1.
Barack Obama
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Barack Hussein Obama II is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president and he previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state and he grew up mostly in Hawaii, but also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia. After graduating from Columbia University in 1983, he worked as a community organizer in Chicago, in 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. After graduation, he became a civil rights attorney and professor, Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, when he ran for the U. S. Senate. In 2008, Obama was nominated for president, a year after his campaign began and he was elected over Republican John McCain, and was inaugurated on January 20,2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, during his first two years in office, Obama signed more landmark legislation than any Democratic president since LBJs Great Society. Main reforms were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, after a lengthy debate over the national debt limit, Obama signed the Budget Control and the American Taxpayer Relief Acts. In foreign policy, Obama increased U. S. troop levels in Afghanistan, reduced nuclear weapons with the U. S. -Russian New START treaty, and ended military involvement in the Iraq War. He ordered military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi, after winning re-election over Mitt Romney, Obama was sworn in for a second term in 2013. Obama also advocated gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning climate change and immigration. In foreign policy, Obama ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60% approval rating. He currently resides in Washington, D. C and his presidential library will be built in Chicago. Obama was born on August 4,1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital in Honolulu and he is the only President to have been born in Hawaii. He was born to a mother and a black father. His mother, Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, of mostly English descent, with some German, Irish, Scottish, Swiss and his father, Barack Obama Sr. was a married Luo Kenyan man from Nyangoma Kogelo. Obamas parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the couple married in Wailuku, Hawaii on February 2,1961, six months before Obama was born. In late August 1961, Obamas mother moved him to the University of Washington in Seattle for a year
2.
Cyanoacrylate
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Cyanoacrylates are a family of strong fast-acting adhesives with industrial, medical, and household uses. Cyanoacrylate adhesives have a shelf life if not used, about one year from manufacture if unopened. Cyanoacrylates include methyl 2-cyanoacrylate, ethyl-2-cyanoacrylate, n-butyl cyanoacrylate and 2-octyl cyanoacrylate, Octyl cyanoacrylate was developed to address toxicity concerns and to reduce skin irritation and allergic response. Cyanoacrylate adhesives are sometimes known generically as instant glues, power glues or superglues, the abbreviation CA is commonly used for industrial grades. The original patent for cyanoacrylate was filed in 1942 by Goodrich Company, as an outgrowth of a search for materials suitable for clear plastic gun sights for the war effort. In 1942, a team of scientists headed by Harry Coover Jr. stumbled upon a formulation that stuck to everything with which it came in contact. The team quickly rejected the substance for the application, but in 1951, while working as researchers for Eastman Kodak, Coover. The two realized the commercial potential, and a form of the adhesive was first sold in 1958 under the title Eastman #910. During the 1960s, Eastman Kodak sold cyanoacrylate to Loctite, which in turn repackaged and distributed it under a different brand name Loctite Quick Set 404, in 1971 Loctite developed its own manufacturing technology and introduced its own line of cyanoacrylate, called Super Bonder. Loctite quickly gained market share, and by the late 1970s it was believed to have exceeded Eastman Kodaks share in the North American industrial cyanoacrylate market, National Starch and Chemical Company purchased Eastman Kodak’s cyanoacrylate business and combined it with several acquisitions made throughout the 1970s forming Permabond. Other manufacturers of cyanoacrylate include LePage, the Permabond Division of National Starch and Chemical, together, Loctite, Eastman and Permabond accounted for approximately 75% of the industrial cyanoacrylate market. As of 2013 Permabond continued to manufacture the original 910 formula, in its liquid form, cyanoacrylate consists of monomers of cyanoacrylate molecules. Methyl-2-cyanoacrylate has a weight equal to 111.1, a flashpoint of 79 °C. Ethyl 2-cyanoacrylate has a weight equal to 125 and a flashpoint of >75 °C. To facilitate easy handling, an adhesive is frequently formulated with an ingredient such as fumed silica to make it more viscous or gel-like. More recently, formulations are available with additives to increase shear strength, such additives may include rubber, as in Loctites Ultra Gel, or others which are not specified. In general, cyanoacrylate is a resin that rapidly polymerises in the presence of water, forming long, strong chains. Because the presence of moisture causes the glue to set, exposure to normal levels of humidity in the air causes a thin skin to start to form within seconds, because of this cyanoacrylate is applied thinly, to ensure that the reaction proceeds rapidly for bonding
3.
