1.
Holbrook, New South Wales
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Holbrook is a small town in Southern New South Wales, Australia. It is on the Hume Highway,384 kilometres by road North-East of Melbourne and 492 kilometres by road south-west of Sydney between Tarcutta and Albury. The town is in the Greater Hume Shire Council area which was established in May 2004 from the merger of Culcairn Shire with the majority of Holbrook Shire, at the 2011 census, Holbrook had a population of 1,263 people. The district around Holbrook is renowned for local produce including merino wool, wheat and other grains, lucerne, fat cattle, the area was originally inhabited by the Wiradjuri people. The explorers Hume and Hovell were the first-known Europeans in the area and they travelled through in 1824 looking for new grazing country in the south of the colony of New South Wales. The town was originally called Ten Mile Creek and the first buildings were erected in 1836, a German immigrant, John Christopher Pabst, became the publican of the Woolpack Hotel on 29 July 1840 and the area became known as the Germans. By 1858 the name had evolved into the name of Germanton. In 1876 the name Germanton was gazetted and the old name Ten Mile Creek consigned to history, Ten Mile Creek Post Office opened on 1 January 1857, and was renamed Germanton in 1875. Lt. Holbrook commanded the submarine HMS B11, the town was a stop on Old Sydney Road – the road between Sydney and Melbourne. The railway arrived in Germanton in 1902, the town was serviced by the Holbrook branch railway line until the line was closed in 1975. In 2013, a re-alignment of the Hume Highway around Holbrook was completed so it is now possible to by-pass the town, the Navy gifted the fin from the submarine to the town. This resulted in a fund-raiser by the town and district to purchase the whole submarine and this drive was successful in raising $100,000, almost all a gift from Lt Holbrooks widow, Gundula Holbrook. However, this amount was insufficient to purchase all of the Otway, through negotiations with the scrap yard in Sydney, the town succeeded in purchasing all of the outside casing of Otway above the waterline. This part of the Otway is now displayed in Germanton Park in the heart of Holbrook, the National Museum of Australian Pottery is housed in the old A. H. Mackie and Company building. It features over 1500 pieces made from the earliest colonial potteries up to the end of World War 1, the population of the town was 1,267 people at the 2001 census. The population of the former Holbrook Shire was 2343 people, the population had declined by 7. 4% from 1996 and by 10. 3% since 1991. In 2001 the population of Australia increased by 6% from the 1996 census and 12. 6% since the 1991 census, less than 1% of the population identified themselves as being of indigenous origin. The median age of people in Holbrook in the 2001 Census was 40 years, in the 1996 Census the median age of people was 37 years, while in the 1991 Census the median age of people was 34 years
2.
Oberon-class submarine
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The Oberon class was a ship class of 27 British-designed submarines operated by five different nations. They were designed as a direct follow-on from the Porpoise-class, physical dimensions were the same, but stronger materials were used in hull construction, the submarines were built between 1957 and 1978 by four shipyards, Cammel Laird, Chatham Dockyard, Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company and Vickers-Armstrongs. Submarines of the class were in service until 2000, as of 2015, eight of the submarines are preserved intact as museum vessels, another three are partially preserved, and one is in private ownership and awaiting conversion for display. The rest have been sold for scrap, including one former museum vessel, the 295. 2-foot -long Oberon class was based heavily on the preceding Porpoise class of submarines, which were in service from 1956 to 1988. Changes from the Porpoise design were primarily to improve the strength and stealth of the submarine, instead of UXW steel, the hull was built from QT28 steel, which was easier to fabricate and stronger, allowing the submarine to dive deeper. Glass-reinforced plastic was used in construction of the casing, electronics, sonar, and radar systems were also upgraded to the latest standard. The submarines were equipped with a type 1002 surface search and navigation radar, a type 187 active-passive attack sonar, construction of the British submarines was shared amongst four dockyards, the three mentioned above and Cammell Laird. The Oberons were originally armed with eight 21-inch torpedo tubes, six tubes in the bow, Naval mines could be carried instead of torpedoes, the torpedo payload would be replaced with up to 50 Mark 5 Stonefish or Mark 6 Sea Urchin mines. The forward torpedo tubes are constructed in two sections bolted together across the bulkhead at the end of the torpedo compartment. The 116-in long inner section is constructed of 0. 5-in rolled steel fitted with welded flanges, the outer section is constructed of a similar tube 175 in long but with a reinforced 1.125 inch thick section behind the main bulkhead. The outer end of the tube is sealed with a domed bow cap, bow shutters close across the bow caps so as to preserve the streamlined shape of the bow when the cap is closed. The bow caps and shutters are mechanically linked to a hydraulically operated drive rod from within the torpedo compartment, the bow cap opens first behind the shutter, which then folds back against it forming a smooth exit tube. The tube internal diameter is 22.5 in, wider than the torpedo, torpedoes could be fired either electrically or with compressed air. The aft torpedo tubes passed through the ballast tank at the rear of the submarine, a 31-in section projected into the boat through the bulkhead, forming overall a relatively short tube of 12 ft, but of 25 in diameter. The class used diesel-electric propulsion, with batteries to provide power when the engines cannot be used. Each vessel has two Admiralty-pattern V-16 diesel engines, each driving one 1280-kW 880-V generator and these can provide power directly to the two 3000-BHP electric motors, one directly connected to each propellor, or for charging batteries. One snorkel brings in new air to the boat, while the other takes exhaust fumes from the engines, the ventilation system is designed so the fresh air spreads through the boat. The generators are cooled by a fan on the shaft which circulates air through a filter
