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1918 flu pandemic
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The 1918 flu pandemic was an unusually deadly influenza pandemic, the first of the two pandemics involving H1N1 influenza virus. Disease had already greatly limited life expectancy in the early 20th century, a considerable spike occurred at the time of the pandemic, specifically the year 1918. Life expectancy in the United States alone dropped by about 12 years, most influenza outbreaks disproportionately kill juvenile, elderly, or already weakened patients, in contrast, the 1918 pandemic predominantly killed previously healthy young adults. There are several explanations for the high mortality of the 1918 influenza pandemic. Some research suggests that the variant of the virus had an unusually aggressive nature. Historical and epidemiological data are inadequate to identify the geographic origin. It was implicated in the outbreak of encephalitis lethargica in the 1920s, in Spain, a different nickname was adopted, the Naples Soldier, which came from a musical operetta titled La canción del olvido, which premiered in Madrid during the first epidemic wave. Federico Romero, one of the librettists, quipped that the plays most popular musical number, the site of the very first confirmed outbreak was at Camp Funston, within Fort Riley in Kansas, USA at a military training facility preparing American troops for involvement in World War I. The first victim diagnosed with the new strain of flu on Monday, historian Alfred W. Crosby recorded that the flu originated in Kansas and popular writer John Barry echoed Crosby in describing Haskell County, Kansas, as the point of origin. These researchers postulated that a significant precursor virus, harbored in birds, earlier hypotheses of the epidemics origin have varied. Some hypothesized the flu originated in East Asia and he considered several other hypotheses of origin, such as Spain, Kansas, and Brest, as being possible, but not likely. Political scientist Andrew Price-Smith published data from the Austrian archives suggesting the influenza had earlier origins, in fact, it found evidence that the virus had been circulating in the European armies for months and potentially years before the 1918 pandemic. When an infected person sneezes or coughs, more than half a million virus particles can be spread to those close by, some speculate the soldiers immune systems were weakened by malnourishment, as well as the stresses of combat and chemical attacks, increasing their susceptibility. A large factor in the occurrence of this flu was increased travel. Modern transportation systems made it easier for soldiers, sailors, in the United States, the disease was first observed in Haskell County, Kansas, in January 1918, prompting local doctor Loring Miner to warn the U. S. On 4 March 1918, company cook Albert Gitchell reported sick at Fort Riley, by noon on 11 March 1918, over 100 soldiers were in the hospital. Within days,522 men at the camp had reported sick, by 11 March 1918, the virus had reached Queens, New York. Failure to take measures in March/April was later criticised
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Mouse
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A mouse is a small rodent characteristically having a pointed snout, small rounded ears, a body-length scaly tail and a high breeding rate. The best known species is the common house mouse. It is also a popular pet, in some places, certain kinds of field mice are locally common. They are known to invade homes for food and shelter, domestic mice sold as pets often differ substantially in size from the common house mouse. This is attributable both to breeding and to different conditions in the wild, the most well known strain, the white lab mouse, has more uniform traits that are appropriate to its use in research. The American white-footed mouse and the mouse, as well as other common species of mouse-like rodents around the world. These, however, are in other genera, cats, wild dogs, foxes, birds of prey, snakes and even certain kinds of arthropods have been known to prey heavily upon mice. Nevertheless, because of its adaptability to almost any environment. Mice, in contexts, can be considered vermin which are a major source of crop damage, causing structural damage. In North America, breathing dust that has come in contact with mouse excrement has been linked to hantavirus, primarily nocturnal animals, mice compensate for their poor eyesight with a keen sense of hearing, and rely especially on their sense of smell to locate food and avoid predators. Mice build intricate burrows in the wild and these burrows typically have long entrances and are equipped with escape tunnels or routes. In at least one species, the design of a burrow is a genetic trait. Breeding onset is at about 50 days of age in females and males, although females may have their first estrus at 25–40 days. Mice are polyestrous and breed year round, ovulation is spontaneous, the duration of the estrous cycle is 4–5 days and estrus itself lasts about 12 hours, occurring in the evening. Vaginal smears are useful in timed matings to determine the stage of the estrous cycle, mating is usually nocturnal and may be confirmed by the presence of a copulatory plug in the vagina up to 24 hours post-copulation. The presence of sperm on a smear is also a reliable indicator of mating. Female mice housed together tend to go into anestrus and do not cycle, if exposed to a male mouse or the pheromones of a male mouse, most of the females will go into estrus in about 72 hours. This synchronization of the cycle is known as the Whitten effect
