the Department of Texas, Arnold to find a new fort site near the West Fork and Clear Fork. On June 6,1849, Arnold, advised by Middleton Tate Johnson, established a camp on the bank of the Trinity River, in August 1849, Arnold moved the camp to the north-facing bluff, which overlooked the mouth of the Clear Fork of the Trinity River. The United States War Department officially named the post Fort Worth on November 14,1849, E. S. Terrell from Tennessee claimed to be the first resident of Fort Worth. The fort was flooded the first year and moved to the top of the bluff, the fort was abandoned September 17,1853. As a stop on the legendary Chisholm Trail, Fort Worth was stimulated by the business of the cattle drives, millions of head of cattle were driven north to market along this trail. Fort Worth became the center of the drives, and later. It was given the nickname of Cowtown, during Civil War, Fort Worth suffered from shortages of money, food, and supplies
17.
Arlington, Texas
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Arlington is a principal city in the U. S. state of Texas, located in Tarrant County. It is part of the Mid-Cities region of the Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington metropolitan area, according to the U. S. Census Bureaus estimate, the city had a population of almost 379,577 at the end of 2013, making it the third-largest municipality in the metropolitan area. Arlington is the fiftieth-most populous city in the United States, the seventh-most populous city in the state of Texas, Arlington borders Kennedale, Grand Prairie, Mansfield and Fort Worth, and surrounds the smaller communities of Dalworthington Gardens and Pantego. European settlement in the Arlington area dates back at least to the 1840s, the rich soil of the area attracted farmers, and several agriculture-related businesses were well established by the late nineteenth century. Arlington was founded in 1876 along the Texas and Pacific Railway, the city was named after General Robert E. Lees Arlington House in Arlington County, Virginia. Arlington grew as a cotton-ginning and farming center, and incorporated in 1884, the city could boast of water, electricity, natural gas, and telephone services by 1910, along with a public school system. By 1925 the population was estimated at 3,031, large-scale industrialization began in 1954 with the arrival of a General Motors assembly plant. Automotive and aerospace development gave the city one of the nations greatest population growth rates between 1950 and 1990, Arlington became one of the boomburbs, the extremely fast-growing suburbs of the post-World War II era. U. S. Census Bureau population figures for the city tell the story,7,692,90,229,261,721,365,438, Tom Vandergriff served as mayor from 1951 to 1977 during this period of explosive development. Six Flags Over Texas opened in Arlington in 1961, according to the United States Census Bureau, Arlington has a total area of 99.0 square miles,95.8 square miles of it was land, and 3.2 square miles of it is water. Johnson Creek, a tributary of the Trinity River, and the Trinity River itself, Arlington falls in the Cfa region of the Köppen climate classification system which is a climate zone characterized by hot, humid summers and mild to cool winters. The highest recorded temperature was 113 °F in 1980, the lowest recorded temperature was −8 °F in 1899. The maximum average precipitation occurs in May, severe weather generally occurs April and May months. The population density was 3,811 people per square mile, there were 144,805 housing units at an average density of 1,510 per square mile. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 27. 4% of the population, 25% of all households were made up of individuals and 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.7 and the family size was 3.3. In the city, the 2010 population was out with 31% under the age of 20, 8% from 20 to 24, 30% from 25 to 44, 23% from 45 to 64. The median age was 32 years, for every 100 females there were 104 males
18.
Texoma
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The surrounding area is alternatively referred to as Texomaland. The main area of the Texoma region is the area and surrounding cities near Lake Texoma which includes eight counties, a metropolitan area and three micropolitan areas. The Sherman–Denison Metropolitan as well as the Ardmore, Durant, and Gainesville micropolitan areas are the most populous areas of this region, most of the region is also, a part of the Dallas–Fort Worth Combined Statistical Area. Like many regional names, businesses use the term Texoma in their name to describe their service area. A portion of the Texoma area south of Lake Texoma has been designated an American Viticultural Area, the Texas part of Texoma is served by the Texoma Council of Governments. The Wichita Falls–Lawton area as well as the Paris–Hugo area are referred to as Texoma or Texomaland due to their proximity to the Red River. The estimated combined population of the Texoma region is 319,455
19.
Lake Texoma
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Lake Texoma is one of the largest reservoirs in the United States, the 12th largest US Army Corps of Engineers lake, and the largest in USACE Tulsa District. Lake Texoma is formed by Denison Dam on the Red River in Bryan County, Oklahoma and it is located at the confluence of the Red River and Washita Rivers. The damsite is approximately 5 miles northwest of Denison, Texas, Lake Texoma is the most developed and most popular lake within the USACE Tulsa District, attracting approximately 6 million visitors a year. Lake Texomas two main sources are the Red River from the west and Washita River from the north, other notable sources include Big Mineral Creek, Little Mineral Creek, Buncombe Creek, Rock Creek, and Glasses Creek. Lake Texoma drains into the Red River at the Denison Dam, normal elevation of the conservation pool varies from 615 to 619 ft National Geodetic Vertical Datum depending on the time of year. The flood control pool extends to elevation 645 ft NGVD, the lake has crested the dams spillway at a height of 640 ft five times, once in 1957, again in 1990,2007, May 24,2015 and most recently on June 18,2015. The lakes previously highest elevation was recorded on May 6,1990 at 644.76 feet and this record was broken on May 29,2015 and the lake crested on June 1,2015 at a new record elevation of 645.72 feet. The top of Denison Dam is at 670 feet, Lake Texoma is situated on the border between the states of Oklahoma and Texas in the Oklahoma counties of Bryan, Marshall, Johnston, and Love, and the Texas counties of Grayson and Cooke. It has an area of 93,000 acres, a conservation water volume of 2,525,568 acre·ft. Notable cities surrounding the lake in Texas are Denison, Sherman, in Oklahoma, the most notable city is Durant. Other towns and cities near the lake in Bryan County, Oklahoma, include Cartwright, Colbert, Calera, Platter, in Marshall County, Oklahoma, they include Little City, Cumberland, Kingston, Woodville, McBride Willis and the unsubmerged portion of Aylesworth. Most of Aylesworth was submerged under the water of the lake, other towns and cities in Texas include Gordonville, Cedar Mills, Locust, Fink, Pottsboro, and Preston. There are several islands on Lake Texoma accessible only by means of water transportation. Some of the names include, in order from west to east, West Island, Wood Island, Hog Island, Treasure Island, Little Island. Lake Texoma features two parks and fifty four USACE-managed parks. The northern and southern reaches of the lake each terminate within a National Wildlife Refuge, Denison Dam and Lake Texoma were authorized for construction by the Flood Control Act approved June 28,1938 for flood control and generation of hydroelectric power. The dam, spillway, and outlet works were started in August 1939, at that time, Denison Dam was the largest rolled, earthfilled dam in the United States. The project was put into operation for flood control in January 1944, the first hydroelectric turbine was placed in operation in March 1945, while a second unit became operational in September 1949
20.