3.
Submarine
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A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability, the term most commonly refers to a large, crewed vessel. It is also used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely operated vehicles and robots, as well as medium-sized or smaller vessels, such as the midget submarine. The noun submarine evolved as a form of submarine boat, by naval tradition, submarines are usually referred to as boats rather than as ships. Although experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the 19th century, Submarines were first widely used during World War I, and now figure in many navies large and small. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection, Submarines can also be modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are also used in tourism, and for undersea archaeology, most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes. In modern submarines, this structure is the sail in American usage, a conning tower was a feature of earlier designs, a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller at the rear, and various hydrodynamic control fins, smaller, deep-diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout. Submarines use diving planes and also change the amount of water, Submarines have one of the widest ranges of types and capabilities of any vessel. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers, modern deep-diving submarines derive from the bathyscaphe, which in turn evolved from the diving bell. In 1578, the English mathematician William Bourne recorded in his book Inventions or Devises one of the first plans for an underwater navigation vehicle and its unclear whether he ever carried out his idea. The first submersible of whose construction there exists reliable information was designed and built in 1620 by Cornelis Drebbel and it was propelled by means of oars. By the mid-18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been granted in England, in 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill with water to submerge the craft, a mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemens Magazine reported that a design had initially been proposed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680. By this point of development, further improvement in design stagnated for over a century, until new industrial technologies for propulsion. The first military submarine was the Turtle, a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person and it was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion
4.
Harpoon (missile)
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The Harpoon is an all-weather, over-the-horizon, anti-ship missile system, developed and manufactured by McDonnell Douglas. In 2004, Boeing delivered the 7, 000th Harpoon unit since the introduction in 1977. The missile system has also further developed into a land-strike weapon. The regular Harpoon uses active homing, and a low-level. The missiles launch platforms include, Fixed-wing aircraft Surface ships Submarines, Coastal defense batteries, in 1965 the United States Navy began studies for a missile in the 45 kilometres range class for use against surfaced submarines. The name Harpoon was assigned to the project, Harpoon was primarily developed for use on US Navy warships such as the Ticonderoga-class cruiser as their principal anti-ship weapon system. The Harpoon was purchased by many American allies, including Pakistan, Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, the United Arab Emirates and most NATO countries. The Royal Australian Air Force is capable of firing AGM-84 series missiles from its F/A-18F Super Hornets, F/A-18A/B Hornets, and AP-3C Orion aircraft, the Royal Australian Navy deploys the Harpoon on major surface combatants and in the Collins-class submarines. The Spanish Air Force and the Chilean Navy are also AGM-84D customers, and they deploy the missiles on ships, and F/A-18s, F-16s. The British Royal Navy deploys the Harpoon on several types of surface ship, the Royal Canadian Navy carries Harpoon missiles on its Halifax-class frigates. The Republic of Singapore Air Force also operates five modified Fokker 50 Maritime Patrol Aircraft which are fitted with the sensors needed to fire the Harpoon missile, the Pakistani Navy carries the Harpoon missile on its frigates and P-3C Orions. The Turkish Navy carries Harpoons on surface warships and Type 209 submarines, the Turkish Air Force will be armed with the SLAM-ER. S. Navy Knox-class frigates and the four former USN Kidd-class destroyers which have sold to Taiwan. The two Zwaardvis/Hai Lung submarines and 12 P-3C Orion aircraft can use the missile. The Block 1 missiles were designated AGM/RGM/UGM-84A in US service and UGM-84B in the UK, Block 1B standard missiles were designated AGM/RGM/UGM-84C, Block 1C missiles were designated AGM/RGM/UGM-84D. This version featured a fuel tank and re-attack capability, but was not produced in large numbers because its intended mission was considered to be unlikely following the events of 1991–92. Block 1D missiles were designated RGM/AGM-84F, Block 1G missiles AGM/RGM/UGM-84G, the original SLAM-ER missiles were designated AGM-84H and later ones the AGM-84K. Block 1J was a proposal for an upgrade, AGM/RGM/UGM-84J Harpoon
5.
