1.
Portuguese language
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Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
2.
International Phonetic Alphabet
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The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of language, phones, phonemes, intonation. IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a letter, or with a letter plus diacritics. Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription, thus, /t/ is less specific than, occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters,52 diacritics and these are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA. In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, for example, the sound was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the digraph ⟨ch⟩ in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, the idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the International Phonetic Association Kiel Convention in 1989, a minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives. The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap, apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology were created in 1990, the general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as do hard, finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as selectiveness. These are organized into a chart, the chart displayed here is the chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet, for this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither, for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a question mark
3.
Galician language
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Galician is an Indo-European language of the Western Ibero-Romance branch. It is spoken by some 2.4 million people, mainly in Galicia, a community located in northwestern Spain. The divergence has continued to this day, producing the modern languages of Galician, the language is officially regulated in Galicia by the Royal Galician Academy. Modern Galician and its sibling, Portuguese, originated from a medieval ancestor designated variously by modern linguists as Galician-Portuguese. This common ancestral stage developed in the territories of the old Kingdom of Galicia, in the 13th century it became a written and cultivated language. In the past Galician and Portuguese formed a dialect continuum, for many scholars this continuum still exists today at the level of rural dialects. Others point out that modern Galician and Portuguese have diverged to such an extent during the past seven centuries that they now constitute two closely related but separate languages. During the 16th century the Galician language stopped being used in documentation, becoming de facto an oral language, with just some use in lyric, theatre. The linguistic status of Galician with respect to Portuguese is controversial, there are linguists who deal with modern Galician and modern Portuguese as norms or varieties of the same language. Fernández Rei in 1990 stated that the Galician language is, with respect to Portuguese, a language, a language through elaboration, and not an abstand language. Mutual intelligibility is very high between Galicians and Portuguese, on 20 October 2016, the city of Santiago de Compostela, the capital of Galicia, approved by unanimity a proposal to become an observer member of the Union of Portuguese-Speaking Capitals. On 1 November 2016, the Council of Galician Culture was admitted as an observer of the Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries. The official position of the Galician Language Institute is that Galician and these contrasting attitudes have distinct political implications. On the other hand, viewing Galician as a part of the Lusophony, while not denying its own characteristics and it is taught bilingually, alongside Castilian, in both primary and secondary education. It is also used at the three established in Galicia, having also the consideration of official language of the three institutions. Galician has also legal recognition in the Bierzo region in León, the other languages with official status elsewhere in Spain are Castilian, Catalan, Basque and Aranese. Galician has also been accepted orally as Portuguese in the European Parliament, having used by some Galician representatives, among others, José Posada, Camilo Nogueira. Controversy exists regarding the inclusion of Eonavian into the Galician language, there are those defending these linguistic varieties as dialects of transition to the Astur-Leonese group on the one hand, and those defending it as clearly Galician varieties on the other
4.
Galician phonology
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This article is about the phonology and phonetics of the Galician language. These same ones are found under stress in standard Italian, standard Catalan and it is likely that this 7-vowel system was even more widespread in the early stages of Romance languages. Some characteristics of the system, In Galician the vocalic system is reduced to five vowels in post-tonic syllables. In some cases, vowels from the final unstressed set appear in positions, as e. g. in the word termonuclear. Unstressed close-mid vowels and open-mid vowels can occur in complementary distribution, in pretonic syllables, close-/open-mid vowels are kept in derived words and compounds. Of the seven vocalic phonemes of the tonic and pretonic syllables, only /a/ has a set of different renderings, forced by its context, due to contraction, as in ra frog < rãa < Latin rāna. When next to /ŋ, k, ɡ, l, w/. before a palatal consonant, all dialectal forms of Galician but Ancarese, spoken in the Ancares valley in León, have lost the phonemic quality of mediaeval nasal vowels. Nevertheless, any vowel is nasalized in contact with a nasal consonant, the vocalic system of Galician language is heavily influences by metaphony. Regressive metaphony is produced either by a final /a/, which tend to open vowels, or by a final /o/. As a result, metaphony affects most notably words with gender opposition, on the other hand, vowel harmony, triggered by /i/ or /u/, has had a large part in the evolution and dialectal diversification of the language. Voiced plosives are lenited to approximants or fricatives in all instances, except after a pause or a consonant, e. g. un gato a cat is pronounced. Additionally, during the 17th and 18th centuries the western and central dialects of Galician developed a fricative pronunciation of /ɡ/. This may be glottal, pharyngeal, uvular, or velar, the distribution of the two rhotics /r/ and /ɾ/ closely parallels that of Spanish. Between vowels, the two contrast, but they are otherwise in complementary distribution, appears in the onset, except in word-initial position, after /l/, /n/, and /s/, where is used. There is a variation in r word-initially, after /l/, /n/. Spanish has been experiencing a centuries-long consonant shift in which the lateral consonant /ʎ/ comes to be pronounced as a fricative /ʝ/, in this respect, it can be said that Portuguese is phonologically more conservative than Galician
5.