Red River of the South
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The Red River, or sometimes the Red River of the South, is a major tributary of the Mississippi and Atchafalaya rivers in the southern United States of America. The river was named for the country of its watershed. It is one of several rivers with that name. The Mexicans and Indians on the borders of Mexico are in the habit of calling any river, the Red River formed part of the US-Mexico border from the Adams-Onís Treaty until the Texas Annexation and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The Red River is the second-largest river basin in the southern Great Plains and it rises in two branches in the Texas Panhandle and flows east, where it acts as the border between the states of Texas and Oklahoma. It forms a border between Texas and Arkansas before entering Arkansas, turning south near Fulton, Arkansas and flowing into Louisiana. The total length of the river is 1,360 miles, the Red River rises near the edge of the northwestern dip slope of the Llano Estacado mesa in two forks in northern Texas and southwestern Oklahoma. The North Fork Red River meets the southern and largest fork near the Texas-Oklahoma border, the southern fork, which is about 120 miles long, is generally called the Prairie Dog Town Fork. It is formed in Randall County, Texas, near the county seat of Canyon, by the confluence of intermittent Palo Duro Creek and Tierra Blanca Creek. The Red River turns and flows southeast through Palo Duro Canyon in Palo Duro Canyon State Park at an elevation of 3,440 feet, then past Newlin, Texas, past that point, it is generally considered the main stem of the Red River. Near Denison, the exits the eastern end of Lake Texoma. The lake is fed by the Washita River from the north. After the river out of the southeastern end of the lake, it runs generally east towards Arkansas. Soon after, the river crosses south into Louisiana and its waters eventually discharge into the Atchafalaya River and flow eastward or southward into the Gulf of Mexico. In 1946, the Red River flood spilled over into Pineville because of insufficient levee height, however, the taller and stronger levee held in Alexandria. Willie E. Kees, Jr. the young newly elected mayor of Pineville, the Red Rivers watershed covers 65,590 square miles and is the southernmost major right tributary of the Mississippi, and the southernmost major river system in the Great Plains. Its drainage basin is mostly in the states of Texas and Oklahoma and its basin is characterized by flat, fertile agricultural land, with only a few major cities. The drainage basin of the Red River is very arid and receives little precipitation, as a result, much of the river above the Texas-Oklahoma border is intermittent, and until the river is past its great bend south in Arkansas, the flow varies widely
21.
Secession
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Secession is the withdrawal of a group from a larger entity, especially a political entity, but also any organization, union or military alliance. Threats of secession can also be a strategy for achieving more limited goals, theories of secession relate to a fundamental question of political philosophy, the basis of the states authority. Ramet, Rights of Secession by Daniel Kofman, The Very Idea of Secession by Donald Livingston and Secession, Autonomy, in 2007 the University of South Carolina sponsored a conference called Secession As an International Phenomenon which produced a number of papers on the topic. Some theories of secession emphasize a general right of secession for any reason while others emphasize that secession should be considered only to rectify grave injustices, if it can not live in the affections of the people, it must one day perish. Congress possesses many means of preserving it by conciliation, but the sword was not placed in their hand to preserve it by force, former President of the United States Thomas Jefferson, in a letter to William H. If any State in the Union will declare that it prefers separation with the first alternative, to a continuance in union without it, I have no hesitation in saying, let us separate. I would rather the States should withdraw, which are for unlimited commerce and war, economic enfranchisement of an economically oppressed class that is regionally concentrated within the scope of a larger national territory. e. Tax schemes, regulatory policies, economic programs, etc, cultural Secessionism, any group which was previously in a minority has a right to protect and develop its own culture and distinct national identity through seceding into an independent state. Institutional empowerment - The growing inability of empires and ethnic federations to maintain colonies, relative strength - Increasingly powerful secessionist movements are more likely to achieve statehood. Negotiated consent - Home states and the international community increasingly consent to secessionist demands, during the 19th century, the single British colony in eastern mainland Australia, New South Wales was progressively divided up by the British government as new settlements were formed and spread. Victoria in 1851 and Queensland in 1859, however, settlers agitated to divide the colonies throughout the later part of the century, particularly in central Queensland in the 1860s and 1890s, and in North Queensland in the 1870s. Western Australia Secession movements have surfaced several times in Western Australia, the referendum had to be ratified by the British Parliament, which declined to act, on the grounds that it would contravene the Australian Constitution. The Principality of Hutt River claims to have seceded from Australia in 1970, according to a lexicon on nationalist movements across the world, Macau happened to recognise that Principality. Austria successfully seceded from Nazi Germany on April 27,1945 and this took place after seven years of Austria being part of Adolf Hitlers Third Reich due to the Anschluss annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in March 1938. On August 25,1830, during the reign of William I, soon after, the Belgian Revolt occurred, which resulted in the Belgian secession from the Netherlands. The peace treaty accepted Uruguay independence, reasserted the rule of both nations over their land and some important points like free navigation in the Silver River, three rather disorganized secessionist rebellions happened in Grão-Pará, Bahia and Maranhão, where the people were unhappy with the Empire. The Malê Revolt, in Bahia, was an Islamic slave revolt and these three rebellions were bloodily crushed by the Empire of Brazil. In the attempts the rebels were crushed, the shot and its territory divided
22.
Great Hanging at Gainesville
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The Great Hanging at Gainesville was the execution by hanging of forty-one suspected Unionists in Gainesville, Texas, in October 1862 during the American Civil War. Two additional suspects were shot trying to escape. Most were residents of Cooke County, but residents of neighboring counties were killed as well and it is alleged to be the largest mass hanging in the history of the United States. By 1860 only 10. 9% of free Cooke County households owned slaves, in April 1862, the passage of conscription acts prompted thirty Cooke County men to sign a petition, objecting to the exemption of many large-scale slaveholders from the draft. They also formed a Peace Party, whose members pledged to resist Confederate conscription,150 men were arrested in thirteen days. A hastily formed Citizens Court of twelve jurors with no status in Texas law. After eight convictions the jury changed to 2/3 majority vote for conviction and this resulted in reversal of the last conviction. Those convicted were sentenced to hang within two days, a mob then threatened to lynch all of the remaining prisoners, so the head of the jury gave them fourteen names. These men were lynched on Oct.12 and 13 without trial, on October 16, Colonel William C. Young, who had attempted to moderate the proceedings, was killed while pursuing a group who had killed another man along a brushy creek, jurors were replaced, and the acquittals of nineteen prisoners were reversed, resulting in their lynching. Fifty to sixty were released before Confederate and state courts finally halted the Citizens Court,41 men had been hanged in Gainesville in October 1862, and at least three others shot. Texas newspapers and the state government applauded the hangings, the speediness of the trial is defended as necessary due to fears of rescue. Controversy continues to the modern day, a Gainesville event marking the 150th anniversary of the Great Hanging in October 2012 had to be cancelled due to public outcry. A member of the Cooke County Heritage Society said that, Gainesville has been hiding from the Great Hanging since it happened, members of the Sons of Confederate Veterans have created a video calling the victims traitors. A memorial for the victims, with a sympathetic account, was privately constructed in 2014. Marais des Cygnes massacre McCaslin, Richard B, tainted Breeze, The Great Hanging at Gainesville, Texas 1862, Louisiana State University Press,1994 Great Hanging at Gainesville,1862 - Gainesville ~ Marker Number,5347
23.