Royal Australian Navy
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The Royal Australian Navy is the naval branch of the Australian Defence Force. Following the Federation of Australia in 1901, the ships and resources of the colonial navies were integrated into a national force. Originally intended for defence, the navy was granted the title of Royal Australian Navy in 1911. Britains Royal Navy continued to support the RAN and provided additional blue-water defence capability in the Pacific up to the years of World War II. Then, rapid expansion saw the acquisition of large surface vessels. In the decade following the war, the RAN acquired a number of aircraft carriers. Today, the RAN consists of 47 commissioned vessels,3 non-commissioned vessels, the current Chief of Navy is Vice Admiral Tim Barrett. The Commonwealth Naval Forces were established on 1 March 1901, two months after the federation of Australia, when the forces of the separate Australian colonies were amalgamated. As a result, the force structure was set at one battlecruiser. On 10 July 1911, King George V granted the service the title of Royal Australian Navy. The first of the RANs new vessels, the destroyer Yarra, was completed in September 1910, in this time the focus of Australias naval policy shifted from defence against invasion to trade protection, and several fleet units were sunk as targets or scrapped. By 1923, the size of the navy had fallen to eight vessels, following the outbreak of the Pacific War and the virtual destruction of British naval forces in south-east Asia, the RAN operated more independently, or as part of United States Navy formations. As the navy took on a greater role, it was expanded significantly and at its height the RAN was the fourth-largest navy in the world. A total of 34 vessels were lost during the war, including three cruisers and four destroyers, after the Second World War, the size of the RAN was again reduced, but it gained new capabilities with the acquisition of two aircraft carriers, Sydney and Melbourne. The RAN saw action in many Cold War–era conflicts in the Asia-Pacific region and operated alongside the Royal Navy and United States Navy off Korea, Malaysia, and Vietnam. Since the end of the Cold War, the RAN has been part of Coalition forces in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean, operating in support of Operation Slipper and it was also deployed in support of Australian peacekeeping operations in East Timor and the Solomon Islands. The strategic command structure of the RAN was overhauled during the New Generation Navy changes, the RAN is commanded through Naval Headquarters in Canberra. The professional head is the Chief of Navy, who holds the rank of Vice Admiral, NHQ is responsible for implementing policy decisions handed down from the Department of Defence and for overseeing tactical and operational issues that are the purview of the subordinate commands
6.