Newark, Delaware
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Newark is a city in New Castle County, Delaware,12 miles west-southwest of Wilmington. According to the 2010 Census, the population of the city is 31,454, Newark is the home of the University of Delaware. Newark was founded by Scots-Irish and Welsh settlers in 1694, the town was officially established when it received a charter from George II of Great Britain in 1758. Schools have played a significant role in the history of Newark, a grammar school, founded by Francis Alison in 1743, moved from New London, Pennsylvania to Newark in 1765, becoming the Newark Academy. Among the first graduates of the school were three signers of the Declaration of Independence, George Read, Thomas McKean, and James Smith. Two of which, Read and McKean, went on to have named after them in the state of Delaware, George Read Middle School. During the American Revolutionary War, British and American forces clashed outside Newark at the Battle of Cooch’s Bridge, tradition holds that the Battle of Coochs Bridge was the first instance of the Stars and Stripes being flown in battle. The state granted a charter to a new school in 1833, Newark Academy and Newark College joined together in the following year, becoming Delaware College. The school was forced to close in 1859, but was resuscitated eleven years later under the Morrill Act when it became a joint venture between the State of Delaware and the schools Board of Trustees. In 1913, pursuant to legislative Act, Delaware College came into ownership of the State of Delaware. The school would be renamed the University of Delaware in 1921, Newark received a license from King George II to hold semi-annual fairs and weekly markets for agricultural exchange in 1758. A paper mill, the first sizable industrial venture in Newark, was created around 1798 and this mill, eventually known as the Curtis Paper Mill, was the oldest paper mill in the United States until its closing in 1997. Methodists built the first church in 1812 and the railroad arrived in 1837, one of Newarks major sources of employment and revenue was the Chrysler Newark Assembly plant which was built in 1951. Jamaican reggae star, Bob Marley worked as a worker at the plant during his short stint in Delaware in the 1960s. Originally constructed to build tanks for the US Army, the plant was 3.4 million square feet in size and it employed 1,100 employees in 2008 which was down from 2,115 in 2005. This turn was due largely to the decline of sales of the Durango, the plant stood for more than 50 years, providing jobs and revenue to the state of Delaware. The factory produced a variety of automobile models during its run. The plant was closed in late 2008 due to the recession, Newark is located at 39°41′01″N 75°44′59″W
4.
Bachelor of Science
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A Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years. Whether a student of a subject is awarded a Bachelor of Science degree or a Bachelor of Arts degree can vary between universities. For one example, a degree may be given as a Bachelor of Arts by one university but as a B. Sc. by another. Some liberal arts colleges in the United States offer only the BA, even in the natural sciences, in both instances, there are historical and traditional reasons. Northwestern Universitys School of Communication grants B. Sc. degrees in all of its programs of study, including theater, dance, the first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Science was the University of London in 1860. Prior to this, science subjects were included in the B. A. bracket, notably in the cases of mathematics, physics, physiology, in Argentina and Chile, most university degrees are given as a license in a field or discipline. For instance, besides the courses, biochemistry and biology require 1–2 years hands-on training either in a clinical laboratory plus a final exam or in a research laboratory plus a thesis defense. The degrees are term licenses in the field of study or profession i. e. biology, nutrition, physical therapy or kinesiology, etc. However, a masters degree requires 2-3 more years of specific training, engineering and medical degrees are also different and are six-year programs of specific classes and training starting immediately after high school. No intermediate degrees count towards the admission examination or even exist, medical degrees are complemented with a 3–4 years of hospital residence plus 1–2 years of specialization training. In Australia, the B. Sc. is generally a three-four year degree, an honours year or a Master of Science is required to progress on to the Doctor of Philosophy. In New Zealand, in cases, the honours degree comprises an additional postgraduate qualification. In South Africa, the B. Sc. is taken three years, while the postgraduate B. Sc. Entails an additional year of study, admission to the honours degree is on the basis of a sufficiently high average in the B. Sc. major, an honours degree is required for M. Sc. Level study, and admission to a doctorate is via the M. Sc, commonly in British Commonwealth countries and Ireland graduands are admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Science after having completed a programme in one or more of the sciences. These programmes may take different lengths of time to complete, note that in British English, no full stops are used in the title, hence BSc, not B. Sc. A Bachelor of Science receives the designation BSc or BS for a major/pass degree, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland an honours degree is typically completed over a three-year period, though there are a few intensified two-year courses. Bachelors degrees were typically completed in two years for most of the twentieth century, in Scotland, where access to university is possible after one less year of secondary education, degree courses have a foundation year making the total course length four years
5.
Hobart and William Smith Colleges
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Hobart and William Smith Colleges are located on 195 acres in New York states Finger Lakes region in Geneva, New York, United States. They trace their origins to Geneva Academy established in 1797, Hobart College and William Smith College are both liberal arts colleges offering the degrees of bachelor of arts, bachelor of science, and master of arts in teaching. Hobart and William Smith Colleges, private colleges located in Geneva, New York, after some setbacks and disagreement among trustees, the Academy suspended operations in 1817. By the time Bishop John Henry Hobart, of the Episcopal Diocese of New York, first visited the city of Geneva in 1818, yet, Geneva was a bustling Upstate New York city on the main land and stage coach route to the West. Bishop Hobart had a plan to reopen the Academy at a new location, raise a subscription for the construction of a stone building. Roughly following this plan, Geneva Academy reopened as Geneva College in 1822 with conditional grant funds made available from Trinity Church in New York City, Geneva College was renamed Hobart College in 1852 in honor of its founder, Bishop Hobart. William Smith College was founded in 1908, originally as William Smith College for Women and its namesake and founder was a wealthy local nurseryman, benefactor of the arts and sciences, and philanthropist. The school arose from negotiations between William Smith, who sought to establish a college, and Hobart College President Langdon C. Stewardson, who sought to redirect Smiths philanthropy towards Hobart College, Smith, however, was intent on establishing a coordinate, nonsectarian womens college, which, when realized, coincidentally gave Hobart access to new facilities and professors. The two student bodies were educated separately in the years, even though William Smith College was a department of Hobart College for organizational purposes until 1943. In that year, following a relaxation of academic separation, William Smith College was formally recognized as an independent college. Both colleges were reflected in a new, joint corporate identity under the name The Colleges of the Seneca, Geneva Academy was founded in 1796 when Geneva was just a small frontier settlement. It is believed to be the first school formed in Geneva, the area was considered the gateway to Genesee County and was in the early stages of development from the wilderness. Geneva Academy was founded by Rev. Henry Axtell, on May 3,1796, a special meeting was held, as recorded in town of Seneca records, and three commissioners were chosen to receive the moneys granted by the state for the use of schools. On January 30,1807, twenty-three freeholders of Geneva petitioned the Regents of the State of New York for the incorporation of Geneva Academy, the petition was not granted and the academy was not granted a charter until March 29,1813. On August 7,1809, the trustees of the announced the engagement of the Rev. Andrew Wilson. He remained until 1812 when Ransom Hubell, a graduate of Union College, was principal of the academy. The tuition fees had to be payable in advance, in 1817, Hubbell was succeeded by the Rev. John S. Cook
6.
Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
7.
Cornell University
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Cornell University is an American private Ivy League and land-grant doctoral university located in Ithaca, New York. These ideals, unconventional for the time, are captured in Cornells motto, the university also administers two satellite medical campuses, one in New York City and one in Education City, Qatar. Cornell is one of three private land grant universities in the nation and the one in New York. Of its seven colleges, three are state-supported statutory or contract colleges through the State University of New York system, including its agricultural. Of Cornells graduate schools, only the college is state-supported. As a land grant college, Cornell operates a cooperative extension program in every county of New York. The Cornell University Ithaca Campus comprises 745 acres, but is larger when the Cornell Botanic Gardens are considered. Since its founding, Cornell has been a co-educational, non-sectarian institution where admission has not been restricted by religion or race, the student body consists of more than 14,000 undergraduate and 7,000 graduate students from all 50 American states and more than 120 countries. Cornell University was founded on April 27,1865, the New York State Senate authorized the university as the land grant institution. Senator Ezra Cornell offered his farm in Ithaca, New York, as a site, fellow senator and experienced educator Andrew Dickson White agreed to be the first president. During the next three years, White oversaw the construction of the first two buildings and traveled to attract students and faculty, the university was inaugurated on October 7,1868, and 412 men were enrolled the next day. Cornell developed as an innovative institution, applying its research to its own campus as well as to outreach efforts. For example, in 1883 it was one of the first university campuses to use electricity from a dynamo to light the grounds. Cornell has had active alumni since its earliest classes and it was one of the first universities to include alumni-elected representatives on its Board of Trustees. Today the university has more than 4,000 courses, since 2000, Cornell has been expanding its international programs. In 2004, the university opened the Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar and it has partnerships with institutions in India, Singapore, and the Peoples Republic of China. Former president Jeffrey S. Lehman described the university, with its international profile. On March 9,2004, Cornell and Stanford University laid the cornerstone for a new Bridging the Rift Center to be built, Cornells main campus is on East Hill in Ithaca, New York, overlooking the town and Cayuga Lake
8.
Kodak
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Eastman Kodak Company, commonly referred to as Kodak, is an American technology company that produces imaging products with its historic basis on photography. The company is headquartered in Rochester, New York and is incorporated in New Jersey, Kodak provides packaging, functional printing, graphic communications and professional services for businesses around the world. Its main business segments are Print Systems, Enterprise Inkjet Systems, Micro 3D Printing and Packaging, Software and Solutions and it is best known for photographic film products. Kodak was founded by George Eastman and Henry A, during most of the 20th century, Kodak held a dominant position in photographic film. The companys ubiquity was such that its Kodak moment tagline entered the lexicon to describe a personal event that was demanded to be recorded for posterity. Kodak began to struggle financially in the late 1990s, as a result of the decline in sales of photographic film, as a part of a turnaround strategy, Kodak began to focus on digital photography and digital printing, and attempted to generate revenues through aggressive patent litigation. In January 2012, Kodak filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. In February 2012, Kodak announced that it would stop making digital cameras, pocket video cameras and digital picture frames, in January 2013, the Court approved financing for Kodak to emerge from bankruptcy by mid 2013. Kodak sold many of its patents for approximately $525,000,000 to a group of companies under the names Intellectual Ventures, on September 3,2013, the company emerged from bankruptcy having shed its large legacy liabilities and exited several businesses. Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging are now part of Kodak Alaris, on March 12,2014, it announced that the board of directors elected Jeffrey J. Clarke as chief executive officer and a member of its board of directors. As late as 1976, Kodak commanded 90% of film sales, Japanese competitor Fujifilm entered the U. S. market with lower-priced film and supplies, but Kodak did not believe that American consumers would ever desert its brand. Kodak passed on the opportunity to become the film of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, Fuji won these sponsorship rights. Fuji opened a plant in the U. S. and its aggressive marketing. Fuji went from a 10% share in the early 1990s to 17% in 1997, fujis films soon also found a competitive edge in higher-speed negative films, with a tighter grain structure. The complaint was lodged by the United States with the World Trade Organization, on January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the film market in Japan. Although Kodak developed a camera in 1975, the first of its kind. In the 1990s, Kodak planned a journey to move to digital technology. CEO George M. C. Fisher reached out to Microsoft, Apples pioneering QuickTake consumer digital cameras, introduced in 1994, had the Apple label but were produced by Kodak
9.