Consonant
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In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. For example, the sound spelled th in this is a different consonant than the th sound in thin, the word consonant comes from Latin oblique stem cōnsonant-, from cōnsonāns sounding-together, a calque of Greek σύμφωνον sýmphōnon. Dionysius Thrax calls consonants sýmphōna pronounced with because they can only be pronounced with a vowel, the word consonant is also used to refer to a letter of an alphabet that denotes a consonant sound. The 21 consonant letters in the English alphabet are B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X, Z, and usually W and Y. The letter Y stands for the consonant /j/ in yoke, the vowel /ɪ/ in myth, the vowel /i/ in funny, and the diphthong /aɪ/ in my. W always represents a consonant except in combination with a letter, as in growth, raw, and how. In some other languages, such as Finnish, y represents a vowel sound. Such syllables may be abbreviated CV, V, and CVC and this can be argued to be the only pattern found in most of the worlds languages, and perhaps the primary pattern in all of them. However, the distinction between consonant and vowel is not always clear cut, there are consonants and non-syllabic vowels in many of the worlds languages. One blurry area is in segments variously called semivowels, semiconsonants, on one side, there are vowel-like segments that are not in themselves syllabic, but form diphthongs as part of the syllable nucleus, as the i in English boil. On the other, there are approximants that behave like consonants in forming onsets, some phonologists model these as both being the underlying vowel /i/, so that the English word bit would phonemically be /bit/, beet would be /bii̯t/, and yield would be phonemically /i̯ii̯ld/. Likewise, foot would be /fut/, food would be /fuu̯d/, wood would be /u̯ud/, the other problematic area is that of syllabic consonants, segments articulated as consonants but occupying the nucleus of a syllable. Other languages use fricative and often trilled segments as syllabic nuclei, as in Czech and several languages in Democratic Republic of the Congo, in Mandarin, they are historically allophones of /i/, and spelled that way in Pinyin. Ladefoged and Maddieson call these fricative vowels and say that they can usually be thought of as syllabic fricatives that are allophones of vowels and that is, phonetically they are consonants, but phonemically they behave as vowels. Many Slavic languages allow the trill and the lateral as syllabic nuclei, in languages like Nuxalk, it is difficult to know what the nucleus of a syllable is, or if all syllables even have nuclei. If the concept of syllable applies in Nuxalk, there are consonants in words like /sx̩s/ seal fat. Miyako in Japan is similar, with /f̩ks̩/ to build and /ps̩ks̩/ to pull, each spoken consonant can be distinguished by several phonetic features, The manner of articulation is how air escapes from the vocal tract when the consonant or approximant sound is made. Manners include stops, fricatives, and nasals, the place of articulation is where in the vocal tract the obstruction of the consonant occurs, and which speech organs are involved
6.
Voiced bilabial stop
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The voiced bilabial stop is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨b⟩, the voiced bilabial stop occurs in English, and it is the sound denoted by the letter ⟨b⟩ in boy. Many Indian languages, such as Hindustani, have a two-way contrast between breathy voiced /bʱ/ and plain /b/, features of the voiced bilabial stop, Its manner of articulation is occlusive, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its place of articulation is bilabial, which means it is articulated with both lips and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
7.
Bilabial approximant
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The voiced bilabial fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨β⟩, the symbol ⟨β⟩ is the Greek letter beta. This symbol is sometimes used to represent the bilabial approximant, though that is more clearly written with the lowering diacritic. Theoretically, it could also be transcribed as a labiodental approximant ⟨ʋ̟⟩. Very few languages are known to make a phonemic contrast between the bilabial fricative and the bilabial approximant, but the Uto-Aztecan Tarahumara does. The bilabial fricative is diachronically unstable and is likely to shift to, in English, this sound is not used, it can be made by approximating the normal v sound, between the lips. Its place of articulation is bilabial, which means it is articulated with both lips and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds. In the following transcriptions, the diacritic is used to indicate an approximant
8.
Dental approximant
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The voiced dental fricative is a consonant sound used in some spoken languages. It is familiar to English-speakers, as the th sound in father, very rarely-used variant transcriptions of the dental approximant include ⟨ʋ̠⟩, ⟨ɹ̟⟩ and ⟨ɹ̪⟩. This sound and its unvoiced counterpart are rare phonemes, almost all languages of Europe and Asia, such as German, French, Persian, Japanese, and Mandarin, lack the sound. As for Europe, there seems to be an arc where the sound is present. Most of Mainland Europe lacks the sound, within Turkic languages, Bashkir and Turkmen have both voiced and voiceless dental non-sibilant fricatives among their consonants. Among Semitic languages, they are used in Modern Standard Arabic, albeit only by some speakers, as well as in some dialects of Hebrew and it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant. Its place of articulation is dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth, note that most stops and liquids described as dental are actually denti-alveolar. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, in the following transcriptions, the undertack diacritic may be used to indicate an approximant. Danish is actually a weak, velarized alveolar approximant, voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative Sibilant consonant#Possible combinations Index of phonetics articles
9.
Voiceless labiodental fricative
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The voiceless labiodental fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in a number of spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨f⟩ and its place of articulation is labiodental, which means it is articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
10.
Voiced velar stop
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The voiced velar stop is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɡ⟩, strictly, the IPA symbol is the so-called single-story G, but the double-story G is considered an acceptable alternative. Features of the velar stop, Its manner of articulation is occlusive. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the soft palate and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, absent stop is an areal feature. Missing, on the hand, is widely scattered around the world. It seems that is more difficult to articulate than the other basic stops. This could have two effects, and might become confused, and the distinction is lost, or perhaps a never develops when a language first starts making voicing distinctions. With uvulars, where there is less space between the glottis and tongue for airflow, the imbalance is more extreme, Voiced is much rarer than voiceless. Many Indo-Aryan languages, such as Hindustani, have a two-way contrast between aspirated and plain
11.