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History of biology
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The history of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times. This ancient work was developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians. During the European Renaissance and early period, biological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism. Microscopy revealed the unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. The growing importance of natural theology, partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy, over the 18th and 19th centuries, biological sciences such as botany and zoology became increasingly professional scientific disciplines. Lavoisier and other scientists began to connect the animate and inanimate worlds through physics. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction, cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation, New disciplines developed rapidly, especially after Watson and Crick proposed the structure of DNA. The word biology is formed by combining the Greek βίος, meaning life, the term biology in its modern sense appears to have been introduced independently by Thomas Beddoes, Karl Friedrich Burdach, Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. Before biology, there were terms used for the study of animals. Physiology and pharmacology were the province of medicine, botany, zoology, and geology replaced natural history and natural philosophy in the 18th and 19th centuries before biology was widely adopted. To this day, botany and zoology are widely used, although they have been joined by other sub-disciplines of biology, such as mycology, the earliest humans must have had and passed on knowledge about plants and animals to increase their chances of survival. This may have included knowledge of human and animal anatomy and aspects of animal behavior, however, the first major turning point in biological knowledge came with the Neolithic Revolution about 10,000 years ago. Humans first domesticated plants for farming, then livestock animals to accompany the resulting sedentary societies, however, the roots of modern biology are usually traced back to the secular tradition of ancient Greek philosophy. In ancient China, biological topics can be dispersed across several different disciplines, including the work of herbologists, physicians, alchemists. The Taoist tradition of Chinese alchemy, for example, can be considered part of the life sciences due to its emphasis on health, the system of classical Chinese medicine usually revolved around the theory of yin and yang, and the five phases. One of the oldest organised systems of medicine is known from the Indian subcontinent in the form of Ayurveda which originated around 1500 BCE from Atharvaveda, Ayurvedic writers also classified living things into four categories based on the method of birth and explained the conception of a fetus in detail
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History of anatomy
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The history of anatomy extends from the earliest examinations of sacrificial victims to the sophisticated analyses of the body performed by modern scientists. The study of anatomy can be traced back thousands of years, at least to the Egyptians. The development of the study of anatomy gradually built upon concepts that were understood during the time of Galen and it has been characterized, over time, by a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. The study of anatomy begins at least as early as 1600 BC and this treatise shows that the heart, its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus and bladder were recognized, and that the blood vessels were known to emanate from the heart. It notes that the heart is the center of blood supply, however, they did not have a theory as to where saliva and sweat came from. Nomenclature, methods and applications for the study of anatomy all date back to the Greeks, the early scientist Alcmaeon began to construct a background for medical and anatomical science with the dissection of animals. He identified the optic nerves and the tubes later termed the Eustachius, others such as Acron, Pausanias, and Philistion of Locri made investigations into anatomy. One important figure during this time was Empedocles who viewed the blood as the heat which he acquired from previous folklore. He also argued that the heart was the organ of both the vascular system and the pneuma. Many medical texts by authors are collected in the Hippocratic Corpus. The texts show an understanding of structure, and the beginnings of understanding of the function of certain organs. The tricuspid valve of the heart and its function is documented in the treatise On the Heart, in the 4th century BCE, Aristotle and several contemporaries produced a more empirically founded system, based on animal dissection. Through his work with animal dissections and evolutionary biology, Aristotle founded comparative anatomy, around this time, Praxagoras is credited as the first to identify the difference between arteries and veins, and the relations between organs are described more accurately than in previous works. The first recorded school of anatomy was in Alexandria from about 300 to the 2nd century BC, Ptolemy I Soter was the first to allow for medical officials to cut open and examine dead bodies for the purposes of learning how human bodies operated. On some occasions King Ptolemy even took part in these dissections, most of the early dissections were done on executed criminals. Herophilos in particular developed a body of anatomical knowledge much more informed by the structure of the human body than previous works had been. Herophilos was the first physician to dissect human bodies and is considered to be the founder of Anatomy and he reversed the longstanding notion made by Aristotle that the heart was the seat of intelligence. He argued instead that this seat was the brain, however, Herophilos was eventually accused by his contemporaries of dissecting live criminals