Lynching in the United States
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Lynching is the practice of murder by extrajudicial action. Lynchings in the United States rose in number after the American Civil War in the late 1800s, following the emancipation of slaves, Lynchings most frequently targeted African American men and women in the South. They were most frequent from 1890 to the 1920s, with a peak in 1892, starting with large mob actions attended by hundreds or thousands of watchers, lynchings in the 20th century began to be conducted secretly by small groups of people. Lynchings were also common in the Old West, where Native Americans, Mexican Americans, after the Reconstruction era, most of the South was dominated politically by Democrats. Lynchings enforced white supremacy and intimidated blacks by racial terrorism, the rate of lynchings in the South has been strongly associated with economic strains, although the causal nature of this link is unclear. Low cotton prices, inflation, and economic stress are associated with higher frequencies of lynching, constitutional rights to freedmen after the American Civil War was resisted by many white Southerners. Some blamed the freedmen for their own wartime hardships, and post-war economic losses, during Reconstruction, freedmen and whites working for civil rights were attacked and sometimes lynched. Black voting was suppressed by violence, White Democrats regained control of state legislatures in 1876, and a national compromise resulted in the removal of federal troops from the South in 1877. In later decades, violence continued around elections until blacks were disenfranchised by the states across the South from 1890 to 1908, Whites enacted segregation and Jim Crow laws to enforce blacks second-class status. During this period of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Florida led the nation in lynchings per capita from 1900-1930. Georgia led the nation in lynchings from 1900-1931 with 302 incidents, Lynchings peaked in many areas when it was time for landowners to settle accounts with sharecroppers. There is no count of recorded lynchings which claims to be precise, and numbers vary depending on the source, years considered, and definition used in defining an incident. A five-year study published in 2015 by the Equal Justice Initiative found that nearly 3,959 black men, women, over this period Georgias 586 lynchings led all states. African Americans mounted resistance to lynchings in numerous ways, intellectuals and journalists encouraged public education, actively protesting and lobbying against lynch mob violence and government complicity. Anti-lynching plays and literary works were produced, African-American womens clubs raised funds and conducted petition drives, letter campaigns, meetings and demonstrations to highlight the issues and combat lynching. From 1910 to 1930 particularly, more blacks migrated from counties with high numbers of lynchings, from 1882 to 1968, nearly 200 anti-lynching bills were introduced in Congress, and three passed the House. Seven presidents between 1890 and 1952 petitioned Congress to pass a federal law, none succeeded in gaining passage, blocked by the Solid South - the delegation of white Southerners in the Senate. During the 1950s and 1960s Civil Rights Movement, black activists were attacked and murdered throughout the South, in 1964 three Mississippi civil rights workers were murdered, galvanizing public support for passage of civil rights legislation that year and the next
24.
James W. Throckmorton
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James Webb Throckmorton was an American politician who served as the 12th Governor of Texas from 1866 to 1867 during the early days of Reconstruction. He was a United States Congressman from Texas from 1875 to 1879, following the outbreak of the Mexican-American War, he joined the 1st Texas Volunteers as a private in February 1847. A few months later, he was assigned as an assistant surgeon to the Texas Rangers, during the Texas secession convention in 1861, he was one of only eight delegates to vote against secession from the United States. Despite this, he served in the Confederate Army as a captain of Company K, Throckmorton won the gubernatorial election of June 25,1866, at the same time the new constitution was approved, against Elisha M. Pease. As the Radical Republicans influence began to wane in the mid-1870s and he later served the 5th District in the 1880s. Throckmorton died at age 69 from a fall, having become frail due to kidney disease, James Webb Throckmorton from the Handbook of Texas Online James W. Throckmorton at Find a Grave
25.
Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
26.
Reconstruction Era
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Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates. Lincolns last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen, whereas Johnson was opposed to this. A Republican coalition came to power in all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy, using the U. S. Army. The Bureau protected the rights of freedmen, negotiated labor contracts. Thousands of Northerners came South as missionaries, teachers, businessmen, rebuilding the rundown railroad system was a major strategy, but it collapsed when a nationwide depression struck the economy. The Radicals in the House of Representatives, frustrated by Johnsons opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges, in early 1866, Congress passed the Freedmens Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature. Meanwhile, self-styled Conservatives strongly opposed reconstruction and they alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers, excessive state spending and ruinous taxes. Southern democrats and conservatives violently counterattacked and had regained power in each redeemed Southern state by 1877, meanwhile, public support for Reconstruction policies, requiring continued supervision of the South, faded in the North, as voters decided that the Civil War and years of conflict should stop. Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States, in the different states Reconstruction began and ended at different times, federal Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877. In recent decades most historians follow Foner in dating the Reconstruction of the south as starting in 1863 rather than 1865, Reconstruction policies were debated in the North when the war began, and commenced in earnest after Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1,1863. As Confederate states came back under control of the US Army, President Abraham Lincoln set up reconstructed governments in Tennessee, Arkansas and he experimented by giving land to blacks in South Carolina. By fall 1865, the new President Andrew Johnson declared the war goals of national unity, Republicans in Congress, refusing to accept Johnsons lenient terms, rejected new members of Congress, some of whom had been high-ranking Confederate officials a few months before. Johnson broke with the Republicans after vetoing two key bills that supported the Freedmens Bureau and provided federal civil rights to the freedmen and that same year, Congress removed civilian governments in the South, and placed the former Confederacy under the rule of the U. S. Army. In ten states, coalitions of freedmen, recent black and white arrivals from the North, Conservative opponents called the Republican regimes corrupt and instigated violence toward freedmen and whites who supported Reconstruction. Most of the violence was carried out by members of the Ku Klux Klan, Klan members attacked and intimidated blacks seeking to exercise their new civil rights, as well as Republican politicians in the south favoring those civil rights. One such politician murdered by the Klan on the eve of the 1868 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds of Arkansas, widespread violence in the south led to federal intervention by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871, which suppressed the Klan. Nevertheless, white Democrats, calling themselves Redeemers, regained control of the state by state, sometimes using fraud. The end of Reconstruction was a process, and the period of Republican control ended at different times in different states
27.