Voiced velar approximant
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The voiced velar approximant is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɰ⟩, the voiced velar approximant can in many cases be considered the semivocalic counterpart of the close back unrounded vowel. The two are almost identical featurally, ⟨ɰ⟩ and ⟨ɯ̯⟩ with the non-syllabic diacritic are used in different transcription systems to represent the same sound. Some languages, though, have a velar approximant that is unspecified for rounding. Examples of such languages are Catalan, Galician and Spanish, in which the unspecified for rounding voiced velar approximant consonant appears as an allophone of /ɡ/ and they even establish an interesting parallelism, the sound can be regarded as an unrounded. It is evident, then, that is not a symbol for Spanish. Besides, it would be wrong to transcribe the word jugo juice with *. The symbol I have always proposed is, the correlate to the central approximants in Spanish. This coincides with Ball & Rahilly, whose example for the three approximants is the Spanish word abogado lawyer, there is a parallel problem with transcribing the palatal approximant. The symbol ⟨ɣ̞⟩ may also be used when the voiced velar approximant is merely an allophone of the velar fricative /ɣ/ as, compared with ⟨ɰ⟩. The X-SAMPA equivalent of ⟨ɣ̞⟩ is G_o, note that the symbol ⟨ɣ̞⟩ may not display properly in all browsers. If that is the case, ⟨ɣ˕⟩ should be substituted, in broader transcriptions, the lowering diacritic may be omitted altogether, so that the symbol is rendered ⟨ɣ⟩, i. e. as if it represented the corresponding fricative. The most common type of approximant is glide or semivowel. The term glide emphasizes the characteristic of movement of from the position to a following vowel position. The term semivowel emphasizes that, although the sound is vocalic in nature, for a description of the approximant consonant variant used e. g. in Spanish, see above. Its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the soft palate and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue
12.
Voiceless velar stop
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The voiceless velar stop or voiceless velar plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨k⟩, the sound is a very common sound cross-linguistically. Most languages have at least a plain, and some more than one variety. Most Indo-Aryan languages, such as Hindi and Bengali, have a two-way contrast between aspirated and plain, only a few languages lack a voiceless velar stop, e. g. Tahitian. Features of the velar stop, Its manner of articulation is occlusive. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the soft palate and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, hard and soft C Index of phonetics articles
13.
Alveolar lateral approximant
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The alveolar lateral approximant is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents dental, alveolar, and postalveolar approximants is ⟨l⟩. As a sonorant, lateral approximants are always voiced. Voiceless lateral approximants, /l̥/ are common in Sino-Tibetan languages, in such cases, voicing typically starts about halfway through the hold of the consonant. No language is known to contrast such a sound with an alveolar lateral fricative. In a number of languages, including most varieties of English, the phoneme /l/ becomes velarized in certain contexts, some languages, like many North American dialects of English, may not have a clear /l/ at all, or use it only before front vowels. There are four variants of, Dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth. Denti-alveolar, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue at the ridge. Alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream over the sides of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, languages may have clear apical or laminal alveolars, laminal denti-alveolars, or true dentals, which are uncommon. However, a true dental generally occurs allophonically before /θ/ in languages that have it, the velarized alveolar lateral approximant is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. It is an alveolar, denti-alveolar, or dental lateral approximant, the last symbol should never be confused with ⟨ɬ⟩, which represents the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative. However, some use that symbol to represent the velarized alveolar lateral approximant anyway - such usage is considered non-standard. If the sound is dental or denti-alveolar, one could use a dental diacritic to indicate so, ⟨l̪ˠ⟩, ⟨l̪ˤ⟩, there are four specific variants of, Dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth. Denti-alveolar, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue at the ridge. Alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or, more rarely, postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal
14.
Palatal lateral approximant
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The palatal lateral approximant is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʎ⟩, a lowercase letter ⟨y⟩. None of the 13 languages investigated by Recasens, many of them Romance, has a true palatal and that is likely the case for several other languages listed here. Some languages, like Portuguese and Catalan, have a lateral approximant that varies between alveolar and alveolo-palatal, there is no dedicated symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents the alveolo-palatal lateral approximant. If precision is desired, it may be transcribed ⟨l̠ʲ⟩ or ⟨ʎ̟⟩, there is also a non-IPA letter ⟨ȴ⟩, used especially in Sinological circles. The palatal lateral approximant contrasts phonemically with its voiceless counterpart /ʎ̥/ in the Xumi language spoken in China and its place of articulation is palatal, which means it is articulated with the middle or back part of the tongue raised to the hard palate. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream over the sides of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
15.
Bilabial nasal
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The bilabial nasal is a type of consonantal sound used in almost all spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨m⟩, the bilabial nasal occurs in English, and it is the sound represented by m in map and rum. It occurs nearly universally, and few languages are known to lack this sound, features of the bilabial nasal, Its manner of articulation is occlusive, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. Because the consonant is nasal, the blocked airflow is redirected through the nose. Its place of articulation is bilabial, which means it is articulated with both lips and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the nose. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
16.
Velar nasal
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The velar nasal is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. It is the sound of ng in English sing, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ŋ⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is N. Both the IPA symbol and the sound are commonly called eng or engma, while almost all languages have /m/ and /n/, /ŋ/ is rarer. Only half of the 469 languages surveyed in Anderson had a nasal phoneme, as a further curiosity. In many languages that do not have the velar nasal as a phoneme, an example of a language that lacks a phonemic or allophonic velar nasal is Russian, in which /n/ is pronounced as laminal denti-alveolar even before velar consonants. It also makes it more difficult to allow air to escape through the nose. Features of the nasal, Its manner of articulation is occlusive. Because the consonant is nasal, the blocked airflow is redirected through the nose. Its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the soft palate and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the nose. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
17.