Fleet Air Arm (RAN)
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The Fleet Air Arm, known formally as the Australian Navy Aviation Group, is the division of the Royal Australian Navy responsible for the operation of aircraft. The FAA was founded in 1947 following the purchase of two carriers from the Royal Navy. FAA personnel fought in the Korean War and the Vietnam War, initially operating only fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters were first acquired by the FAA in 1952, forming Australias first helicopter squadron. Helicopter usage increased over time, particularly after 1982, when the carrier HMAS Melbourne was decommissioned, as of 2011, the FAA consists of three active squadrons, operating four helicopter types. The RAAF assumed responsibility for aviation, which consisted primarily of amphibious aircraft flown by No.101 Flight RAAF from the RANs cruisers. As Terrible was the closer of the two ships to completion, construction was finished without major modification, the ship was commissioned into the RAN as HMAS Sydney on 16 December 1948. Sydneys maiden voyage saw the delivery of the first two operated by the Fleet Air Arm,805 Squadron with Hawker Sea Furies, and 816 Squadron with Fairey Fireflies. The two squadrons operated as the 20th Carrier Air Group, Sydney returned to England in 1950 to collect the 21st CAG,808 and 817 Squadrons, with Sea Furies and Fireflies, respectively. During the Korean War, Sydney was deployed to Korean waters in late 1951, with a wartime CAG of 805,808, and 817 Squadrons embarked. The Fleet Air Arm operated in a strike, ground support, and escort role during the deployment, nine of these were shot down by North Korean flak artillery, with aircraft damaged by flak on at least ninety other occasions. The other four were lost in accidents, or crashed because of foul weather. Meanwhile, Majestic was undergoing major upgrades during construction to operate jet aircraft, including the installation of a flight deck, steam catapult. To allow the RAN to operate as a force while Majestic was completed. Vengeance arrived in Australia with three Bristol Sycamore helicopters for the Fleet Air Arm, Vengeance was returned to the United Kingdom in 1955, with the crew transferred to Majestic, which was commissioned into the RAN as HMAS Melbourne on 28 October 1955. This decision was rescinded in 1963, with Grumman S-2E Tracker anti-submarine aircraft, Melbourne remained in service until mid-1982, when she was placed in reserve. The RAN Skyhawks were sold to the Royal New Zealand Air Force, during the 1980s, the Eurocopter Ecureuil and Sikorsky S-70 Seahawk were acquired to operate from the Adelaide class frigates. During 1992, FAA Sea Kings were embarked aboard HMAS Tobruk for Operation Solace, during the 1990s, the FAA ordered several refurbished Kaman SH-2G Super Seasprite helicopters to operate from the Anzac class frigates in the anti-submarine and anti-surface roles. The delays and problems with the led to the cancellation of the project in March 2008
7.
Royal Australian Navy Submarine Service
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The Royal Australian Navy Submarine Service is the collective name of the submarine element of the Royal Australian Navy. The service currently forms the Navys Submarine Force Element Group and consists of six Collins class submarines, the Royal Australian Navy Submarine Service has been established four times, with the initial three attempts being foiled by combat losses and Australias economic problems. The modern Submarine Service was established in 1964, and has formed an important element of the Australian militarys capacity since that date, while the Submarine Service has not seen combat since World War I, Australian submarines have conducted extensive surveillance operations throughout South East Asia. The current Director General Submarine Capability is Commodore G. J, the Royal Australian Navys submarine service has been established four times since 1914. After the formation of the navy upon Federation, a period of uncertainty had followed as the size of the force to be established was determined, eventually, this was set at 13 vessels, including three submarines. Initially, it had intended to purchase three small submarines, but this order was later changed, and instead Australias first submarines were the larger British E class submarines AE1. These submarines were built in Britain and arrived in Australia in 1914, following the outbreak of World War I, both boats took part in the occupation of Rabaul in German New Guinea in September 1914. During this operation, AE1 disappeared on 14 September off Cape Gazelle and it is probable that she was wrecked on a reef during a practice dive, but she is yet to be found. AE2 remained in the South Pacific until December 1914, when she was ordered to the Mediterranean to support the British-led operations off the Galipoli peninsula in Turkey, AE2 was the first British submarine to penetrate the Dardanelles, achieving this task on 25 April 1915. AE2 operated in the Sea of Marmora for five days and made four attacks on Turkish ships before being damaged by a Turkish gunboat. These attacks are the only occasions an Australian submarine has fired in anger, the Australian submarine service was reformed in 1919, when the British government transferred six J Class submarines to Australia, HMA Submarines J1, J2, J3, J4, J5, and J7. These submarines arrived in Australia with their tender HMAS Platypus in April 1919 and were based at Osborne House, the boats were in poor mechanical condition, however, and spent most of their service in refit. Due to Australias worsening economic situation, all of the boats were decommissioned in 1922, the Australian submarine service was established a third time in 1927, when the British O Class submarines HMAS Oxley and HMAS Otway were commissioned. These submarines sailed from Portsmouth for Sydney on 8 February 1928, due to Australias poor economic situation, the O Class boats proved to be unaffordable and were placed in reserve in 1930, before transferring back to the Royal Navy in 1931. The Australian ports of Fremantle and Brisbane were important bases for Allied submarines during World War II, a total of 122 United States Navy,31 Royal Navy, and 11 Royal Netherlands Navy submarines conducted patrols from Australian bases between 1942 and 1945. Fremantle was the second largest Allied submarine base in the Pacific Theatre after Pearl Harbor, following World War II the Royal Navys 4th Submarine Flotilla was based in Sydney from 1949 until 1969. The impending withdrawal of the British submarine flotilla sparked the fourth attempt to establish an Australian submarine service, eight British Oberon class submarines were ordered in 1964, to be built in Scotland in two batches of four boats. Only six boats were delivered, the seventh and eighth were cancelled in 1971 to fund the acquisition of ten A-4 Skyhawk aircraft for the Fleet Air Arm, the final Royal Navy submarine to be based in Australia, HMS Trump, was withdrawn in 1969
8.