Tornado outbreak sequence of May 1896
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The May 1896 tornado outbreak sequence was a series of violent and deadly tornado outbreaks that struck much of the Central and Southern United States from May 15 to May 28,1896. There were four particularly notable tornado outbreaks during the two-week period and it produced three F5 tornadoes as well as the third deadliest tornado ever in United States history. On the first day of the sequence, most of the fatalities came from a single supercell thunderstorm that traveled from Denton to Sherman. The tornado began in the Pilot Point area, where homes were shifted off of their foundations. The tornado widened and strengthened into a very violent F5 and swept away numerous farms west of Farmington, later along the path, the tornado narrowed to around 60 yards wide as it tore through Sherman. Fifty homes were destroyed in town,20 of which were completely obliterated, an iron-beam bridge was torn from its supports and twisted into multiple pieces, and one of the beams was driven several feet into the ground. Bodies were found up to 400 yards from their sites. Headstones at a cemetery were shattered, and a 500-pound stone was carried for 250 yards, trees in the area were completely debarked with some reduced to stumps, and grass was scoured from lawns in town. At least 200 people were injured, and bodies of the victims were transported into the courthouse, several bodies were recovered from a muddy creek. Seventy-three people were killed by this tornado, one of the worst on record in North Texas. Additional killer tornadoes were recorded north of Wichita, Kansas in McPherson County and further south in Bryan County, a powerful F5 tornado, estimated to have been more than 2 miles wide, tore through the towns of Seneca, Oneida, Reserve and Sabetha, Kansas. In Seneca, the destroyed the courthouse and a new schoolhouse. Damage in Seneca alone was estimated at around $250,000 where most of the homes, the damage path was two miles wide at Reserve, and only three buildings were left undamaged at that location. The tornado damaged 50 homes and destroyed 20 others on the side of Sabetha. Many farms were swept away along the path as well. The tornado continued into Nebraska, where four died and damage occurred on the south side of Falls City. At least 200 people were injured, late during the evening hours of May 25, an F5 tornado touched down in eastern Michigan and moved northeast for about 30 miles. The tornado affected portions of Oakland, Lapeer and Livingston Counties northwest of Detroit, towns affected included Thomas, Ortonville, Oakwood, and Whigville just after 9,00 pm
28.
Tornado
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A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that spins while in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour, are about 250 feet across, the most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour, are more than two miles in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles. Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout, waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water and these spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes. Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, downbursts are frequently confused with tornadoes, though their action is dissimilar. Tornadoes have been observed and documented on every continent except Antarctica, however, the vast majority of tornadoes occur in the Tornado Alley region of the United States, although they can occur nearly anywhere in North America. There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes, the Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, an F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes, Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating. The word tornado is a form of the Spanish word tronada. This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning to thunder and it most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar, however, this may be a folk etymology. A tornado is also referred to as a twister, and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone. The term cyclone is used as a synonym for tornado in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz, the term twister is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister. A tornado is a rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud. For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a definition of the word, for example. Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud and this results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel. There is some disagreement over the definition of cloud and condensation funnel
29.
Fujita scale
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The Fujita scale, or Fujita–Pearson scale, is a scale for rating tornado intensity, based primarily on the damage tornadoes inflict on human-built structures and vegetation. The F-Scale was replaced with the Enhanced Fujita scale in the United States in February 2007, in April 2013, Canada adopted the EF-Scale over the Fujita scale, although tornado frequency is relatively low in the country. However, EC uses 31 Specific Damage Indicators in their ratings, the scale was introduced in 1971 by Tetsuya Fujita of the University of Chicago, in collaboration with Allen Pearson, head of the National Severe Storms Forecast Center/NSSFC. The scale was updated in 1973, taking into account path length and width, in the United States, starting in 1973, tornadoes were rated soon after occurrence. The Fujita scale was applied retroactively to tornadoes reported between 1950 and 1972 in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Tornado Database, Fujita rated tornadoes from 1916–1992 and Tom Grazulis of The Tornado Project retroactively rated all known significant tornadoes in the U. S. back to 1880. The Fujita scale was adopted in most areas outside of Great Britain, in 2007, the Fujita scale was updated, and the Enhanced Fujita Scale was introduced in the United States. The new scale more accurately matches wind speeds to the severity of damage caused by the tornado, though each damage level is associated with a wind speed, the Fujita scale is effectively a damage scale, and the wind speeds associated with the damage listed arent rigorously verified. The Enhanced Fujita Scale was formulated due to research which suggested that the speeds required to inflict damage by intense tornadoes on the Fujita scale are greatly overestimated. A process of expert elicitation with top engineers and meteorologists resulted in the EF scale wind speeds, however, the EF scale also improved damage parameter descriptions. The original scale as derived by Fujita was a theoretical 13-level scale designed to connect the Beaufort scale. F1 corresponds to the level of the Beaufort scale. F0 was placed at a position specifying no damage, in analogy to how the Beauforts zeroth level specifies little to no wind. From these wind speed numbers, qualitative descriptions of damage were made for each category of the Fujita scale, the diagram on the right illustrates the relationship between the Beaufort, Fujita, and Mach number scales. Fujita intended that only F0–F5 be used in practice, as this all possible levels of damage to frame homes as well as the expected estimated bounds of wind speeds. Furthermore, the wind speed numbers have since been found to be higher than the actual wind speeds required to incur the damage described at each category. The error manifests itself to a degree as the category increases. Precise wind speed numbers are actually guesses and have never been scientifically verified, different wind speeds may cause similar-looking damage from place to place—even from building to building. Without a thorough engineering analysis of damage in any event
30.
Frank Hamer
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Francis Augustus Hamer was a Texas Ranger, known in popular culture for his involvement in tracking down and killing the criminal duo Bonnie Parker and Clyde Barrow in 1934. In a career spanned the last days of the Wild West well into the automobile age. He is an inductee to the Texas Ranger Hall of Fame, Frank Hamer was born in Fairview, Wilson County, Texas, where his father operated a blacksmith shop. He was one of five brothers, four of whom became Texas Rangers and his family moved to the Welch ranch in San Saba County, where he grew up. Hamer later spent time in Oxford, Llano County, which formed the basis of his joke about being the only Oxford-educated Ranger, in his youth, Hamer worked in his fathers shop, and as an older teenager worked as a wrangler on a local ranch. He began his career in law enforcement in 1905 while working on the Carr Ranch in West Texas when he captured a horse thief, the local sheriff was so impressed that he recommended that Hamer join the Rangers. Like the cowboys of earlier generations, Hamer was at home on the open Texas prairie and he savored the challenges of investigating and solving crimes. Describing his method in tracking Clyde Barrow and Bonnie Parker, Hamer said that he learned their statistics, an officer must know the habits of the outlaw, how he thinks and how he will act in different situations. When I began to understand Clyde Barrows mind, I felt that I was making progress, in the book, Hamer was quoted as saying corrupt politicians did not sit well with him, and he had little patience for those who broke the law. This attitude had tended to cause problems for him with political establishments during his career. After a place was cleaned up, he would change jobs on a regular basis. Hamer was a Ranger off and on throughout his life, resigning often to other jobs. He first joined Captain John H. Rogerss Company C in Alpine, Texas on April 21,1906, in 1908 he resigned from the Rangers to become the City Marshal of Navasota, Texas. Navasota was a boom town, wracked by violence, shootouts on the main street were so frequent that in two years at least a hundred men died. Though he was only 24, Hamer moved in and created law and he served as marshal until 1911, when he started working as a special investigator in Houston, then as an officer for Harris County. Hamer rejoined the Rangers in 1915 and again was assigned to patrol the South Texas border around Brownsville, because of the constant unrest in Mexico, the Rangers dealt most seriously with arms smugglers, but also more ordinary bootleggers and bandits who plagued the border. On October 1,1917 Hamer was wounded in Sweetwater by Gus McMean, during this period, Hamer left the Rangers again to accept a position as a federal agent in the Prohibition Unit, where he served for about one year. Though Hamers service as an agent was brief, it was nevertheless eventful
31.