Kingsport, Tennessee
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Kingsport is a city in Sullivan and Hawkins counties in the U. S. state of Tennessee, most of the city is in Sullivan County. The population according to the 2010 census is 48,205, Kingsport is the largest city in the Kingsport–Bristol–Bristol, TN-VA Metropolitan Statistical Area, which had a population of 309,544 as of 2010. The Metropolitan Statistical Area is a component of the Johnson City–Kingsport–Bristol, Census data from 2006–2008 for the Tri-Cities Combined Statistical Area estimates a population of 496,454. Kingsport is commonly included in what is known as the Mountain Empire, which spans a portion of Southwest Virginia and the mountainous counties in eastern Tennessee. The name Kingsport is a simplification of Kings Port, originally referring to the area on the Holston River known as Kings Boat Yard, Kingsport was developed by European Americans, after the American Revolutionary War, at the confluence of the North and South Forks of the Holston River. In 1787 it was known as Salt Lick, for an ancient lick and it was first settled along the banks of the South Fork, about a mile from the confluence. The Long Island of the Holston River is near the confluence, the island was an important site for the Cherokee, colonial pioneers and early settlers, and specifically mentioned in the 1770 Treaty of Lochaber. Early settlements at the site were used as a ground for other pioneers who were traveling overland on the Wilderness Road leading to Kentucky through Cumberland Gap. First chartered in 1822, Kingsport also became an important shipping port on the Holston River, goods originating for many miles around from the surrounding countryside were loaded onto barges for the journey downriver to the Tennessee River at Knoxville. In the Battle of Kingsport during the American Civil War, a force of 300 Confederates under Colonel Richard Morgan stopped a larger Union force for two days. Out-numbered, out-flanked, and demoralised by the winter weather. The Confederates suffered 18 dead, and 84 prisoners of war were sent to a Union prison in Knoxville, the city lost its charter after a downturn in its fortunes precipitated by the Civil War. On September 12,1916, Kingsport residents demanded the death of circus elephant Mary and she had killed city hotel worker Walter Eldridge, who was hired by the circus the day before as an assistant elephant trainer. Eldridge was attacked and killed by the elephant while he was leading her to a pond, the elephant was impounded by the local sheriff. Leaders of several nearby towns threatened to prevent the circus from performing if it included the elephant, the circus owner, Charlie Sparks, reluctantly decided that the only way to quickly resolve the situation was to hold a public execution. On the following day, she was transported by rail to Erwin, Tennessee, re-chartered in 1917, Kingsport was an early example of a garden city. Part of it was designed by city planner and landscape architect John Nolen of Cambridge and it was nicknamed as the Model City from this plan, which organized the town into areas for commerce, churches, housing and industry. Most of the land on the river was devoted to industry, most of The Long Island is now occupied by Eastman Chemical Company, which is headquartered in Kingsport
10.
Acryloyl group
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In organic chemistry, the acryloyl group is form of enone with structure H2C=CH–C–, it is the acyl group derived from acrylic acid. The preferred IUPAC name for the group is prop-2-enoyl, and it is known as acrylyl or simply acryl. Compounds containing a group can be referred to as acrylic compounds. The carboxyl group of acrylic acid can react with ammonia to form acrylamide, in addition, since both double bonds are separated by a single C–C bond, the double bonds are conjugated. Acrylic polymer Klein, David R. Organic Chemistry
11.
Resin
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In polymer chemistry and materials science, resin is a solid or highly viscous substance of plant or synthetic origin that is typically convertible into polymers. They are often mixtures of compounds, principally terpenes. Many plants, particularly woody plants, produce resin in response to injury, the resin acts as a bandage protecting the plant from invading insects and pathogens. Plants secrete resins and rosins for their protective benefits, the resin produced by most plants is composed mainly of terpenes and derivatives. Some resins also contain a proportion of resin acids. The individual components of resin can be separated by fractional distillation, rosins on the other hand are less volatile and consist, inter alia, of diterpenes. Amber is fossil resin from coniferous and other tree species, copal, kauri gum, dammar and other resins may also be found as subfossil deposits. Subfossil copal can be distinguished from genuine fossil amber because it becomes tacky when a drop of a solvent such as acetone or chloroform is placed on it, african copal and the kauri gum of New Zealand are also procured in a semi-fossil condition. Solidified resin from which the volatile terpene components have been removed by distillation is known as rosin, typical rosin is a transparent or translucent mass, with a vitreous fracture and a faintly yellow or brown colour, non-odorous or having only a slight turpentine odor and taste. Rosin is insoluble in water, mostly soluble in alcohol, essential oils, ether and hot fatty oils, and softens and melts under the influence of heat, rosin consists of a complex mixture of different substances including organic acids named the resin acids. These are closely related to the terpenes, and derive from them through partial oxidation, Resin acids can be dissolved in alkalis to form resin soaps, from which the purified resin acids are regenerated by treatment with acids. Examples of resin acids are abietic acid, C20H30O2, plicatic acid contained in cedar, and pimaric acid, C20H30O2, a constituent of galipot resin. Abietic acid can also be extracted from rosin by means of hot alcohol, it crystallizes in leaflets, pimaric acid closely resembles abietic acid into which it passes when distilled in a vacuum, it has been supposed to consist of three isomers. Rosin is obtained from pines and some plants, mostly conifers. Propolis, consisting largely of resins collected from such as poplars and conifers, is used by honey bees to seal gaps in their hives. Shellac and lacquer are examples of insect-derived resins, asphaltite and Utah resin are petroleum bitumens, not a product secreted by plants, although it was ultimately derived from plants. These were highly prized substances, and required as incense in religious rites. The word resin has been applied in the world to nearly any component of a liquid that will set into a hard lacquer or enamel-like finish
12.