Palatal nasal
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The palatal nasal is a type of consonant, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɲ⟩, the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is J. Palatal nasals are more common than the palatal stops. The alveolo-palatal nasal is a type of sound, used in some oral languages. There is no dedicated symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound, if more precision is desired, it may be transcribed ⟨n̠ʲ⟩ or ⟨ɲ̟⟩, these are essentially equivalent, since the contact includes both the blade and body of the tongue. There is a non-IPA letter ⟨ȵ⟩, used especially in Sinological circles, the alveolo-palatal nasal is commonly described as palatal, it is often unclear whether a language has a true palatal or not. Many languages claimed to have a nasal, such as Portuguese. This is likely true of several of the languages listed here, some dialects of Irish as well as some non-standard dialects of Malayalam are reported to contrast alveolo-palatal and palatal nasals. There is also a post-palatal nasal in some languages, features of the voiced palatal nasal, Its manner of articulation is occlusive, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. Because the consonant is nasal, the blocked airflow is redirected through the nose. Its place of articulation is palatal, which means it is articulated with the middle or back part of the tongue raised to the hard palate and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the nose. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds. Nasal palatal approximant Index of phonetics articles Ɲ
18.
Voiceless bilabial stop
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The voiceless bilabial stop is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its place of articulation is bilabial, which means it is articulated with both lips and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds. The stop is missing from about 10% of languages that have a and this is an areal feature of the circum-Saharan zone. It is not known how old this feature is, and whether it might be a recent phenomenon due to Arabic as a prestige language. It is found in areas as well, for example, in Europe, Proto-Celtic. Nonetheless, the sound is very common cross-linguistically, most languages have at least a plain, and some distinguish more than one variety. Many Indo-Aryan languages, such as Hindustani, have a two-way contrast between the aspirated and the plain
19.
Voiceless dental fricative
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The voiceless dental non-sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some oral languages. It is familiar to English speakers as the th in thing, though rather rare as a phoneme in the worlds inventory of languages, it is encountered in some of the most widespread and influential. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨θ⟩, the IPA symbol is the Greek letter theta, which is used for this sound in post-classical Greek, and the sound is thus often referred to as theta. Among the more than 60 languages with over 10 million speakers, only English, Modern Standard Arabic, Standard European Spanish, Burmese, among Turkic languages, Bashkir and Turkmen have voiceless dental non-sibilant fricative. It has likewise disappeared from many Semitic languages, such as Hebrew and it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant. Its place of articulation is dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth, note that most stops and liquids described as dental are actually denti-alveolar. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, the voiceless denti-alveolar sibilant is the only sibilant fricative in some dialects of Andalusian Spanish. It has no symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet, though its features would be transcribed ⟨s̻̪⟩ or ⟨s̪̻⟩. It is usually represented by a symbol such as ⟨s̄⟩, ⟨θˢ̣⟩. Dalbor describes this sound as follows, is a voiceless, corono-dentoalveolar groove fricative and its place of articulation is denti-alveolar, which means it is articulated with a flat tongue against the alveolar ridge and upper teeth. It is normally laminal, which means it is pronounced with the blade of the tongue and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a channel at the place of articulation. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
20.
Alveolar trill
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The alveolar trill is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents dental, alveolar, and postalveolar trills is ⟨r⟩, and it is commonly called the rolled R, rolling R, or trilled R. Quite often, ⟨r⟩ is used in transcriptions of languages like English. This is partly due to ease of typesetting and partly because ⟨r⟩ is the used in the orthographies of these languages. In the majority of Indo-European languages, this sound is at least occasionally allophonic with an alveolar tap, exceptions to this include Albanian, Spanish, Cypriot Greek, and a number of Armenian and Portuguese dialects, which treat them as distinct phonemes. People with ankyloglossia may find it difficult to articulate this consonant due to the limited mobility of their tongues. Most commonly, the trill is voiced. Features of the trill, Its manner of articulation is trill. Its place of articulation is dental, alveolar or post-alveolar, which means it is articulated behind upper front teeth and it is most often apical, which means that it is pronounced with the tip of the tongue. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, in Czech, there are two contrasting alveolar trills. Besides the typical apical trill, written r, there is another, laminal trill, written ř, in such as rybáři fishermen. Its manner of articulation is similar to but is laminal and the body of the tongue is raised and it is thus partially fricative, with the frication sounding rather like but not so retracted. It sounds like a simultaneous and, and non-native speakers may pronounce it as or, in the IPA, it is typically written as ⟨r⟩ plus the raising diacritic, ⟨r̝⟩, but it has also been written as laminal ⟨r̻⟩. The Kobon language of Papua New Guinea also has a fricative trill, features of the voiced alveolar fricative trill, Its manner of articulation is fricative trill, which means it is a non-sibilant fricative and a trill pronounced simultaneously. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue
21.
Alveolar flap
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The alveolar tap or flap is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents dental, alveolar, the terms tap and flap may be used interchangeably. However, later on, he no longer felt this was a distinction to make. For linguists who do make the distinction, the tap is transcribed as a fish-hook r, while the flap is transcribed as a small capital d. Otherwise, alveolars and dentals are typically called taps, and other articulations flaps, no language contrasts a tap and a flap at the same place of articulation. This sound is analyzed by native English speakers as an R-sound in many foreign languages. In languages where this segment is present but not phonemic, it is often an allophone of either a stop or a rhotic consonant like the alveolar trill or alveolar approximant. When the alveolar tap is the only rhotic consonant in the language, it may for simplicity be transcribed /r/, i. e. the symbol technically representing the trill. Features of the tap, Its manner of articulation is flap. Its place of articulation is dental, alveolar or post-alveolar, which means it is articulated behind upper front teeth and it is most often apical, which means that it is pronounced with the tip of the tongue. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, a tapped fricative is in effect a very brief fricative, with the tongue making the gesture for a tapped stop but not making full contact. This can be indicated in the IPA with the diacritic to show full occlusion did not occur. Flapped fricatives are possible but are not attested. Features of the voiced alveolar tapped fricative, Its manner of articulation is tapped fricative and its place of articulation is apical alveolar, which means it is articulated with the tip of the tongue at the alveolar ridge. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue
22.
Voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant
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The voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant fricative or voiceless domed postalveolar sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in many languages, including English. In English, it is usually spelled ⟨sh⟩, as in ship, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʃ⟩, the letter esh introduced by Isaac Pitman. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is S and it originated with the Czech orthography of Jan Hus and was adopted in Gajs Latin alphabet and other Latin alphabets of Slavic languages. It also features in the orthographies of many Baltic, Finno-Lappic and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, in various languages, including English and French, it may have simultaneous labialization, i. e. although this is usually not transcribed. Classical Latin did not have, though it does occur in most Romance languages, for example, ⟨ch⟩ in French chanteur singer is pronounced /ʃ/. Chanteur is descended from Latin cantare, where ⟨c⟩ was pronounced /k/, the ⟨sc⟩ in Latin scientia science was pronounced /sk/, but has shifted to /ʃ/ in Italian scienza. Similarly, Proto-Germanic had neither nor, yet many of its descendants do, in most cases, this or descends from a Proto-Germanic /sk/. For instance, Proto-Germanic *skipą was pronounced /ˈski. pɑ̃/ and this change took longer to catch on in West Germanic languages other than Old English, though it eventually did. The second West Germanic language to undergo this sound shift was Old High German, in fact, it has been argued that Old High Germans /sk/ was actually already, because a single had already shifted to. Furthermore, by Middle High German, that /s̠k/ had shifted to, after High German, the shift most likely then occurred in Low Saxon. After Low Saxon, Middle Dutch began the shift, but it stopped shifting once it reached /sx/, then, most likely through influence from German and Low Saxon, North Frisian experienced the shift. However, the realization of Swedish /ɧ/ varies considerably among dialects, for instance. Finally, the last to undergo the shift was Norwegian, in which the result of the shift was, the sound in Russian denoted by ⟨ш⟩ is commonly transcribed as a palato-alveolar fricative but is actually a laminal retroflex fricative. The voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant fricative is a consonantal sound, as the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the post-alveolar consonants, this sound is usually transcribed ⟨ɹ̠̊˔⟩
23.
Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate
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The voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant affricate or voiceless domed postalveolar sibilant affricate is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The sound is transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet with ⟨t͡ʃ⟩, ⟨t͜ʃ⟩ or ⟨tʃ⟩ and it is familiar to English speakers as the ch sound in chip. Historically, this sound often derives from a former voiceless velar stop /k/, or a dental stop by way of palatalization. Some scholars use the symbol /t͡ʃ/ to transcribe the laminal variant of the voiceless retroflex affricate, in such cases, the voiceless palato-alveolar affricate is transcribed /t͡ʃʲ/. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds. Mandarin Chinese, Russian, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Catalan, and Thai have a voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate /t͡ɕ/ and its place of articulation is postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
24.
Voiced labiodental fricative
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The voiced labiodental fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨v⟩, although this is a familiar sound to most European and Middle Eastern listeners, it is cross-linguistically a fairly uncommon sound, being only a quarter as frequent as. The presence of and absence of, is a very distinctive feature of European languages. Speakers of East Asian languages that lack this sound tend to pronounce it as, or /, in certain languages, such as Danish, Faroese, Icelandic or Norwegian the voiced labiodental fricative is in a free variation with the labiodental approximant. Its place of articulation is labiodental, which means it is articulated with the lower lip and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
25.
Voiced palato-alveolar affricate
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The voiced palato-alveolar sibilant affricate, voiced post-alveolar affricate or voiced domed postalveolar sibilant affricate, is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The sound is transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet with ⟨d͡ʒ⟩, or in broad transcription ⟨ɟ⟩, alternatives commonly used in linguistic works, particularly in older or American literature, are ⟨ǰ⟩, ⟨ǧ⟩, ⟨ǯ⟩, and ⟨dž⟩. It is familiar to English speakers as the pronunciation of ⟨j⟩ in jump, some scholars use the symbol /d͡ʒ/ to transcribe the laminal variant of the voiced retroflex affricate. In such cases, the voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant is transcribed /d͡ʒʲ/ and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm and its place of articulation is postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
26.
Voiceless glottal fricative
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The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨h⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is h. Accordingly, in cases it is more appropriate to regard h and ɦ as segments that have only a laryngeal specification. There are other languages show a more definite displacement of the formant frequencies for h. Lamé contrasts voiceless and voiced glottal fricatives, features of the voiceless glottal fricative, In some languages, it has the constricted manner of articulation of a fricative. However, in many if not most it is a state of the glottis. Because there is no other constriction to produce friction in the tract in the languages they are familiar with. However, the fricative is generally retained for historical reasons. It may have a place of articulation. However, it may have no fricative articulation, in case the term glottal only refers to the nature of its phonation. All consonants except for the glottals, and all vowels, have a place of articulation in addition to the state of the glottis. As with all consonants, surrounding vowels influence the pronunciation. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds. Voiced glottal fricative Voiceless nasal glottal fricative Index of phonetics articles
27.
