1.
Charles I of England
–
Charles I was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles was the son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England. He became heir apparent to the English, Irish, and Scottish thrones on the death of his brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. Two years later, he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France instead, after his succession, Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. Charles believed in the right of kings and thought he could govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent and he supported high church ecclesiastics, such as Richard Montagu and William Laud, and failed to aid Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years War. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War, after his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors demands for a constitutional monarchy, re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwells New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a called the Commonwealth of England was declared. The monarchy was restored to Charless son, Charles II, in 1660, the second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on 19 November 1600. James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England, in mid-July 1604, Charles left Dunfermline for England where he was to spend most of the rest of his life. His speech development was slow, and he retained a stammer, or hesitant speech. In January 1605, Charles was created Duke of York, as is customary in the case of the English sovereigns second son, Thomas Murray, a Presbyterian Scot, was appointed as a tutor. Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics, in 1611, he was made a Knight of the Garter. Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity, which might have been caused by rickets and he became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing. Even so, his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his stronger and taller elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. However, in early November 1612, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid, Charles, who turned 12 two weeks later, became heir apparent
2.
University College, Oxford
–
University College, is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in England. It has a claim to being the oldest college of the university, as of 2009, the college had an estimated financial endowment of £109m. The college is associated with a number of influential people, notable alumni include Clement Attlee, C. S. Lewis, Bill Clinton, V. S. Naipaul, Stephen Hawking and Percy Bysshe Shelley. A legend arose in the 14th century that the college was founded by King Alfred in 872, however most agree its foundation was in 1249 by William of Durham. He bequeathed money to support ten or twelve Masters of Arts studying Divinity, and this later date still allows the claim that Univ is the oldest of the Oxford colleges, although this is contested by Balliol College and Merton College. Until the 16th century, it was open to Fellows studying theology. As Univ grew in size and wealth, its buildings were replaced with the current Main Quadrangle in the 17th Century. Although the foundation stone was placed on 17 April 1634 the disruption of the English Civil War meant it was not completed until sometime in 1676, Radcliffe Quad followed more rapidly by 1719, and the Library was built in 1861. University College began to accept female students in 1979. The main entrance to the college is on the High Street and its grounds are bounded by Merton Street, the college is divided by Logic Lane which is owned by the college and runs through the centre. The western side of the college is occupied by the library, the hall, the chapel, the eastern side of the college is mainly devoted to student accommodation in rooms above the High Street shops, on Merton Street or in the separate Goodhart Building. This building is named after former master of the college Arthur Lehman Goodhart, the college also owns student accommodation on Staverton Road in North Oxford which houses students after their second year. The college also owns the University College Boathouse and a ground which is located nearby on Abingdon Road. The Alternative Prospectus is written and produced by current students for prospective applicants, the publication was awarded a HELOA Innovation and Best Practice Award in 2011. The Univ Alternative Prospectus offers student written advice and guidance to potential Oxford applicants, the award recognises the engagement of the college community, unique newspaper format, forward-thinking use of social media and the collaborative working between staff and students. University has the longest grace of any Oxford college and it is read before every Formal Hall, which is held Tuesday, Thursday, and Sunday at Univ. The reading is performed by a Scholar of the College and whoever is sitting at the head of High Table, the Scholar does not need to know it by heart, and it is unusual for people to do so. Gratiarum actio in collegio magnae aulae universitatis quotidie ante mensam dicenda, SCHOLAR — Deus det vivis gratiam, defunctis requiem, Ecclesiae, Reginae, Regnoque nostro, pacem et concordiam, et nobis peccatoribus vitam aeternam
3.