Polymer
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A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure, Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a distinct from the modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger, Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science. Polyisoprene of latex rubber is an example of a polymer. In biological contexts, essentially all biological macromolecules—i. e, proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components—e. g. Isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, where small molecules and oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbone of the protein. The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains, Polymers are of two types, Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of natural polymers exist, such as cellulose. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer, however, other structures do exist, for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being Silly Putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides. Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain or network, during the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester, the distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue. Laboratory synthetic methods are divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. However, some methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category
13.
Hydroxide
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Hydroxide is a diatomic anion with chemical formula OH−. It consists of an oxygen and hydrogen atom held together by a covalent bond and it is an important but usually minor constituent of water. It functions as a base, a ligand, a nucleophile, the hydroxide ion forms salts, some of which dissociate in aqueous solution, liberating solvated hydroxide ions. Sodium hydroxide is a multi-million-ton per annum commodity chemical, a hydroxide attached to a strongly electropositive center may itself ionize, liberating a hydrogen cation, making the parent compound an acid. The corresponding electrically neutral compound •HO is the hydroxyl radical, the corresponding covalently-bound group –OH of atoms is the hydroxyl group. Hydroxide ion and hydroxyl group are nucleophiles and can act as a catalyst in organic chemistry, many inorganic substances which bear the word hydroxide in their names are not ionic compounds of the hydroxide ion, but covalent compounds which contain hydroxyl groups. The pH of a solution is equal to the decimal cologarithm of the cation concentration. The concentration of ions can be expressed in terms of pOH. Addition of a base to water will reduce the hydrogen cation concentration, POH can be kept at a nearly constant value with various buffer solutions. In aqueous solution the hydroxide ion is a base in the Brønsted–Lowry sense as it can accept a proton from a Brønsted–Lowry acid to form a water molecule and it can also act as a Lewis base by donating a pair of electrons to a Lewis acid. In aqueous solution both hydrogen and hydroxide ions are solvated, with hydrogen bonds between oxygen and hydrogen atoms. Indeed, the bihydroxide ion H 3O−2 has been characterized in the solid state and this compound is centrosymmetric and has a very short hydrogen bond that is similar to the length in the bifluoride ion HF−2. In aqueous solution the hydroxide ion forms strong bonds with water molecules. A consequence of this is that concentrated solutions of sodium hydroxide have high viscosity due to the formation of a network of hydrogen bonds as in hydrogen fluoride solutions. In solution, exposed to air, the ion reacts rapidly with atmospheric carbon dioxide, acting as an acid, to form, initially. OH− + CO2 ⇌ HCO−3 The equilibrium constant for this reaction can be specified either as a reaction with dissolved carbon dioxide or as a reaction with carbon dioxide gas. At neutral or acid pH, the reaction is slow, but is catalyzed by the carbonic anhydrase. Solutions containing the hydroxide ion attack glass, in this case, the silicates in glass are acting as acids
14.
Ion
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An ion is an atom or a molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving the atom or molecule a net positive or negative electrical charge. Ions can be created, by chemical or physical means. In chemical terms, if an atom loses one or more electrons. If an atom gains electrons, it has a net charge and is known as an anion. Ions consisting of only a single atom are atomic or monatomic ions, because of their electric charges, cations and anions attract each other and readily form ionic compounds, such as salts. In the case of ionization of a medium, such as a gas, which are known as ion pairs are created by ion impact, and each pair consists of a free electron. The word ion comes from the Greek word ἰόν, ion, going and this term was introduced by English physicist and chemist Michael Faraday in 1834 for the then-unknown species that goes from one electrode to the other through an aqueous medium. Faraday also introduced the words anion for a charged ion. In Faradays nomenclature, cations were named because they were attracted to the cathode in a galvanic device, arrhenius explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt dissociates into Faradays ions. Arrhenius proposed that ions formed even in the absence of an electric current, ions in their gas-like state are highly reactive, and do not occur in large amounts on Earth, except in flames, lightning, electrical sparks, and other plasmas. These gas-like ions rapidly interact with ions of charge to give neutral molecules or ionic salts. These stabilized species are commonly found in the environment at low temperatures. A common example is the present in seawater, which are derived from the dissolved salts. Electrons, due to their mass and thus larger space-filling properties as matter waves, determine the size of atoms. Thus, anions are larger than the parent molecule or atom, as the excess electron repel each other, as such, in general, cations are smaller than the corresponding parent atom or molecule due to the smaller size of its electron cloud. One particular cation contains no electrons, and thus consists of a single proton - very much smaller than the parent hydrogen atom. Since the electric charge on a proton is equal in magnitude to the charge on an electron, an anion, from the Greek word ἄνω, meaning up, is an ion with more electrons than protons, giving it a net negative charge. A cation, from the Greek word κατά, meaning down, is an ion with fewer electrons than protons, there are additional names used for ions with multiple charges
15.