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History of biochemistry
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The term “biochemistry” itself is derived from the combining form bio-, meaning life, and chemistry. Nevertheless, several sources cite German chemist Carl Neuberg as having coined the term for the new discipline in 1903, and some credit it to Franz Hofmeister. Over the last 40 years the field has had success in explaining living processes such that now almost all areas of the life sciences from botany to medicine are engaged in biochemical research. Among the vast number of different biomolecules, many are complex and large molecules, each class of polymeric biomolecule has a different set of subunit types. Biochemistry studies the properties of important biological molecules, like proteins. The biochemistry of cell metabolism and the system has been extensively described. Other areas of biochemistry include the code, protein synthesis, cell membrane transport. It began in the ancient Indian culture also with an interest in medicine and they also delved into the interest of bodies being composed of tissues. On the side of chemistry, early advancements were heavily attributed to exploration of interests but also included, metallurgy, the scientific method. In more recent times, the study of chemistry was marked by such as the development of Mendeleevs periodic table, Daltons atomic model. This last mention has the most importance of the three due to the fact that this law intertwines chemistry with thermodynamics in an intercalated manner. As early as the late 18th century and early 19th century, the digestion of meat by stomach secretions, however, the mechanism by which this occurred had not been identified. He wrote that alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, the word enzyme was used later to refer to nonliving substances such as pepsin, and the word ferment used to refer to chemical activity produced by living organisms. In 1897 Eduard Buchner began to study the ability of yeast extracts to ferment sugar despite the absence of living yeast cells. In a series of experiments at the University of Berlin, he found that the sugar was fermented even when there were no living yeast cells in the mixture and he named the enzyme that brought about the fermentation of sucrose zymase. In 1907 he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his biochemical research, following Buchners example, enzymes are usually named according to the reaction they carry out. Typically the suffix -ase is added to the name of the substrate or the type of reaction, having shown that enzymes could function outside a living cell, the next step was to determine their biochemical nature. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was a protein and crystallized it
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History of botany
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Rudimentary botanical science began with empirically-based plant lore passed from generation to generation in the oral traditions of paleolithic hunter-gatherers. In Europe, this early botanical science was soon overshadowed by a preoccupation with the medicinal properties of plants that lasted more than 1000 years. During this time, the works of classical antiquity were reproduced in manuscripts. In China and the Arab world, the Greco-Roman work on plants was preserved and extended. Herbals were replaced by floras, books that described the plants of local regions. The invention of the microscope stimulated the study of plant anatomy, with the expansion of trade and exploration beyond Europe, the many new plants being discovered were subjected to an increasingly rigorous process of naming, description, and classification. Botany and zoology are, historically, the disciplines of biology whose history is closely associated with the natural sciences chemistry, physics. A distinction can be made between botanical science in a sense, as the study of plants themselves, and botany as applied science. Early natural history divided pure botany into three main streams morphology-classification, anatomy and physiology – that is, external form, internal structure, and functional operation. Since the origin of science there has been a progressive increase in the scope of the subject as technology has opened up new techniques. Modern molecular systematics, for example, entails the principles and techniques of taxonomy, molecular biology, computer science, within botany there are a number of sub-disciplines that focus on particular plant groups, each with their own range of related studies. Included here are, phycology, pteridology, bryology and palaeobotany, to this list can be added mycology, the study of fungi, which were once treated as plants, but are now ranked as a unique kingdom. During the Neolithic Revolution plant knowledge increased most obviously through the use of plants for food, all of todays staple foods were domesticated in prehistoric times as a gradual process of selection of higher-yielding varieties took place, possibly unknowingly, over hundreds to thousands of years. Legumes were cultivated on all continents but cereals made up most of the diet, rice in East Asia, wheat and barley in the Middle east. By Greco-Roman times popular food plants of today, including grapes, apples, figs, Botanical authority William Stearn has observed that cultivated plants are mankinds most vital and precious heritage from remote antiquity. It is also from the Neolithic, in about 3000 BC, however protobotany, the first pre-scientific written record of plants, did not begin with food, it was born out of the medicinal literature of Egypt, China, Mesopotamia and India. Ancient India An early example of ancient Indian plant classification is found in the Rigveda, Plants are divided into vṛska, osadhi and virudha, with further subdivisions. The sacred Hindu text Atharvaveda divides plants into eight classes, visakha, manjari, sthambini, prastanavati, ekasṛnga, pratanavati, amsumati, and kandini