Displacement (ship)
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The displacement or displacement tonnage of a ship is the ships weight. The name reflects the fact that it is measured indirectly, by first calculating the volume of water displaced by the ship, by Archimedes principle, this is also the weight of the ship. Displacement should not be confused with other measurements of volume or capacity typically used for vessels such as net tonnage, gross tonnage. The process of determining a vessels displacement begins with measuring its draft This is accomplished by means of its draft marks, a merchant vessel has three matching sets, one mark each on the port and starboard sides forward, midships, and astern. These marks allow a ships displacement to be determined to an accuracy of 0. 5%, the draft observed at each set of marks is averaged to find a mean draft. The ships hydrostatic tables show the corresponding volume displaced, to calculate the weight of the displaced water, it is necessary to know its density. Seawater is more dense than water, so a ship will ride higher in salt water than in fresh. The density of water varies with temperature. Devices akin to slide rules have been available since the 1950s to aid in these calculations and it is done today with computers. Displacement is usually measured in units of tonnes or long tons and these bring the ship down to its load draft, colloquially known as the waterline. Full load displacement and loaded displacement have almost identical definitions, full load is defined as the displacement of a vessel when floating at its greatest allowable draft as established by classification societies. Warships have arbitrary full load condition established, deep load condition means full ammunition and stores, with most available fuel capacity used. Light displacement is defined as the weight of the ship excluding cargo, fuel, water, ballast, stores, passengers, crew, normal displacement is the ships displacement with all outfit, and two-thirds supply of stores, ammunition, etc. on board. Standard displacement, also known as Washington displacement, is a term defined by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. Naval architecture Hull Hydrodynamics Tonnage Dear, I. C. B, oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea. George, William E. Stability & Trim for the Ships Officer, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A. Trim and Stability Information for Drydocking Calculations, conference on the Limitation of Armament,1922. Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States,1922, proceedings of the United States Naval Institute
9.
Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark
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Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark, CI, GCVO, GBE was the daughter of Prince Nicholas of Greece and Denmark and Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia. In 1934, she married Prince George, Duke of Kent, from then on she also became known as the Duchess of Kent. Princess Marinas marriage was the most recent occasion on which a foreign-born princess married into the British Royal Family, Princess Marina was born in Athens, Greece, on 13 December 1906. Her father was Prince Nicholas of Greece and Denmark, the son of George I of Greece. Her mother was Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia, a granddaughter of Tsar Alexander II of Russia and she was the youngest of the couples children. One of her uncles was Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark. The family was poor and forced into exile when she was 11. They later moved to Paris, while the Princess stayed throughout Europe with her extended family, in 1932 Princess Marina and Prince George, Duke of Kent, a second cousin through Christian IX of Denmark, met in London. Their betrothal was announced in August 1934, on 29 November 1934, they married at Westminster Abbey, London. The wedding was followed by a Greek ceremony in the chapel at Buckingham Palace. The brides gown was in white and silver brocade, designed by Edward Molyneux. The Royal School of Needlework made a quilt as a gift for Princess Marina. Following the marriage she became the Duchess of Kent, the couple had three children, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent he married Katharine Lucy Mary Worsley on 8 June 1961. Sir Angus James Robert Bruce Ogilvy, son of David Lyulph Gore Wolseley Ogilvy, 7th Earl of Airlie and Lady Alexandra Marie Bridget Coke, Prince Michael of Kent he married Marie Christine von Reibnitz on 30 June 1978. The Duke of Kent was killed on 25 August 1942, in an crash at Eagles Rock, near Dunbeath, Caithness, Scotland. The Duchess, according to royal biographer Hugo Vickers, was the only war widow in Britain whose estate was forced to pay death duties, during World War II, Marina was trained as a nurse for three months under the pseudonym Sister Kay and joined the civil nurse reserve. After her husbands death, the Duchess of Kent continued to be an member of the British Royal Family. She was the president of the Wimbledon All England Lawn Tennis and she was President of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution from 1943 until her death and was awarded the RNLIs Gold Medal in 1967 to mark this contribution
10.