Voiceless velar fricative
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The voiceless velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. It was part of the consonant inventory of Old English and can still be found in dialects of English. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨x⟩ and it is also used in broad transcription instead of the symbol ⟨χ⟩, the Greek chi, for the voiceless uvular fricative. There is also a voiceless fricative in some languages. For voiceless pre-velar fricative, see voiceless palatal fricative and its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the soft palate. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, thus Proto-Indo-European *ḱr̥nom horn and *kʷód what became Proto-Germanic *hurnan and *hwat, where *h and *hw were likely to be and. This sound change is part of Grimms law, in Modern Greek, the voiceless velar fricative originated from the Ancient Greek voiceless aspirated stop /kʰ/ in a sound change that lenited Greek aspirated stops into fricatives
28.
Voiced palato-alveolar sibilant
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The voiced palato-alveolar sibilant fricative or voiced domed postalveolar sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is the case form of the letter Ezh ⟨Ʒ ʒ⟩. An alternative symbol used in older and American linguistic literature is ⟨ž⟩. The sound occurs in languages and, as in English and French, may have simultaneous lip rounding. Although present in English, the sound is not represented by a letter or digraph. It also appears in loanwords, mainly from French. In some transcriptions of such as Cyrillic, as well as the Wikipedia pronunciation respelling for English. Some scholars use the symbol /ʒ/ to transcribe the laminal variant of the retroflex sibilant. In such cases, the voiced palato-alveolar sibilant is transcribed /ʒʲ/ and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, the sound in Russian denoted by ⟨ж⟩ is commonly transcribed as a palato-alveolar fricative but is actually a laminal retroflex fricative. The voiced postalveolar non-sibilant fricative is a consonantal sound, as the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the post-alveolar consonants, this sound is usually transcribed ⟨ɹ̠˔⟩. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is r\_-_r and its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence. However, it not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies. Its place of articulation is postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue
29.
Voiced palatal fricative
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The voiced palatal fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʝ⟩, and it is the non-sibilant equivalent of the voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant. In broad transcription, the symbol for the approximant, ⟨j⟩. The voiced palatal fricative is a rare sound, occurring in only seven of the 317 languages surveyed by the original UCLA Phonological Segment Inventory Database. In Kabyle, Margi, Modern Greek, and Scottish Gaelic, the sound occurs phonemically, along with its voiceless counterpart, and in several more, the sound occurs a result of phonological processes. The International Phonetic Alphabet does not have a symbol for that sound. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are j\_- and G_+, respectively, especially in broad transcription, the voiced post-palatal fricative may be transcribed as a palatalized voiced velar fricative. Its place of articulation is palatal, which means it is articulated with the middle or back part of the tongue raised to the hard palate, the otherwise identical post-palatal variant is articulated slightly behind the hard palate, making it sound slightly closer to the velar. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
30.
Voiceless pharyngeal fricative
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The voiceless pharyngeal fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is an h-bar, in the transcription of Arabic, Berber and other scripts, it is often written ⟨Ḥ⟩, ⟨ḥ⟩. Typically characterized as a fricative in the pharynx, it is often a whispered. Its place of articulation is pharyngeal, which means it is articulated with the tongue root against the back of the throat and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds. It has also reconstructed as appearing in Ancient Egyptian, a related Afro-Asiatic language. Modern non-Oriental Hebrew has merged the voiceless pharyngeal fricative with the velar fricative. However, phonetic studies have shown that the so-called voiceless pharyngeal fricatives of Semitic languages are often neither pharyngeal nor fricatives, pharyngeal fricative Heth Index of phonetics articles Guttural
31.
Vowel
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In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, with two competing definitions. There is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis and this contrasts with consonants, such as the English sh, which have a constriction or closure at some point along the vocal tract. In the other, phonological definition, a vowel is defined as syllabic, a phonetically equivalent but non-syllabic sound is a semivowel. In oral languages, phonetic vowels normally form the peak of many to all syllables, whereas consonants form the onset and coda. Some languages allow other sounds to form the nucleus of a syllable, the word vowel comes from the Latin word vocalis, meaning vocal. In English, the vowel is commonly used to mean both vowel sounds and the written symbols that represent them. The phonetic definition of vowel does not always match the phonological definition, the approximants and illustrate this, both are produced without much of a constriction in the vocal tract, but they occur at the onset of syllables. A similar debate arises over whether a word like bird in a dialect has an r-colored vowel /ɝ/ or a syllabic consonant /ɹ̩/. The American linguist Kenneth Pike suggested the terms vocoid for a vowel and vowel for a phonological vowel, so using this terminology. Nonetheless, the phonetic and phonemic definitions would still conflict for the syllabic el in table, or the syllabic nasals in button, daniel Jones developed the cardinal vowel system to describe vowels in terms of the features of tongue height, tongue backness and roundedness. These three parameters are indicated in the schematic quadrilateral IPA vowel diagram on the right, there are additional features of vowel quality, such as the velum position, type of vocal fold vibration, and tongue root position. This conception of vowel articulation has been known to be inaccurate since 1928, Peter Ladefoged has said that early phoneticians. Thought they were describing the highest point of the tongue, and they were actually describing formant frequencies. The IPA Handbook concedes that the quadrilateral must be regarded as an abstraction. Vowel height is named for the position of the tongue relative to either the roof of the mouth or the aperture of the jaw. However, it refers to the first formant, abbreviated F1. Height is defined by the inverse of the F1 value, The higher the frequency of the first formant, however, if more precision is required, true-mid vowels may be written with a lowering diacritic. Although English contrasts six heights in its vowels, they are interdependent with differences in backness and it appears that some varieties of German have five contrasting vowel heights independently of length or other parameters
32.