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History of evolutionary thought
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Evolutionary thought, the conception that species change over time, has roots in antiquity - in the ideas of the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Chinese as well as in medieval Islamic science. Naturalists began to focus on the variability of species, the emergence of paleontology with the concept of extinction further undermined static views of nature, in the early 19th century Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed his theory of the transmutation of species, the first fully formed theory of evolution. In 1858 Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace published a new evolutionary theory, unlike Lamarck, Darwin proposed common descent and a branching tree of life, meaning that two very different species could share a common ancestor. Darwin based his theory on the idea of selection, it synthesized a broad range of evidence from animal husbandry, biogeography, geology, morphology. Before that time most biologists regarded other factors as responsible for evolution, alternatives to natural selection suggested during the eclipse of Darwinism included inheritance of acquired characteristics, an innate drive for change, and sudden large mutations. Paleontology and comparative anatomy allowed more detailed reconstructions of the history of life. After the rise of genetics in the 1950s, the field of molecular evolution developed, based on protein sequences and immunological tests. In the late 20th-century, DNA sequencing led to molecular phylogenetics, in addition, the newly recognized factors of symbiogenesis and horizontal gene transfer introduced yet more complexity into evolutionary theory. Discoveries in evolutionary biology have made a significant impact not just within the branches of biology. Proposals that one type of animal, even humans, could descend from other types of animals, are known to go back to the first pre-Socratic Greek philosophers. He also argued that the first human of the form known today must have been the child of a different type of animal, because man needs prolonged nursing to live. Empedocles, argued that what we call birth and death in animals are just the mingling, Plato was called by biologist Ernst Mayr the great antihero of evolutionism, because he promoted belief in essentialism, which is also referred to as the theory of Forms. This theory holds that each type of object in the observed world is an imperfect manifestation of the ideal. In his Timaeus for example, Plato has a tell a story that the Demiurge created the cosmos and everything in it because, being good. Free from jealousy, He desired that all things should be as like Himself as they could be, the creator created all conceivable forms of life, since. Without them the universe will be incomplete, for it not contain every kind of animal which it ought to contain. This principle of plenitude—the idea that all forms of life are essential to a perfect creation—greatly influenced Christian thought. Aristotles works contain accurate observations, fitted into his own theories of the bodys mechanisms, however, for Charles Singer, Nothing is more remarkable than efforts to the relationships of living things as a scala naturae
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History of geology
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The history of geology is concerned with the development of the natural science of geology. Geology is the study of the origin, history. Some of the first geological thoughts were about the origin of the Earth, ancient Greece developed some primary geological concepts concerning the origin of the Earth. Additionally, in the 4th century BC Aristotle made critical observations of the rate of geological change. He observed the composition of the land and formulated a theory where the Earth changes at a slow rate, Aristotle developed one of the first evidentially based concepts connected to the geological realm regarding the rate at which the Earth physically changes. However, it was his successor at the Lyceum, the philosopher Theophrastus and he described many minerals and ores both from local mines such as those at Laurium near Athens, and further afield. He also quite naturally discussed types of marble and building materials like limestones, much later in the Roman period, Pliny the Elder produced a very extensive discussion of many more minerals and metals then widely used for practical ends. He was among the first to identify the origin of amber as a fossilized resin from trees by the observation of insects trapped within some pieces. He also laid the basis of crystallography by recognising the octahedral habit of diamond, in medieval China, one of the most intriguing naturalists was Shen