HMAS Canberra (D33)
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HMAS Canberra, named after the Australian capital city of Canberra, was a Royal Australian Navy heavy cruiser of the Kent sub-class of County-class cruisers. At the start of World War II, Canberra was initially used for patrols, in July 1940, she was reassigned as a convoy escort between Western Australia, Sri Lanka, and South Africa. During this deployment, which ended in mid-1941, Canberra was involved in the hunt for several German auxiliary cruisers, Canberra later joined Task Force 44, and was involved in the Guadalcanal Campaign and the Tulagi landings. On 9 August 1942, Canberra was struck by the opening Japanese shots of the Battle of Savo Island, unable to propel herself, the cruiser was evacuated and sunk in Ironbottom Sound by two American destroyers. The United States Navy Baltimore-class cruiser USS Canberra was named in honour of the Australian ship, Canberra was one of seven Kent-class cruisers—a subclass of the County-class cruiser—designed by Eustace Tennyson-DEyncourt. The ship was 590 feet long between perpendiculars and 630 feet 1 inch overall, with a beam of 68.25 feet, and she displaced 9,850 tons at light load, and 10,000 tons at standard load. The Kent class were built to meet the restrictions of the Washington Naval Treaty, with a reduction in armament and protection. Canberra was powered by eight Yarrow boilers which fed steam to four Brown-Curtis geared turbines, before World War II, the ships company was normally 690, this increased to 710 when acting as a flagship. During wartime service, the company expanded to 751. Canberras main armament consisted of eight 8-inch Mark VIII guns in four twin turrets, secondary armament consisted of four 4-inch quick-firing high-angle guns and four 2-pounder pom-pom guns. During a refit in 1942, two multiple pom-poms and five 20 mm Oerlikons were added to enhance the anti-aircraft armament, four 3-pounder quick-firing Hotchkiss guns were used as saluting guns. Two sets of quadruple 21-inch torpedo tubes were fitted, depth charges were carried, these were deployed by rails. The cruiser was designed to carry an amphibious aircraft, initially a Supermarine Seagull III aircraft. However, the catapult was not installed until April 1936. Before this, the Seagull amphibian was lowered into the water by the recovery crane. Armour aboard Canberra was limited to a deck over the machinery spaces and magazines. Armour plate was fitted to the turrets and the conning tower. In 1924, the Australian government ordered two Kent-class cruisers to replace the light cruisers Sydney and Melbourne
11.