Silica gel
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Silica gel is a granular, vitreous, porous form of silicon dioxide made synthetically from sodium silicate. Silica gel contains a nano-porous silica micro-structure, suspended inside a liquid, most applications of silica gel require it to be dried, in which case it is called silica xerogel. For practical purposes, silica gel is often interchangeable with silica xerogel, silica xerogel is tough and hard, it is more solid than common household gels like gelatin or agar. It is a naturally occurring mineral that is purified and processed into either granular or beaded form, as a desiccant, it has an average pore size of 2.4 nanometers and has a strong affinity for water molecules. Silica gel is most commonly encountered in life as beads in a small paper packet. In this form, it is used as a desiccant to control humidity to avoid spoilage or degradation of some goods. Because silica gel can have added chemical indicators and absorbs moisture very well, silica gel was in existence as early as the 1640s as a scientific curiosity. It was used in World War I for the adsorption of vapors, the synthetic route for producing silica gel was patented by chemistry professor Walter A. Patrick at Johns Hopkins University in 1918. Type A - clear pellets, approximate pore diameter,2.5 nm, drying and moistureproof properties, can be used as catalyst carriers, adsorbents, separators and variable-pressure adsorbent. Type B - translucent white pellets, pore diameter,4. 5-7.0 nm, liquid adsorbents, drier and perfume carriers, also may be used as catalyst carriers, type C - translucent, micro-pored structure, raw material for preparation of silica gel cat litter. Additionally dried and screened, it forms macro-pored silica gel which is used as drier, adsorbent, silica alumina gel - light yellow, chemically stable, flame-resistant, insoluble except in alkali or hydrofluoric acid. Superficial polarity, thermal stability, performance greater than fine-pored silica gel, silica gels high specific surface area allows it to adsorb water readily, making it useful as a desiccant. Silica gel is often described as absorbing moisture, which may be appropriate when the gels microscopic structure is ignored, however, material silica gel removes moisture by adsorption onto the surface of its numerous pores rather than by absorption into the bulk of the gel. Once saturated with water, the gel can be regenerated by heating it to 120 °C for 1–2 hours, some types of silica gel will pop when exposed to enough water. This is caused by breakage of the silica spheres when contacting the water, an aqueous solution of sodium silicate is acidified to produce a gelatinous precipitate that is washed, then dehydrated to produce colorless silica gel. When a visible indication of the content of the silica gel is required. This will cause the gel to be blue when dry and pink when hydrated, an alternative indicator is methyl violet which is orange when dry and green when hydrated. Due to the connection between cancer and cobalt chloride, it has been forbidden in Europe on silica gel, in many items, moisture encourages the growth of mold and spoilage
16.
Forensic science
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Forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze scientific evidence during the course of an investigation. In addition to their role, forensic scientists testify as expert witnesses in both criminal and civil cases and can work for either the prosecution or the defense. While any field could technically be forensic, certain sections have developed over time to encompass the majority of forensically related cases, the word forensic comes from the Latin term forensis, meaning of or before the forum. The history of the term originates from Roman times, during which a charge meant presenting the case before a group of public individuals in the forum. Both the person accused of the crime and the accuser would give speeches based on their sides of the story, the case would be decided in favor of the individual with the best argument and delivery. This origin is the source of the two usages of the word forensic – as a form of legal evidence and as a category of public presentation. In modern use, the term forensics in the place of science can be considered correct. However, the term is now so closely associated with the field that many dictionaries include the meaning that equates the word forensics with forensic science. The ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices, which aided criminals in escaping punishment, Criminal investigations and trials heavily relied on forced confessions and witness testimony. However, ancient sources do contain several accounts of techniques that foreshadow concepts in science that were developed centuries later. The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve criminal cases is attributed to the book of Xi Yuan Lu, written in China by Song Ci in 1248, during the Song Dynasty. In one of the accounts, the case of a person murdered with a sickle was solved by an investigator who instructed everyone to bring his sickle to one location, flies, attracted by the smell of blood, eventually gathered on a single sickle. In light of this, the murderer confessed, methods from around the world involved saliva and examination of the mouth and tongue to determine innocence or guilt, as a precursor to the Polygraph test. In ancient India, some suspects were made to fill their mouths with dried rice, similarly, in Ancient China, those accused of a crime would have rice powder placed in their mouths. In ancient middle-eastern cultures, the accused were made to lick hot metal rods briefly, in 16th-century Europe, medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather information on the cause and manner of death. Ambroise Paré, a French army surgeon, systematically studied the effects of violent death on internal organs, two Italian surgeons, Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia, laid the foundation of modern pathology by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the result of disease. In the late 18th century, writings on these began to appear. Two examples of English forensic science in individual legal proceedings demonstrate the use of logic
17.