Dan Moody
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Daniel James Moody, Jr. was a Democratic political figure, originally from Taylor, Texas, USA. He served as the 30th Governor of Texas between 1927 and 1931, at the age of thirty-three, he was elected and took office as the youngest governor in Texas history. Moody Jr. was born on June 1,1893 in Taylor and he was the son of Taylors mayor-justice of the peace-school board chairman Daniel James Moody Sr. who was one of the towns first settlers in 1876. His mother Nannie Elizabeth Robertson was a school teacher when Moody Sr. married her in 1890. Moody Jr. was an alumnus of the University of Texas Law School, and became a member of the State Bar of Texas at the age of 21, in 1914, and began practicing with Harris Melasky in Taylor. During World War I, Moody served in both the Texas National Guard as first a 2nd Lieutenant and then Captain, and also the United States Army as a 2nd Lieutenant. In 1920, Moody Jr. served as Williamson County Attorney, in 1923, Moody obtained an assault conviction against four members of the Ku Klux Klan for beating and tarring a white traveling salesman. At this time, the Klan was very powerful in Texas, with an estimated 150,000 members in the state, Texas Klansmen included a U. S. senator and the mayors of Dallas, Fort Worth and Wichita Falls. This case was reported and gave him political momentum, despite Klan opposition. After election as Texas Attorney General in 1925, Moody Jr. conducted investigations of the highly corrupt James E. Ferguson and his investigation recovered $1 million for the taxpayers of Texas. In 1927, Moody defeated Ma Ferguson in an election to become the youngest governor of Texas. A conservative Democrat, he served two terms as governor before leaving public office and he supported a reform program of state prisons, roads and auditing system. In the 1930s he became a critic of President Franklin Roosevelts New Deal. He resumed private law practice in Austin, Texas after his last term as governor, Moody was third in the 1942 Democratic primary for the U. S. Senate seat behind former Governors W. Lee ODaniel and James Allred, won by ODaniel. Moody represented Coke R. Stevenson in his case against Lyndon B. Johnson over the hotly contested 1948 Democratic Senatorial Second Primary electoral dispute, while Allred represented Johnson. By the 1950s he was still a Democrat, but endorsed Republican Dwight Eisenhower for president in 1952 and 1956, on April 20,1926, he married Mildred Paxton of Abilene, Texas. The couple had two children, Daniel Jr. and Nancy, Governor and Mrs. Moody spent their remaining years in Austin. Dan Moody died in 1966 and was buried at the Texas State Cemetery, Mildred outlived him by 17 years, dying in 1983
32.
Bryan County, Oklahoma
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Bryan County is a county located in the U. S. state of Oklahoma. As of the 2010 census, the population was 42,416 and it is the only county in the United States named for Populist politician William Jennings Bryan. Bryan County comprises the Durant, OK Micropolitan Statistical Area, which is included in the Dallas-Fort Worth and it is home to the headquarters of the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma located in Durant. Bryan County consists of 10 Townships, Albany, Bennington, Bokchito, Brown, Caddo, Calera, Colbert, Kemp, Matoy, the area now known as Bryan County was occupied by the Choctaw Tribe in 1831-2, and became part of Choctaw Nations Blue County. In 1845, the tribe opened Armstrong Academy for boys near the community of Bokchito, the academy served as Chahta Tamaha, the Choctaw capital, during the Civil War. Bloomfield Academy, a school for Chickasaw girls opened in 1852, the Chickasaw tribe bought part of the Choctaw allocation prior to the Chickasaw migration to Indian Territory. The western quarter of todays Bryan County thus became part of the Chickasaw District in 1837, when the two tribes formally separated into two distinct nations in 1855, the Chickasaw District became the Chickasaw Nation. The Butterfield Overland Mail and Stage route followed the older Texas Road across the present county during the late 1850s, general Albert Pike established Fort McCulloch for the Confederate Army near the present town of Kenefic on the Blue River. Although no Civil War battles occurred in the vicinity, the fort was garrisoned by more than a thousand Indian troops allied with the Confederates, several new towns were created after the Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railway built a north-south line through this area in 1872. One such town was Colbert, which became the seat of Blue County, the St. Louis, San Francisco and New Orleans Railroad, later bought by the St. Louis and San Francisco Railway, built an east-west line in 1903. Just prior to statehood, when all tribal governments were dissolved, Bryan County was officially established on November 16,1907, and Durant became the county seat. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 944 square miles. The county is in the Coastal Plains physiographic region, and is drained by the Blue River. The Washita River originally drained much of the part of the county, but now empties into Lake Texoma. The county is a part of the Texoma region. The population density was 40 people per square mile, there were 16,715 housing units at an average density of 18 per square mile. 2. 65% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,28. 4% were of American,10. 1% Irish,8. 1% German and 6. 7% English ancestry according to Census 2000. 26. 60% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 2.98
33.
Prisoners-of-war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
34.
North Texas Regional Airport
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North Texas Regional Airport / Perrin Field is a county owned airport in Grayson County, Texas between Sherman and Denison. Formerly Grayson County Airport, the airport was renamed in November 2007, several buildings are occupied by businesses, Grayson County government agencies, and Grayson County College. Most U. S. airports use the same three-letter location identifier for the FAA and IATA, the northern extension of State Highway 289 passes the airport on the west side. The airport is on the site of Perrin Air Force Base, since the closure, a group of local citizens have held the memory of Perrin together, hosting nine Perrin Field reunions since the early 1980s. The Perrin AFB Research Foundation was established in 1998, there is a small museum dedicated to the former Perrin Air Force Base at the airport and Grayson County College uses several buildings. The college also operates the base golf course. After seeing the fighters take off from here as a young man, the airport covers 1,410 acres at an elevation of 749 feet. It has two runways, 17L/35R is 9,000 by 150 feet asphalt/concrete, 13/31 is 2,277 by 60 feet asphalt and it had three runways, but one 8,000 runway is now a taxiway. The airport has a Category I instrument landing system to Runway 17L, the former USAF control tower resumed operations in mid-2008. In the year ending April 30,2007 the airport had 53,300 aircraft operations, average 146 per day, 98% general aviation, 2% military and <1% air taxi. 169 aircraft were based at the airport, 73% single-engine, 11% multi-engine, 11% jet, 4% helicopter
35.