Open central unrounded vowel
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The open central unrounded vowel, or low central unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in many spoken languages. While the International Phonetic Alphabet officially has no dedicated letter for this sound between front and back, it is normally written ⟨a⟩, if precision is required, it can be specified by using diacritics, such as centralized ⟨ä⟩ or retracted ⟨a̠⟩, but this is not common. Acoustically, however, is a central vowel. It is more common to use plain for a central vowel and, if needed. Alternatively, Sinologists may use the letter ⟨ᴀ⟩, the IPA voted against officially adopting this symbol in 2011–2012. The Hamont dialect of Limburgish has been reported to contrast long open front, central and back unrounded vowels, the IPA prefers terms close and open for vowels, and the name of the article follows this. However, some prefer the terms high and low. Its vowel height is open, also known as low, which means the tongue is positioned as far as possible from the roof of the mouth – that is, as low as possible in the mouth. Its vowel backness is central, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a front vowel and a back vowel and it is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded. Most languages have some form of an open vowel. Because the IPA uses ⟨a⟩ for both front and central unrounded open vowels, it is not always clear whether a language uses the former or the latter
33.
Open-mid front unrounded vowel
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The open-mid front unrounded vowel, or low-mid front unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is a Latinized variant of the Greek lowercase epsilon, the IPA prefers terms close and open for vowels, and the name of the article follows this. However, a number of linguists, perhaps a majority, prefer the terms high. Its vowel height is open-mid, also known as low-mid, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a vowel and a mid vowel. Its vowel backness is front, which means the tongue is positioned as far forward as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that rounded front vowels are often centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-front. It is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded
34.
Mid front unrounded vowel
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The mid front unrounded vowel is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. While there is no dedicated symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents the mid front unrounded vowel between close-mid and open-mid, it is normally written ⟨e⟩. If precision is required, diacritics may be used, such as ⟨e̞⟩ or ⟨ɛ̝⟩, in Sinology and Koreanology ⟨ᴇ⟩, is used sometimes. Examples are Spanish, Romanian, Japanese, Korean, Greek, Hejazi Arabic, a number of dialects of English also have such a mid front vowel. However, there is no general predisposition for this, igbo, for example, has a close-mid, whereas Bulgarian has an open-mid, even though neither language has another phonemic mid front vowel. Its vowel height is mid, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a vowel and an open vowel. Its vowel backness is front, which means the tongue is positioned as far forward as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that rounded front vowels are often centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-front. It is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded
35.
Close front unrounded vowel
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The close front unrounded vowel, or high front unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound that occurs in most spoken languages, represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by the symbol i. The close front unrounded vowel is the equivalent of the palatal approximant. The two are almost identical featurally, irish orthography reflects both etymology and whether preceding consonants are broad or slender, so such combinations as ⟨aí⟩, ⟨ei⟩, and ⟨aío⟩ all represent /iː/. Its vowel backness is front, which means the tongue is positioned as far forward as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that rounded front vowels are often centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-front. It is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded
36.
Open-mid back rounded vowel
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The open-mid back rounded vowel, or low-mid back rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɔ⟩, the IPA symbol is a turned letter c and both the symbol and the sound are commonly called open-o. The name open-o represents the sound, in that it is like the sound represented by ⟨o⟩ and it also represents the symbol, which can be remembered as an o which has been opened by removing part of the closed circular shape. The IPA prefers the terms close and open for vowels, however, a large number of linguists, perhaps a majority, prefer the terms high and low. Its vowel height is open-mid, also known as low-mid, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a vowel and a mid vowel. Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that unrounded back vowels tend to be centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-back. Its roundedness is protruded, which means that the corners of the lips are drawn together, copyleft symbol index of phonetics articles
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Mid back rounded vowel
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The mid back rounded vowel is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. While there is no dedicated symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents the mid back rounded vowel between close-mid and open-mid, it is normally written ⟨o⟩. If precision is desired, diacritics may be used, such as ⟨o̞⟩ or ⟨ɔ̝⟩, a non-IPA letter ⟨ⱺ⟩ is also found. Just because a language has only one non-close non-open back vowel, there is a language in Sulawesi, Indonesia, with a close-mid, Tukang Besi. Another language in Indonesia, in the Maluku Islands, has an open-mid, in both languages, there is no contrast with another mid vowel. Its vowel height is mid, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a vowel and an open vowel. Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that unrounded back vowels tend to be centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-back. Its roundedness is protruded, which means that the corners of the lips are drawn together, and the inner surfaces exposed
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Close back rounded vowel