Fingerprint
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A fingerprint in its narrow sense is an impression left by the friction ridges of a human finger. The recovery of fingerprints from a scene is an important method of forensic science. Fingerprints are easily deposited on surfaces by the natural secretions of sweat from the eccrine glands that are present in epidermal ridges. These are sometimes referred to as Chanced Impressions, in a wider use of the term, fingerprints are the traces of an impression from the friction ridges of any part of a human or other primate hand. A print from the sole of the foot can also leave an impression of friction ridges, deliberate impressions of fingerprints may be formed by ink or other substances transferred from the peaks of friction ridges on the skin to a relatively smooth surface such as a fingerprint card. Fingerprint records normally contain impressions from the pad on the last joint of fingers and thumbs, human fingerprints are detailed, nearly unique, difficult to alter, and durable over the life of an individual, making them suitable as long-term markers of human identity. Fingerprint analysis, in use since the early 20th century, has led to many crimes being solved and this means that many criminals consider gloves essential. In 2015, the identification of sex by use of a fingerprint test has been reported. A friction ridge is a portion of the epidermis on the digits. These are sometimes known as epidermal ridges which are caused by the interface between the dermal papillae of the dermis and the interpapillary pegs of the epidermis. These ridges may also assist in gripping surfaces and may improve surface contact in wet conditions. Before computerisation, manual filing systems were used in large fingerprint repositories, manual classification systems were based on the general ridge patterns of several or all fingers. This allowed the filing and retrieval of paper records in large collections based on friction ridge patterns alone, the most popular systems used the pattern class of each finger to form a key to assist lookup in a filing system. Classification systems include the Roscher system, the Juan Vucetich system, in the Henry system of classification, there are three basic fingerprint patterns, loop, whorl, and arch, which constitute 60–65%, 30–35%, and 5% of all fingerprints respectively. Ulnar loops start on the pinky-side of the finger, the closer to the ulna. Radial loops start on the thumb-side of the finger, the closer to the radius. Whorls may also have sub-group classifications including plain whorls, accidental whorls, double loop whorls, peacocks eye, composite, other common fingerprint patterns include the tented arch, the plain arch, and the central pocket loop. The system used by most experts, although complex, is similar to the Henry System of Classification
18.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
19.
Maurice Holland Award
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Named for IRI’s founder, the Holland Award is a bronze replica of a “Jenny”, the model of airplane Maurice Holland flew during his service in World War I. The award was first presented in 1982 by Maurice Hollands son. The Holland Award is presented to the winning paper’s authors at IRI’s Member Summit, held each year in the fall. ”1983, Warren R. Stumpe, “Entrepreneurship in R&D – A State of Mind, ”1982, Vol.25, No.1. 1984, George Manners, Jr. Joseph Steger, and Thomas Zimmerer, “Motivating Your R&D Staff, ”1983, Vol.26,1985, Robert A. Frosch, “R&D Choices and Technology Transfer, ”1984, Vol.27, No.3. 1986, Richard N. Foster, Lawrence Linden, Roger Whitely,1987, Harry W. Coover, “Programmed Innovation – Strategy for Success, ”1986, Vol.29, No.6. 1988, Roland W. Schmitt, “R&D in a Competitive Era, ”1987, Vol.30, No.1. 1989, Lester Krogh, Julianne Prager, David Sorensen, and John Tomlinson, “How 3M Evaluates its R&D Programs, ”1988, Vol.31, perrino and James W. Tipping, “Global Management of Technology, ”1989, Vol.32, No.3. 1991, Robert Cooper, “New Products, What Distinguishes the Winners. ”1992, Walter Robb, “How Good is Our Research. ”1993, Graham R. Mitchell, “The Changing Agenda for Research Management, ”1992, Vol.35, No.5. Prahalad, “The Role of Core Competencies in the Corporation, ”1993, Vol.36,1995, Robert Cooper, “Debunking the Myths of New Product Development, ”1994, Vol.37, No.4. 1996, M. R. Gallon, H. M. Stillman,1997, Deb Chatterji, “Accessing External Sources of Technology, ”1996, Vol.39, No.2. 1998, Sheldon A. Buckler, “The Spiritual Nature of Innovation, ”1997, Vol.40,1999, John Seely Brown, “Seeing Differently, A Role for Pioneering Research, ”1998, Vol.41, No.3. 2000, Gregory R. Smith, William C, Morris, “Front-End Innovation at AlliedSignal and Alcoa, ”1999, Vol.42, No.6. 2001, Rita Gunther McGrath and Ian C, macMillan, “Assessing Technology Projects Using Real-Options Reasoning, ”2000, Vol.43, No.4. 2002, Marc H. Meyer and Paul Mugge, “Make Platform Innovation Drive Enterprise Growth, ”2001, Vol.44,2003, Robin A. Karol, Ross C. Loeser, and Richard H. Tait, “Better New Business Development at DuPont – I, ” and “--- II, ”2002, Vol.45, Nos.1 and 2. 2004, Jeffrey T. Glass, Ingrid Morris Ensing, and Gerardine DeSanctis, “Managing the Ties Between Central R&D and Business Units, ”2003, Vol.46, No.1. 2005, Jay Paap and Ralph Katz, “Anticipating Disruptive Innovation, ”2004, Vol.47,2006, No recipient 2007, Miles Drake, Ronald Jonash, and Nabil Sakkab. “Maximizing Return on Innovation Investment, ”2006, Vol.49, No.6
20.
IRI Achievement Award
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The IRI Achievement Award is a bronze sculpture exemplifying the flight of innovation. The artist who designed the sculpture is John Blair and this award is presented each spring during IRIs Annual Meeting and is one of the highest honors awarded by the organization. Industrial Research Institute Maurice Holland Award IRI Medal Industrial Research Institute, Inc
21.