Eisenhower Birthplace State Historic Site
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The Eisenhower Birthplace State Historic Site is located at 609 S. Lamar Avenue in Denison, Grayson County, in the U. S. state of Texas. President Dwight D. Eisenhower was born in the house on October 14,1890, Eisenhowers military success as Supreme Allied Commander Europe during World War II prompted local Denison school principal Jennie Jackson to correspond with General Eisenhower. She inquired if he was from the Eisenhower family she remembered in Denison and his family had moved to Kansas when he was two years old, and until he received Jacksons letter, he was unaware he had been born in Denison. Eisenhowers mother Ida Elizabeth Stover was still alive at the time, upon hearing from Eisenhowers mother that this was indeed his birthplace, Jackson set about to raise funds to purchase the two-story frame house. After the purchase, the house was donated to the city of Denison. The museum was established in 1955, after Eisenhower was elected President, the Eisenhower Foundation was formed in 1953 for restoration. The Foundation created a park by removing several other houses in the nearby vicinity, in 1958, the restored home and surrounding park was donated to the State Parks Board. On January 1,2008, the Eisenhower Birthplace was transferred from the Texas Parks, the home was designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Eisenhower State Park
36.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Dwight David Ike Eisenhower was an American politician and Army general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a general in the United States Army during World War II. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43, in 1951, he became the first Supreme Commander of NATO. Eisenhower was of mostly Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry and was raised in a family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, after World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman and then accepted the post of President at Columbia University. Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator Robert A. Taft, campaigning against communism, Korea and he won in a landslide, defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson and temporarily upending the New Deal Coalition. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be constitutionally term-limited under the 22nd Amendment, Eisenhowers main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. He ordered coups in Iran and Guatemala, Eisenhower gave major aid to help the French in the First Indochina War, and after the French were defeated he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the space race. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Eisenhower condemned the Israeli, British and French invasion of Egypt and he also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. Eisenhower sent 15,000 U. S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident. On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege and he otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. Eisenhower was a conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. Eisenhowers two terms saw considerable economic prosperity except for a decline in 1958. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. The Eisenhauer family migrated from Karlsbrunn in the Saarland, to North America, first settling in York, Pennsylvania, in 1741, accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized to Eisenhower. Eisenhowers Pennsylvania Dutch ancestors, who were farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn
37.
United States Census Bureau
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The United States Census Bureau is a principal agency of the U. S. Federal Statistical System, responsible for producing data about the American people and economy. The Census Bureaus primary mission is conducting the U. S. Census every ten years, in addition to the decennial census, the Census Bureau continually conducts dozens of other censuses and surveys, including the American Community Survey, the U. S. Economic Census, and the Current Population Survey, furthermore, economic and foreign trade indicators released by the federal government typically contain data produced by the Census Bureau. The Bureaus various censuses and surveys help allocate over $400 billion in federal funds every year and help states, local communities, the Census Bureau is part of the U. S. Department of Commerce and its director is appointed by the President of the United States. The Census Bureau now conducts a population count every 10 years in years ending with a 0. Between censuses, the Census Bureau makes population estimates and projections, the Census Bureau is mandated with fulfilling these obligations, the collecting of statistics about the nation, its people, and economy. The Census Bureaus legal authority is codified in Title 13 of the United States Code, the Census Bureau also conducts surveys on behalf of various federal government and local government agencies on topics such as employment, crime, health, consumer expenditures, and housing. Within the bureau, these are known as surveys and are conducted perpetually between and during decennial population counts. The Census Bureau also conducts surveys of manufacturing, retail, service. Between 1790 and 1840, the census was taken by marshals of the judicial districts, the Census Act of 1840 established a central office which became known as the Census Office. Several acts followed that revised and authorized new censuses, typically at the 10-year intervals, in 1902, the temporary Census Office was moved under the Department of Interior, and in 1903 it was renamed the Census Bureau under the new Department of Commerce and Labor. The department was intended to consolidate overlapping statistical agencies, but Census Bureau officials were hindered by their role in the department. An act in 1920 changed the date and authorized manufacturing censuses every 2 years, in 1929, a bill was passed mandating the House of Representatives be reapportioned based on the results of the 1930 Census. In 1954, various acts were codified into Title 13 of the US Code, by law, the Census Bureau must count everyone and submit state population totals to the U. S. President by December 31 of any year ending in a zero. States within the Union receive the results in the spring of the following year, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau regions are widely used. for data collection, the Census Bureau definition is pervasive. Title 13 of the U. S. Code establishes penalties for the disclosure of this information, all Census employees must sign an affidavit of non-disclosure prior to employment. The Bureau cannot share responses, addresses or personal information with anyone including United States or foreign government, only after 72 years does the information collected become available to other agencies or the general public
38.
U.S. Route 69 in Texas
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U. S. Route 69 is a north–south United States highway. When it was first created, it was only 150 miles long, the highways southern terminus is in Port Arthur, Texas at an intersection with State Highway 87. Its northern terminus is in Albert Lea, Minnesota at Minnesota State Highway 13, US69 begins at its southern terminus with SH87 in Port Arthur. This intersection is also the terminus for US96 and US287. US69, US96, and US287 continue in a northwest, then west, at this intersection, US69, US96, and US287 merge with I-10. I-10/US 69/US 96/US287 continue in a direction through Beaumont for several miles. Just after the intersection with US90, I-10 splits from the multiplex and resumes its course, leaving US69, US96. US69 north of I-10 is also officially known as Eastex Freeway. In Lumberton, US96 splits from US69 and US287 and heads northeast towards Jasper, while US69, in Woodville, US69 splits from US287 a few blocks north of US190. US287 continues northwest towards Corrigan while US69 proceed north towards Lufkin, in this area, between US190 in Woodville and FM256 in Colmesneil, US69 is a part of the Texas Forest Trail. Before reaching Lufkin, US69 forms another segment of the Texas Forest Trail between SH63 in Zavalla and FM1818 northwest of Zavalla, in Lufkin, US69 is concurrent with US59 and State Loop 287 while the route through the city is named Business US69. US69, State Loop 287, and US59 continue around the east side of Lufkin until US59 separates at the intersection with US59 Business northeast of Lufkin. US69 and State Loop 287 continue until the intersection of SH103, at that point, US69 is concurrent for a short distance with SH103 and State Loop 287. At the intersection of US69, State Loop 287 and SH103, US69 departs Lufkin and heads northwest while SH103, US69 continues on a north to northwest path through the towns of Alto, Rusk, Jacksonville and Bullard. Just south of Bullard, US69 has a concurrency with FM2493. US69 continues northward into Tyler, in Tyler, US69 continues northward through the city until the intersection of SH110 and SH155, where US69 heads west and merges with SH110 and SH155 through Tyler. This continues until SH110 separates from US69 on the northwest side of Tyler, at this intersection, SH110 heads west while US69 continues north. US69 crosses Interstate 20 at Lindale where it is signed as Main Street, at FM16 in Lindale, US69 begins its third and last segment as part of the Texas Forest Trail
39.