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The close back rounded vowel, or high back rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨u⟩, the IPA prefers terms close and open for vowels, and the name of the article follows this. However, a number of linguists, perhaps a majority, prefer the terms high. Th In most languages this rounded vowel is pronounced with protruded lips, however, in a few cases the lips are compressed. The close back rounded vowel is almost identical featurally to the labio-velar approximant, the close back protruded vowel is the most common variant of the close back rounded vowel. It is typically transcribed in IPA simply as ⟨u⟩, and that is the used in this article. Another possible transcription is ⟨uʷ⟩ or ⟨ɯʷ⟩, but this could be misread as a diphthong and its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Note that unrounded back vowels tend to be centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-back and its roundedness is protruded, which means that the corners of the lips are drawn together, and the inner surfaces exposed. Note, Because back rounded vowels are assumed to have protrusion, some languages, such as Japanese and Swedish, are found with a close back vowel that has a distinct type of rounding, called compressed or exolabial. Only the Shanghainese dialect is known to contrast it with the more typical protruded close back vowel, there is no dedicated diacritic for compression in the IPA. However, the compression of the lips can be shown with the letter ⟨β̞⟩ as ⟨ɯ͡β̞⟩ or ⟨ɯᵝ⟩, the spread-lip diacritic ⟨ ͍ ⟩ may also be used with a rounded vowel letter ⟨u͍⟩ as an ad hoc symbol, though technically spread means unrounded. Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that unrounded back vowels tend to be centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-back. Its roundedness is compressed, which means that the margins of the lips are tense, index of phonetics articles Close central compressed vowel Close front protruded vowel
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Near-open central unrounded vowel
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The near-open central vowel, or near-low central vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɐ⟩, in some languages it is the only open vowel, in place of the more common open central unrounded vowel. The IPA prefers terms close and open for vowels, and the name of the article follows this, however, a large number of linguists, perhaps a majority, prefer the terms high and low. The near-open central unrounded vowel is the most common type of the central vowel, and is thus typically transcribed simply as ⟨ɐ⟩. The last two symbols are equivalent to the complex symbols ⟨ä̝⟩ and ⟨ɑ̝̈⟩, respectively. Its vowel backness is central, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a front vowel and a back vowel and it is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded. The near-open central rounded vowel is a rare sound, reported to occur as a phoneme only in the Sabiny language. The last two symbols are equivalent to the complex symbols ⟨ɶ̝̈⟩ and ⟨ɒ̝̈⟩, respectively. Its vowel backness is central, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a front vowel and a back vowel and it is rounded, which means that the lips are rounded rather than spread or relaxed. Turned a Index of phonetics articles
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Near-close near-front unrounded vowel
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The near-close near-front unrounded vowel, or near-high near-front unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɪ⟩, the International Phonetic Association advises serifs on the symbols ends. Some sans-serif fonts do meet this typographic specification, prior to 1989, there was an alternate symbol for this sound, ⟨ɩ⟩, the use of which is no longer sanctioned by the IPA. Despite that, some modern writings still use it, sometimes, especially in broad transcription, this vowel is transcribed with a simpler symbol ⟨i⟩, which technically represents the close front unrounded vowel. The Handbook of the International Phonetic Association defines as a close front unrounded vowel, therefore. The symbol ⟨ɪ⟩ is often used to transcribe the close-mid near-front unrounded vowel. It occurs in some dialects of English as well as other languages. Certain sources may even use ⟨ɪ⟩ for the close-mid front unrounded vowel, for the close-mid front unrounded vowel that is not usually transcribed with the symbol ⟨ɪ⟩, see close-mid front unrounded vowel. For the fully central equivalents of these vowels, see near-close central unrounded vowel, the IPA prefers the terms close and open for classifying vowels. Some linguists use the high and low, respectively, instead of close. Its vowel height is near-close, also known as near-high, which means the tongue is not quite so constricted as a close vowel, also known as front-central or centralized front, which means the tongue is positioned almost as far forward as a front vowel. It is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded
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Palatal approximant
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The voiced palatal approximant is a type of consonant used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨j⟩, the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is j, and in the Americanist phonetic notation it is ⟨y⟩. Because the English name of the letter J, jay, does not start with but with, the palatal approximant can in many cases be considered the semivocalic equivalent of the close front unrounded vowel. The two are almost identical featurally, some languages, though, have a palatal approximant that is unspecified for rounding, and therefore cannot be considered the semivocalic equivalent of either or its rounded counterpart. An example of language is Spanish, which distinguishes two palatal approximants, an approximant semivowel, which is always unrounded, and an unspecified for rounding approximant consonant. Eugenio Martínez Celdrán describes the difference between them as follows, is shorter and is usually a merely transitory sound and it can only exist together with a full vowel and does not appear in syllable onset. has a lower amplitude, mainly in F2. It can only appear in syllable onset and it is not noisy either articulatorily or perceptually. Can vary towards in emphatic pronunciations, having noise, thus, in words like viuda widow, Dios God, vio s/he saw, etc. the semi-vowel is unrounded, if it were rounded a sound that does not exist in Spanish, would appear. He also says that in his opinion, the IPA shows a lack of precision in the treatment it gives to approximants, and are two different segments, but they have to be labelled as voiced palatal approximant consonants. I think that the former is a consonant, whereas the latter is a semi-consonant, as it has traditionally been called in Spanish, or a semi-vowel. The IPA, though, classifies it as a consonant, there is a parallel problem with transcribing the voiced velar approximant. The symbol ⟨ʝ̞⟩ may also be used when the palatal approximant is merely an allophone of the palatal fricative /ʝ/ as, compared with ⟨j⟩. The X-SAMPA equivalent of ⟨ʝ̞⟩ is j\_o, note that the symbol ⟨ʝ̞⟩ may not display properly in all browsers. If that is the case, ⟨ʝ˕⟩ should be substituted, in the writing systems used for most of the languages of Central, Northern, and Eastern Europe, the letter j denotes the palatal approximant, as in German Jahr year. That is followed by IPA although it may be counterintuitive for English speakers, in grammars of Ancient Greek, the palatal approximant, which was lost early in the history of Greek, is sometimes written as ⟨ι̯⟩. It can be considered the equivalent of the close central unrounded vowel. The International Phonetic Alphabet does not have a symbol for that sound, though it can be transcribed as ⟨j̠⟩, ⟨j˗⟩. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are j_- and M\_+, respectively, other possible transcriptions include a centralized ⟨j⟩, a centralized ⟨ɰ⟩ and a non-syllabic ⟨ɨ⟩