Kuo, a polymath personality who dabbled in many fields of study in his age. In terms of geology, Shen Kuo is one of the first naturalists to have formulated a theory of geomorphology. This was based on his observations of sedimentary uplift, soil erosion, deposition of silt and it was not until the 17th century that geology made great strides in its development. At this time, geology became its own entity in the world of natural science and it was discovered by the Christian world that different translations of the Bible contained different versions of the biblical text. The one entity that remained consistent through all of the interpretations was that the Deluge had formed the world’s geology, to prove the Bible’s authenticity, individuals felt the need to demonstrate with scientific evidence that the Great Flood had in fact occurred. With this enhanced desire for data came an increase in observations of the Earth’s composition, whiston used Christian reasoning to “prove” that the Great Flood had occurred and that the flood had formed the rock strata of the Earth. The Earth’s strata can be defined as horizontal layers of rock having approximately the same composition throughout, an important pioneer in the science was Nicolas Steno. Steno was trained in the texts on science, however. Importantly, he questioned the idea that grew in the ground. His investigations and his subsequent conclusions on these topics have led scholars to consider him one of the founders of modern stratigraphy, from this increased interest in the nature of the Earth and its origin, came a heightened attention to minerals and other components of the Earth’s crust
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History of medicine
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The history of medicine, as practiced by trained professionals, shows how societies have changed in their approach to illness and disease from ancient times to the present. Early medical traditions include those of Babylon, China, Egypt, Greece, Rest of Africa, the Greeks introduced the concepts of medical diagnosis, prognosis, and advanced medical ethics. The Hippocratic Oath, still taken by doctors up to today, was written in Greece in the 5th century BCE, in the medieval age, surgical practices inherited from the ancient masters were improved and then systematized in Rogeriuss The Practice of Surgery. Universities began systematic training of physicians around the years 1220 in Italy, during the Renaissance, understanding of anatomy improved, and the microscope was invented. The germ theory of disease in the 19th century led to cures for many infectious diseases, military doctors advanced the methods of trauma treatment and surgery. Public health measures were developed especially in the 19th century as the growth of cities required systematic sanitary measures. Advanced research centers opened in the early 20th century, often connected with major hospitals, the mid-20th century was characterized by new biological treatments, such as antibiotics. These advancements, along with developments in chemistry, genetics, Medicine was heavily professionalized in the 20th century, and new careers opened to women as nurses and as physicians. The 21st century is characterized by highly advanced research involving numerous fields of science, although there is no record to establish when plants were first used for medicinal purposes, the use of plants as healing agents, as well as clays and soils is ancient. Over time through emulation of the behavior of fauna a medicinal knowledge base developed and passed between generations, as tribal culture specialized specific castes, shamans and apothecaries fulfilled the role of healer. The first known dentistry dates to about 7,000 B. C. E. in Baluchistan, the first known trepanning operation was carried out about 5,000 B. C. E. in Ensisheim, France. The earliest known surgery, an amputation was carried out about 4,900 B. C. E. in Buthiers-Bulancourt, Ancient Egypt developed a large, varied and fruitful medical tradition. Herodotus described the Egyptians as the healthiest of all men, next to the Libyans, because of the dry climate, according to him, the practice of medicine is so specialized among them that each physician is a healer of one disease and no more. Although Egyptian medicine, to an extent, dealt with the supernatural, it eventually developed a practical use in the fields of anatomy, public health. Medical information in the Edwin Smith Papyrus may date to a time as early as 3000 BC, the Edwin Smith Papyrus is regarded as a copy of several earlier works and was written c.1600 BC. It is an ancient textbook on surgery almost completely devoid of magical thinking and describes in detail the examination, diagnosis, treatment. The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus treats womens complaints, including problems with conception, thirty four cases detailing diagnosis and treatment survive, some of them fragmentarily. Dating to 1800 BCE, it is the oldest surviving text of any kind
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History of model organisms