U.S. Route 75 in Texas
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In the U. S. state of Texas, U. S. Highway 75 is a U. S. Highway that begins in Dallas and heads north to the Oklahoma state line. In the initial assignment of state highways in 1917, Dallas-Fort Worth and Houston were connected by a branch of State Highway 2, the more direct route followed by US75 was not initially part of the system between Richland and Huntsville. This Richland-Huntsville cutoff was added by 1919 as SH32, and US75 was assigned to the alignment, as well as SH6 north of Dallas, in 1926. The branch of SH2, which US75 followed between Houston and Galveston, eventually part of SH6, and these numbers were dropped in the 1939 renumbering. Prior to the coming of the Interstate Highway System in the late 1950s, however, the highways in and near these cities included some of the first freeways in the state, the Gulf Freeway and the Central Expressway. When Interstate 45 was built in the 1960s, its alignment bypassed many of the towns, the bypassed routes retained the US75 designation until the designation was truncated to downtown Dallas in 1987. Many of the original alignments continue to exist under other designations, in Dallas, the route followed what is now the Good Latimer Expressway southeast, out of downtown, along US175 and south along State Highway 310. Near Ferris, Trumbull, Palmer, Ennis, and Corsicana Interstate 45 veers east to avoid the populated areas. In Galveston, the alignment of State Highway 87 from 20th Street to the southern terminus Interstate 45 was also part of US75 until its 1987 truncation, at this point it is concurrent with US Route 69, but the two separate about 2 miles south of the river. US75 continues to the south and southwest to loop around the side of Denison. The route continues south reaching Sherman and a limited-access three-level intersection with US Route 82, US75 then continues southward to cross US Route 380 on the north side of McKinney. The stretch through McKinney is largely unchanged from its original design except for its intersection at the Sam Rayburn Tollway. to replace the original interchange, plans to upgrade the facility through and north of McKinney are under way with the reconstruction of the US Route 380 bridge. The highway continues southward into the suburbs of Dallas where it intersects the President George Bush Turnpike. The route reaches its terminus on the east side of downtown Dallas, intersecting Spur 366. The exit numbers for US75 are not based on mile markers, instead, as the bypass route was completed around the Sherman-Denison area, the numbering system was continued for the new exits. US75 info page - at dfwfreeways. info
40.
U.S. Route 82 in Texas
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In the U. S. state of Texas, U. S. Route 82 is a U. S. Highway that begins on the New Mexico border and heads east through West Texas and Lubbock to the Arkansas border at Texarkana. US82 crosses into Texas from New Mexico at Texas Farm to Market Road 769, turning northeastward toward Plains, US82 is co-signed with US380 from Plains to Brownfield, where it joins US62, and US380 leaves the route. US 82/62 continues northeastward toward Lubbock, on the east side of the city, it once again merges with US62 where it continues eastward through Ralls, where US62 makes a sharp turn to the north and leaves the route. After climbing out of Blanco Canyon, US82 eventually exits the Llano Estacado, US 82/SH114 continues eastward as a co-signed route until Seymour, where it merges with U. S. Highways 183,277 and 283, with US183 and 283 leaving the route at Mabelle, US 82/277 continues eastward to Wichita Falls, merging with I-44 and US287 just south of downtown at Mile marker 0. The highway continues east towards Whitesboro, Texas and Sherman, Texas where it crosses US Highway 75 at a diamond interchange. Prior to the 1990s, the two ran concurrently on the route of Texas State Highway 56 before being rerouted northeast of Sherman on its present-day route. The highway continues east to Bells, Texas where US82 cross US Route 69, in Bonham, Texas, US82 crosses Texas SH121 while the route runs parallel with SH56 until Honey Grove, Texas where SH56 ends. The Marsha Sharp Freeway, named for former Texas Tech Lady Raiders basketball coach Marsha Sharp, is currently being built along US82 in Lubbock, in 1998, funding was first received. The five-phase project was scheduled to be completed in 2015, phase 2 of the project was scheduled to be completed in December 2008 at a cost of $140 million. It involved construction of the freeway from Salem Avenue to Avenue L and erecting interchanges at 19th Street, Quaker Avenue, Fourth Street, currently construction on the freeway has started from Millwaukee ave to Upland ave and on the intersection of spur 327 and U. S. 62/82. It is being upgraded to a 4 lane divided highway west of Nocona
41.
U.S. Route 377 in Texas
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U. S. Highway 377 is a U. S. Highway that begins at US90 in Del Rio and heads north through Fort Worth in the U. S. state of Texas before crossing into Oklahoma. When US377 was commissioned in 1930, US77 connected Dallas, Texas with the north and south, but nearby Fort Worth lacked a direct northern connection. US377 connected US77 in Denton, Texas with US81 in Fort Worth, Texas, when the Interstate highway system was built, Interstate 35 paralleled the Dallas/Fort Worth split with routes I-35E through Dallas and I-35W through Fort Worth. The southern terminus is in Del Rio, Texas at an intersection with U. S. Highway 90 and it goes north of town co-signed with U. S. Highway 277 for 20 miles. After splitting off, it enters Edwards County and Carta Valley and it meets SH55 at the county seat, Rocksprings, before serving as the western terminus of SH41. It heads northeast into Kimble County, crossing the county line near Telegraph, at Junction, Texas, it meets both Interstate 10 and US83. It then continues northeast through London, extreme southeastern Menard County, in Mason County, US377 passes through Streeter before forming a concurrency with SH29 near Grit. In Mason, SH29 splits off to its own alignment while US377 turns north to join U. S. Highway 87, US 87/377 head north together into Brady, where they meet US190, the southern terminus of US283, and SH71. US377 splits off to the north and heads to Mercury, in Brownwood, US377 joins with U. S. Highway 67, following its routing all the way to Stephenville, where US377 splits off on its own again. US377 then enters Hood County, where it passes through the county seat and it cuts the corners of both Johnson County and Parker County before entering Tarrant County and the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex. US377 crosses Interstate 20 at exit 429A in Benbrook and it then enters Fort Worth proper, meeting SH183 and Spur 580. It runs northeast on Camp Bowie Blvd. to Interstate 30, at the Interstate 35W junction, it heads north along that highway before splitting off at Exit 52A. It heads due north as the Denton Highway and continues to run parallel to I-35W through many D/FW suburbs, including Haltom City, Watauga, Keller, Westlake, Roanoke, and Argyle. In Denton, it crosses Interstate 35E and has a concurrency with US380 through the eastern portion of Denton. After splitting from US380, US377 runs east of Aubrey, through Pilot Point, Tioga and it then heads north to cross Lake Texoma into Oklahoma. State Highway Loop 118 is a short and unsigned loop highway, the highway connects Highway 377 to Business State Highway 114-K without the need for an intersection between those highways. The loop is just 0.209 miles long, and is located entirely within the portion of the town of Roanoke. The highway was first designated on February 4,1941, the original route traveled from US377 just south of Roanoke, along Oak Street, past Bus