IRI Medal
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The reverse side of the medal is an adaptation of the official seal of the Institute. This award is presented each spring at the IRI Annual Meeting alongside the IRI Achievement Award. 1946, Willis R. Whitney 1947, Charles A. Thomas 1948, Games Slayter 1949, Vannevar Bush 1950, kinzel 1961, Max Tishler 1962, Chauncey G. Suits 1963, James B. Fisk 1964, Ray H. Boundy 1965, Edwin H. Land 1966, Paul L. Salzberg 1967, Emanuel R. Piore 1968, John H. Dessauer 1969, Patrick E. Haggerty 1970, William O. Baker 1971, Henri G. Busignies 1972, Peter C
22.
Industrial Research Institute
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The Industrial Research Institute, Inc. is a nonprofit association based in Arlington, Virginia. IRI is a nonpartisan, membership-based organization that brings leaders of R&D together to discover, IRI held its first meeting on February 25,1938, after the National Research Council established it as a branch within its Division of Engineering and Industrial Research. IRI’s original membership consisted of fourteen companies, the organizations first president was Maurice Holland, on April 17,1945, IRI separated from the National Research Council and formed a nonprofit,501 organization, incorporated in the State of New York. 1945, IRI separates from the National Research Council and forms an independent organization,1946, IRI establishes the IRI Medal. 1952, IRI hosts a meeting with the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation,1958, The need to publish research findings results in the creation of IRIs journal Research Management. 1966, The organization assists the OEEC in developing a proposal for the construction of a college in Europe meant to teach scientists how to manage and this eventually leads to the creation of one of IRIs sister organizations, the European Industrial Research and Management Association. 1973, IRI establishes the IRI Achievement Award,1982, IRI establishes the Maurice Holland Award. 1984, IRI creates a program to allow an individual to serve in the Office of Science. 1985, IRI and its journal begin publishing the results of a survey regarding expected expenditure levels among R&D labs. The report is known as the R&D Trends Forecast,1988, Research Management is redesigned and renamed Research-Technology Management as part of the Institutes 50th anniversary celebration. 1989, the IRI Board decides to relocate IRI headquarters from New York City to Washington,1995, the IRI Board changes the constitution of the Institute to allow for organizations without a U. S. -based lab to become members, helping to expand membership internationally. 2001, RTM begins to be offered online via Ingenta,2003, IRI headquarters is moved from Washington, D. C. to Arlington, VA. 2007, IRI celebrates RTMs 50th year of publication,2008, IRI drafts policy speeches on science and technology for both candidates in the presidential election. 2012, IRIs journal, RTM, is redesigned and reformatted starting in the January–February 2012 issue,2013, IRI celebrates its 75th anniversary. IRI governance resides in its membership, each member organization is responsible for choosing a voting representative to vote on its behalf in IRI elections. A simple majority is required for any action to be taken, the membership is led by an elected sixteen-member Board of Directors, with each member serving three years. The board also appoints a president who serves as Chief Staff Administrator, federal laboratories involved in technological innovation, research, design, or technical support of products and services may also join as Associate Members. The Board of Directors retains the right to offer limited membership to others at its discretion, membership includes free attendance passes to IRI events and a subscription to IRIs official journal, Research-Technology Management
23.
National Inventors Hall of Fame
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The National Inventors Hall of Fame is an American not-for-profit organization which recognizes individual inventors who hold a U. S. patent of highly significant technology. Founded in 1973, its mission is to honor the people responsible for the great technological advances that make human, social. As of 2017,547 inventors have been inducted, mostly constituting historic persons from the past three centuries, but including about 100 living inductees, an NIHF committee chooses an annual inductee class in February from nominations accepted from all sources. Nominees must hold a U. S. patent of significant contribution to the U. S. welfare, the 2017 class included 15 inventors, including Howard Head for skis and tennis rackets, and Augustine Sackett for drywall. The National Inventors Hall of Fame was founded in 1973 on the initiative of H. Hume Mathews, in the following year, it gained a major sponsor in the U. S. Patent and Trademark Office from Washington, D. C, at first, the Hall was housed in the U. S. Patent and Trademark Office in Washington, D. C. near the Washington National Airport, a committee was formed in 1986 to find a new home for it. For a time, the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was the frontrunner, but in 1987, a patent attorney from Akron, Edwin “Ned” Oldham, the representative from the National Council of Patent Law Associations, led the drive to move the Hall to Akron. The construction of the new building was finished in 1995 and the Hall opened to the public with the name of the Inventure Place, from the beginning, the Inventure Place was intended to be more than a science and technology museum and library. It was designed to double as a workshop and a national resource center for creativity. Designed by an architect from New York City, James Stewart Polshek, it was a building, shaped like a curving row of white sails. One of the exhibits allowed the visitors to use computer programs for making animations, but attendance did not meet the expectations and the museum never made a profit, although its related ventures and programs, such as Invent Now and Camp Invention, proved to be more successful. In 2002, its name was changed to the National Inventors Hall of Fame Museum, six years later the Hall moved to Alexandria. Its former facility was converted to a school for students in grades between 5th and 8th. It is now the National Inventors Hall of Fame STEM Middle School, in Alexandria, the National Inventors Hall of Fame operates a museum in the U. S. Patent and Trademark Office building at 600 Dulany Street, with a gallery of portraits of the honorees, interactive kiosks. Camp Invention, founded in 1990, is a summer camp for children. Camp Invention is the nationally recognized summer program focused on creativity, innovation, real-world problem solving
24.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
25.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
26.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
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Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