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The history of model organisms began with the idea that certain organisms can be studied and used to gain knowledge of other organisms or as a control for other organisms of the same species. Model organisms offer standards that serve as the basis for comparison of other organisms. Model organisms are made standard by limiting genetic variance, creating, hopefully and these early works in finding standards to compare organisms against continued into the 20th century as the first model organisms were brought into laboratories. Beginning in the early 1900s Drosophila entered the research laboratories and opened up the doors for other organisms like Tobacco mosaic virus, E. coli, C57BL/6. These organisms have led to advances in the past century. These discoveries made in the 1860s lay dormant for nearly forty years until they were rediscovered in 1900, mendel’s work was then correlated with what was being called chromosomes within the nucleus of each cell. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster made the jump from nature to laboratory animal in 1901, at Harvard University, Charles W. Woodworth suggested to William E. Castle that Drosophila might be used for genetical work, Castle, along with his students, then first brought the fly into their labs for experimental use. By 1903 William J. Moenkhaus had brought Drosophila back to his lab at Indiana University Med School, sometime in the year 1906 Drosophila was adopted by the man who would become very well known for his work with the flies, Thomas Hunt Morgan. A man by the name of Jacques Loeb also tried experimentation in mutations of Drosophila independently of Morgan’s work during the 1st decade of the twentieth century. Thomas Hunt Morgan is considered to be one of the most influential men in experimental biology during the twentieth century. He was one of the first in the field to realize the potential of mapping the chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster and he would later expand his findings to a comparative study of other species. With careful and painstaking observation he and other Drosophilists were able to control for mutations, through many years of work like this standards of these flies have become quite uniform and are still used in research today. These flies, along all the original model organisms, were not domesticated. The flies had to cross the threshold of nature to become creatures of a second, not just flies, but other organisms were also being brought into the laboratories during the early 1900s and tried out as experimental creatures. With the expansion of animals used as test subjects in laboratories came more knowledge of each model organism was best suited for testing. Limitations of these animals’ testing abilities were discovered so the introduction of even more model organisms began as science progressed. Drosophila exist today as one of the more advanced forms of insects on the due to their rapid evolution
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History of paleontology
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The history of paleontology traces the history of the effort to understand the history of life on Earth by studying the fossil record left behind by living organisms. In ancient times Xenophanes, Herodotus, Eratosthenes, and Strabo, the Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo would propose a theory of climate change based on evidence from petrified bamboo. In early modern Europe, the study of fossils emerged as an integral part of the changes in natural philosophy that occurred during the Age of Reason. The expanding knowledge of the record also played an increasing role in the development of geology. This contributed to a increase in knowledge about the history of life on Earth. As knowledge of lifes history continued to improve, it became obvious that there had been some kind of successive order to the development of life. This would encourage early evolutionary theories on the transmutation of species, after Charles Darwin published Origin of Species in 1859, much of the focus of paleontology shifted to understanding evolutionary paths, including human evolution, and evolutionary theory. The last half of the 19th century saw an expansion in paleontological activity. Many transitional fossils have been discovered, and there is now considered to be abundant evidence of how all classes of vertebrates are related, the last few decades of the 20th century saw a renewed interest in mass extinctions and their role in the evolution of life on Earth. There was also a renewed interest in the Cambrian explosion that saw the development of the plans of most animal phyla. The discovery of fossils of the Ediacaran biota and developments in paleobiology extended knowledge about the history of life back far before the Cambrian, leonardo da Vinci, in an unpublished notebook, also concluded that some fossil sea shells were the remains of shellfish. However, in cases, the fossils were complete remains of shellfish species that closely resembled living species. In 1027, the Persian naturalist, Ibn Sina, proposed an explanation of how the stoniness of fossils was caused in The Book of Healing and he modified an idea of Aristotles, which explained it in terms of vaporous exhalations. Ibn Sina modified this into the theory of petrifying fluids, which was elaborated on by Albert of Saxony in the 14th century and was accepted in some form by most naturalists by the 16th century. Shen Kuo of the Song Dynasty used marine fossils found in the Taihang Mountains to infer the existence of geological processes such as geomorphology, conrad Gesner published a 1565 work on fossils that contained one of the first detailed descriptions of such a cabinet and collection. The collection belonged to a member of the network of correspondents that Gesner drew on for his works. These cabinet collections and correspondence networks played an important role in the development of natural philosophy, however, most 16th-century Europeans did not recognize that fossils were the remains of living organisms. The etymology of the word comes from the Latin for things having been dug up