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Texas State Highway 5
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State Highway 5, or SH5, runs along the old route of U. S. Highway 75 at Howe into the city of Allen. SH5 parallels US75 along its length and runs alongside the former Houston, SH5 was created in 1959 when the new route of US75 was established to the west. Historically, SH5 extended into and through Plano and Richardson, the current version of SH5 was established in 1959 initially as a replacement for the former routing of U. S. Highway 75 from Richardson north to McKinney when US75 was rebuilt further to the west. The route was extended north to Howe in 1967 to replace another portion of US75 that had been upgraded on a new route just to the west, SH5 was one of the original twenty-six state highways proposed in 1917, overlaid on top of the North Texas Highway. From 1919 the routing mostly followed present day U. S. Highway 87 from New Mexico to Amarillo. It continued on, routed along present day U. S. Highway 287 to Wichita Falls, in 1926, U. S. Highway 385 was routed over SH5 from New Mexico to Amarillo, and U. S. Highway 370 to Henrietta. While the routes were marked concurrently, the remainder of SH5 kept its numbering until 1939, SH5 was finally cancelled in 1944, only to be reassigned in its new location in 1955. SH 5A was a branch off SH5 running from Estelline to Farwell and it was listed as such from 1919 through the late 1920s, when it was renumbered as SH86 and shortened to end at Bovina. SH 5A was used again as a routing from SH5 south into the town of Annona. This route was renumbered in 1933 as SH180, SH 5B was a branch from SH5 in Clarksville southeast to SH5 in Annona. It existed from 1919 to the late 1920s, when it was cancelled, SH 5C was a branch from SH5 in Bonham to Garland. It existed from 1919 to the late 1920s, when it was renumbered as SH78, south of Dallas, US75 was supplanted by Interstate 45, though US75 retained its designation until 1987. When US75 was decommissioned south of downtown Dallas, the segment from south of Corsicana to north of Houston was redesignated as State Highway 75, Interstate 45 U. S. Route 75 in Texas Texas State Highway 75
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Texas State Highway 11
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State Highway 11, or SH11, is a highway that runs from US59 in Linden to SH56 in Sherman in northeast Texas. SH11 begins at an intersection with State Highway 56 on the easternedge of Sherman, the route then travels to the southeast through Northeast Texas. In 2009, it was rerouted around the city of Commerce, concurrent with State Highway 24 and State Loop 178, with the old routing through Commerce transferred to a business route. It continues southeast toward Sulphur Springs, where it shares a concurrency with State Highway 154 and the old routing of US67, and intersects I-30 on the south side of town. After Sulphur Springs, the route takes an easterly direction through Northeast Texas. State Highway 11 was one of the original state highways proposed in 1917. In 1917 the routing was proposed from the Oklahoma border at Denison, in 1919 the segment from Gilmer to Longview had yet to be built, so the road was rerouted over the current US271 and US80 routes through Gladewater, Texas. In 1926 US67,271 and 80 were overlaid onto segments of SH11, while the routes were marked concurrently, by 1926, SH11 had lost most of its original assignment and had been reassigned to nearby towns the U. S. highways had not reached. The road now began in Greenville where it followed the current SH11 from to Daingerfield, then north on U. S. Highway 259 through Omaha and terminating in De Kalb. In 1929, SH11 was rerouted to begin in Ladonia and via the present day State Highway 50 to Commerce, the section from Greenville to Sulphur Springs became a rerouting of SH1. By 1939 the US259 segment of SH11 was cancelled, and SH11 was extended from Daingerfield to Linden via its current alignment, replacing SH47, and up US59 to a terminus in Texarkana. The US59 alignment of SH11 was removed in 1947, The Ladonia-Commerce segment was removed and replaced with its current assignment in 1971 over FM1281, part of this was previously designated as Texas State Highway 314
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Texas State Highway 56
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State Highway 56 is a state highway in the U. S. state of Texas that runs through Grayson and Fannin Counties in North Central Texas. This highway was designated in 1974 to replace U. S. Highway 82 when it was rerouted north of Whitesboro, SH56 has been extended further since then as the US82 bypass continued to be extended north of Bonham and Honey Grove. Through Sherman, SH56 operates on a pair of streets, Lamar. SH56 was originally designated by 1926 through the northwestern Panhandle, construction was completed by 1938, when the SH56 designation was dropped in favor of US54. SH56 begins at an intersection with U. S. Route 82 just outside of Whitesboro, the highway then enters Whitesboro with indirect access to U. S. Route 377. SH56 next travels through Southmayd, where it meets State Highway 289, just east of Farm to Market Road 1417, the highway splits into a pair of one–way streets, with eastbound traffic traveling on Lamar Street and westbound on Houston Street. SH56 meets U. S. Route 75 before entering downtown Sherman, the highway merges back into one street, just before State Highway 11 before leaving Sherman. SH56 runs through an undeveloped area of Grayson County before entering Bells. Between Bells and Savoy, SH56 enters Fannin County, the highway runs through Ector, before entering Bonham where it meets State Highway 121 and State Highway 78. SH56 runs through Dodd City, Windom and Honey Grove before ending at an intersection with US82
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Texas State Highway 91
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State Highway 91 or SH91 is a state highway in the U. S. state of Texas that runs 13.6 miles from Sherman through Denison to the Oklahoma border at Denison Dam at Lake Texoma. The highway is known locally as Texoma Parkway for much of its length and it is one of the main commercial strips in the Sherman-Denison Metropolitan. The original SH91 was designated in 1926 on a route from Denison north to a different Red River crossing west of the current one. This route was transferred to Farm to Market Road 84 in 1943 when portions of SH91 were submerged in the rising Lake Texoma. The current routing of SH91 was originally built in 1944 as State Spur 151, the route was renumbered in 1946 to State Highway 75A. This was to correlate with the similarly numbered Oklahoma Highway 75A that it connected to at the Red River, both of these routes were numbered 75A to provide an alternate route for US Route 75, which crossed the Red River about 2 miles downstream from the dam. The route was extended a final time in 1994 when US75 was again rerouted around Denison, the route was extended south along the former routing of US75 to the north side of Sherman. State Highway 91 begins at an intersection with US Route 75, exit 61, the route travels to the northeast, paralleling railroad tracks, quickly reaching a limited access intersection with US Route 82. The route continues northeast along the old routing of US75, the route then continues northward through residential sections of western Denison before exiting town to the northwest. Just outside Denison it has another intersection with US75, the route continues northwest, reaching Denison Dam at the Red River. The route ends at the line, while the route continues across the top of the dam as Oklahoma State Highway 91
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Grayson County, Texas