Ghana
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Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a unitary presidential constitutional democracy, located along the Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic Ocean, in the subregion of West Africa. Spanning a land mass of 238,535 km², Ghana is bordered by the Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, Togo in the east, Ghana means Warrior King in the Soninke language. The territory of present-day Ghana has been inhabited for a millennium, numerous kingdoms and empires emerged over the centuries, of which the most powerful was the Kingdom of Ashanti. Beginning in the 15th century, numerous European powers contested the area for trading rights, following over a century of native resistance, Ghanas current borders were established by the 1900s as the British Gold Coast. On 6 March 1957, it became the first sub-Saharan African nation to become independent of European colonisation, a multicultural nation, Ghana has a population of approximately 27 million, spanning a variety of ethnic, linguistic and religious groups. Five percent of the population practices traditional faiths,71. 2% adhere to Christianity and 17. 6% are Muslim and its diverse geography and ecology ranges from coastal savannahs to tropical jungles. Ghana is a country led by a president who is both head of state and head of the government. Ghanas economy is one of the strongest and most diversified in Africa, following a century of relative stability. Ghanas growing economic prosperity and democratic political system have made it a power in West Africa. It is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, the African Union, the Economic Community of West African States, Group of 24, Ghana was already recognized as one of the great kingdoms in Bilad el-Sudan by the ninth century. Ghana was inhabited in the Middle Ages and the Age of Discovery by a number of ancient predominantly Akan kingdoms in the Southern and this included the Ashanti Empire, the Akwamu, the Bonoman, the Denkyira, and the Mankessim Kingdom. Until the 11th century, the majority of modern Ghanas territorial area was unoccupied and uninhabited by humans. Although the area of present-day Ghana in West Africa has experienced many population movements, by the early 11th century, the Akans were firmly established in the Akan state called Bonoman, for which the Brong-Ahafo Region is named. From the 13th century, Akans emerged from what is believed to have been the Bonoman area, to create several Akan states of Ghana and these states included Bonoman, Ashanti, Denkyira, Mankessim Kingdom, and Akwamu Eastern region. By the 19th century, the territory of the part of Ghana was included in the Kingdom of Ashanti. The Kingdom of Ashanti government operated first as a loose network, prior to Akan contact with Europeans, the Akan Ashanti people created an advanced economy based on principally gold and gold bar commodities then traded with the states of Africa. The earliest known kingdoms to emerge in modern Ghana were the Mole-Dagbani states, the Mole-Dagombas came on horseback from present-day Burkina Faso under a single leader, Naa Gbewaa. The death of Naa Gbewaa caused civil war among his children, some of whom broke off and founded separate states including Dagbon, Mamprugu, Mossi, Nanumba, Akan trade with European states began after contact with Portuguese in the 15th century
12.
Cape of Good Hope
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The Cape of Good Hope is a rocky headland on the Atlantic coast of the Cape Peninsula, South Africa. In fact, the southernmost point of Africa is Cape Agulhas, when following the western side of the African coastline from the equator, however, the Cape of Good Hope marks the point where a ship begins to travel more eastward than southward. Thus, the first modern rounding of the cape in 1488 by Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias was a milestone in the attempts by the Portuguese to establish trade relations with the Far East. Dias called the cape Cabo das Tormentas, which was the name of the Cape of Good Hope. As one of the capes of the South Atlantic Ocean. It is a waypoint on the Cape Route and the route followed by clipper ships to the Far East and Australia. The term Cape of Good Hope is also used in three ways, It is a section of the Table Mountain National Park, within which the cape of the same name, as well as Cape Point. Prior to its incorporation into the park, this section constituted the Cape Point Nature Reserve. It was the name of the early Cape Colony established by the Dutch in 1652, just before the Union of South Africa was formed, the term referred to the entire region that in 1910 was to become the Cape of Good Hope Province. When Eudoxus was returning from his voyage to India the wind forced him south of the Gulf of Aden. Somewhere along the coast of East Africa, he found the remains of the ship, due to its appearance and the story told by the natives, Eudoxus concluded that the ship was from Gades and had sailed anti-clockwise around Africa, passing the Cape and entering the Indian Ocean. This inspired him to repeat the voyage and attempt a circumnavigation of the continent, organising the expedition on his own account he set sail from Gades and began to work down the African coast. The difficulties were too great, however, and he was obliged to return to Europe, after this failure he again set out to circumnavigate Africa. Although some, such as Pliny, claimed that Eudoxus did achieve his goal, in the 1450 Fra Mauro map, the Indian Ocean is depicted as connected to the Atlantic. It sailed for 40 days in a south-westerly direction without ever finding anything other than wind and water. According to these people themselves, the ship went some 2,000 miles ahead until - once favourable conditions came to an end - it turned round and sailed back to Cape Diab in 70 days. The ships called junks that navigate these seas carry four masts or more, some of which can be raised or lowered, and have 40 to 60 cabins for the merchants and only one tiller. They can navigate without a compass, because they have an astrologer, thus one can believe and confirm what is said by both these and those, and that they had therefore sailed 4,000 miles
Australia
Media related to HMAS Otway (S 59) at Wikimedia Commons