Shrivenham
–
Shrivenham is a large village and civil parish in the Vale of White Horse, England, about 5 miles southwest of Faringdon. The village is close to the county boundary with Wiltshire and about 7 miles east-northeast of Swindon, Shrivenham was part of Berkshire until the 1974 boundary changes transferred the Vale of White Horse to Oxfordshire. Shrivenham has numerous thatched cottages, stone walls, an historic pump, the village has three historic public houses, the Barrington Arms, The Crown and the Prince of Wales. The main country estate in Shrivenham is the Beckett Estate, in the 17th century it was the home of Henry Marten, the regicide. Later the Barrington family owned the estate and lived at Beckett Hall, the family and estate gave their names to Great Barrington, Massachusetts and Becket, Massachusetts. Charlotte, the wife of the 8th Viscount Barrington, endowed the memorial hall in the village, it was opened in 1926 by Princess Beatrice. At the end of World War II in Europe, the U. S. Armys Information and it did this on the Beckett estate at Shrivenham. This college is now called the Defence College of Management and Technology, the academy provides higher education for personnel in the British Armed Forces, Civil Service, other government departments and service personnel from other nations. The current Director General is Vice Admiral Duncan Potts, a senior Royal Navy officer who took his post in September 2014, the academy is headquartered at Shrivenham and delivers education and training in a number of sites. The majority of training is postgraduate with many courses being accredited for the award of civilian qualifications, the Conflict Studies Research Centre is just over the parish boundary in Watchfield. Since 1984 Cranfield University has been the main provider of the College. A November 2005 contract extends the Cranfield relationship with DA-CMT to at least 2027, the Conflict Studies Research Centre was part of the UK Defence Academy. It specialised in potential causes of conflict in an area ranging from the Baltic to Central Asia. This geographical focus was inherited from the Centres original incarnation as the Soviet Studies Research Centre in 1972, at Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, renamed in the 1990s, the Centre later examined wider issues including foreign policy, energy security and demographic change. In 2006, CSRC was absorbed into the Advanced Research and Assessment Group, another component of the UK Defence Academy, in May 2010, former research staff of CSRC, laid off at its closure, re-formed the organisation independently of the Ministry of Defence. The Development, Concepts and Doctrine Centre, the MODs independent think tank, is located in the area. Shrivenham had a church by 1117, when Henry I granted its advowson to the Augustinian Cirencester Abbey upon the latters foundation. Little survives from the church of that time save for part of the west wall of the nave, which is late 12th century, by the 15th century the parish church was cruciform, with a central Perpendicular Gothic belltower that was built in about 1400
4.
Longworth
–
Longworth is a village and civil parish about 7 miles west of Abingdon-on-Thames and a similar distance east of Faringdon and south of Witney. Longworth was part of Berkshire until the 1974 boundary changes transferred it to Oxfordshire, the 2011 Census recorded the parish population as 566. The parish is bounded by the River Thames to the north, the A420 road to the south, the land slopes generally from the A420 in the south to the river in the north. The exception is Harrowdown Hill near the north-east corner of the parish, the oldest parts of St Marys Church, Longworth, the Church of England parish church, are 13th-century. The current chancel, west tower and north aisle were built in the 15th century, the church is a Grade I listed building. St Marys parish is part of the benefice of Cherbury with Gainfield, the theologian and philosopher J. R. Illingworth was Rector of St Marys from 1883 to 1915. At a farmstead about 3⁄4 mile south of the village is a 17th-century tithe barn and it has a queen post roof seven bays long and is a Grade II* listed building and a scheduled monument. Harrowdown Hill is where biological warfare expert David Kelly died in 2003 during the Iraqi weapons of mass destruction controversy. This gave rise to an enquiry concluded by the Hutton Report, and to the title of Thom Yorkes song Harrowdown Hill. Longworth has a County Primary school, bus route 63 links Longworth with Oxford from Monday to Saturday via the villages of Southmoor, Hinton Waldrist, Appleton, Eaton and Cumnor. It is currently run by Thames Travel under contract to Oxfordshire County Council, there is a pub, the Blue Boar, in the village. The Lamb and Flag about 1 1⁄4 miles south-west of the village was in the parish boundary changes in 2011 transferred it to Kingston Bagpuize with Southmoor. The Blue Boar is late 17th-century and has a thatched roof, on the Blue Boar pub sign, the white boar and the white rose on the pennant are symbols of King Richard III. The blue boar was the badge of the De Vere family. Blue Boar Rugby Football Club is based at the Blue Boar pub in Longworth and it normally plays home games at the Oxford R. F. C. The club played its first game of rugby in March 1977, in the following season several more matches were arranged against local sides and the club affiliated to the Oxfordshire Rugby Football Union. The number of fixtures and strength of opposition increased in subsequent years, in September 1980 the club made its first tour of Cornwall, followed by further visits in 1987,1988 and 1989. It made its first foreign tour in 1981, when a party of 35 players and supporters went to Brittany, in 1991 the club was the first English RFU club to make an official tour of Hungary, hosted by the Hungarian Rugby Union
5.
Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford
–
Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford was an English statesman and a major figure in the period leading up to the English Civil War. He served in Parliament and was a supporter of King Charles I, from 1632–40 he was Lord Deputy of Ireland, where he established a strong authoritarian rule. Recalled to England, he became an advisor to the King, attempting to strengthen the royal position against Parliament. When Parliament condemned him to death, Charles signed the death warrant, Thomas Wentworth was born on 13 April 1593 in London. He was the son of Sir William Wentworth, of Wentworth Woodhouse, near Rotherham, a member of an old Yorkshire family, in 1622 Wentworths first wife Margaret Clifford died. He represented Pontefract in the Happy Parliament of 1624, but appears to have no active part. He expressed a wish to avoid complications and do first the business of the commonwealth. Yet he had never taken up an attitude of antagonism to the King and his position was very different from that of the regular opposition. He was anxious to serve the Crown, but he disapproved of the Kings policy, in January 1626 Wentworth asked for the presidency of the Council of the North, and was favourably received by Buckingham. In 1627, he refused to contribute to the forced loan, in 1628, Wentworth was one of the more vocal supporters of the Petition of Right, which attempted to curb the power of the King. Once Charles had accepted the Petition, Wentworth felt it appropriate to support the crown, saying The authority of a king is the keystone which closeth up the arch of order and he was consequently branded a turncoat. In the parliament of 1628, Wentworth joined the leaders in resistance to arbitrary taxation and imprisonment. He led the movement for a bill which would have secured the liberties of the subject as completely as the Petition of Right afterwards did, but in a manner less offensive to the King. Later in the session he quarrelled with Eliot, because he wanted to come to a compromise with the Lords, so as to leave room for the King to act unchecked in special emergencies. On 22 July 1628, not long after the prorogation, Wentworth was created Baron Wentworth and this implied no change of principle. When once the breach was made it naturally grew wider, partly from the each party put into its work. As yet Wentworth was not directly involved in the government of the country, however, following the assassination of Buckingham, in December 1628, he became Viscount Wentworth and not long afterwards president of the Council of the North. Whoever, he said, ravels forth into questions the right of a king and of a people shall never be able to wrap them up again into the comeliness and order he found them
6.
Reading, Berkshire
–
Reading is a large, historically important town in Berkshire, England, of which it is the county town. The 19th century saw the coming of the Great Western Railway, Today Reading is a major commercial centre, with involvement in information technology and insurance, and, despite its proximity to London, has a net inward commuter flow. The first evidence for Reading as a settlement dates from the 8th century, by 1525, Reading was the largest town in Berkshire, and tax returns show that Reading was the 10th largest town in England when measured by taxable wealth. By 1611, it had a population of over 5000 and had grown rich on its trade in cloth, the 18th century saw the beginning of a major iron works in the town and the growth of the brewing trade for which Reading was to become famous. During the 19th century, the town rapidly as a manufacturing centre. It is ranked the UKs top economic area for economic success and wellbeing, according to such as employment, health, income. Reading is also a regional retail centre serving a large area of the Thames Valley. Every year it hosts the Reading Festival, one of Englands biggest music festivals, sporting teams based in Reading include Reading Football Club and the London Irish rugby union team, and over 15,000 runners annually compete in the Reading Half Marathon. In 2015, Reading had an population of 232,662. The town is represented in Parliament by two members, and has been continuously represented there since 1295, for ceremonial purposes the town is in the county of Berkshire and has served as its county town since 1867, previously sharing this status with Abingdon-on-Thames. It is in the Thames Valley at the confluence of the River Thames and River Kennet, and on both the Great Western Main Line railway and the M4 motorway. Reading is 75 miles east of Bristol,25 miles south of Oxford,42 miles west of London,17 miles north of Basingstoke,13 miles south-west of Maidenhead and 20 miles east of Newbury. Reading may date back to the Roman occupation of Britain, possibly as a port for Calleva Atrebatum. However the first clear evidence for Reading as a settlement dates from the 8th century, the name probably comes from the Readingas, an Anglo-Saxon tribe whose name means Readas People in Old English, or less probably the Celtic Rhydd-Inge, meaning Ford over the River. In late 870, an army of Danes invaded the kingdom of Wessex, on 4 January 871, in the first Battle of Reading, King Ethelred and his brother Alfred the Great attempted unsuccessfully to breach the Danes defences. The battle is described in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and that account provides the earliest known record of the existence of Reading. The Danes remained in Reading until late in 871, when they retreated to their quarters in London. After the Battle of Hastings and the Norman conquest of England, William the Conqueror gave land in, in its 1086 Domesday Book listing, the town was explicitly described as a borough
7.
Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon
–
Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon was an English statesman who served as Lord Chancellor to King Charles II from 1658, two years before the Restoration of the Monarchy, until 1667. He was loyal to the king and built-up the royalist cause and he was one of the most important historians of England, as author of the most influential contemporary history of the Civil War, The History of the Rebellion. He was the grandfather of two monarchs, Queen Mary II and Queen Anne. Hyde was the son of Henry Hyde of Dinton and Purton. Henrys brother was Sir Lawrence Hyde, Attorney General, the family of Hyde was long established at Norbury in Cheshire. Hyde was fond of his mother and idolised his father, whom he called the best father, the best friend, and the wisest man I have known. He was educated at Gillingham School, and in 1622 entered Magdalen Hall, Oxford, having been rejected by Magdalen College, Oxford, and graduated BA in 1626. Intended originally for holy orders in the Church of England, the death of two brothers made him his fathers heir, and in 1625 he entered the Middle Temple to study law. Of the most excellent men in their several kinds that lived in that age and these included Ben Jonson, John Selden, Edmund Waller, John Hales and especially Lord Falkland, who became his best friend. From their influence and the reading in which he indulged, he doubtless drew the solid learning. The diarist Samuel Pepys wrote thirty years later that he never knew anyone who could speak as well as Hyde and he was one of the most prominent members of the famous Great Tew Circle, a group of intellectuals who gathered at Lord Falklands country house Great Tew, Oxfordshire. In 1633 he was called to the bar, and obtained quickly a good position and practice, both his marriages gained him influential friends, and in December 1634 he was made keeper of the writs and rolls of the Court of Common Pleas. In April 1640, Hyde was elected Member of Parliament for both Shaftesbury and Wootton Bassett in the Short Parliament and chose to sit for Wootton Bassett. Hyde opposed legislation restricting the power of the King to appoint his own advisors, viewing it unnecessary and he gradually moved over towards the royalist side, championing the Church of England and opposing the execution of the Earl of Strafford, Charless primary advisor. Following the Grand Remonstrance of 1641, Hyde became an advisor to the King. He left London about 20 May 1642, and rejoined the king at York, in February 1643, Hyde was knighted and was officially appointed to the Privy Council, the following month he was made Chancellor of the Exchequer. Despite his own opposition to the King he found it hard to forgive anyone, even a close friend, who fought for Parliament. His view of the conflict and of his opponents was undoubtedly coloured by the death of his best friend Lord Falkland at the First Battle of Newbury in September 1643
8.
Tower of London
–
The Tower of London, officially Her Majestys Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower, which gives the castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 and was a resented symbol of oppression. The castle was used as a prison from 1100 until 1952, a grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under Kings Richard the Lionheart, Henry III, the general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site. The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history and it was besieged several times, and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as an armoury, a treasury, a menagerie, the home of the Royal Mint, a record office. From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II, in the absence of the monarch, the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period, in the late 15th century, the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower. Under the Tudors, the Tower became used less as a royal residence and this use has led to the phrase sent to the Tower. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, in the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty. Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, in the First and Second World Wars, the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused during the Blitz was repaired, today, the Tower of London is one of the countrys most popular tourist attractions. Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower, it is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site. The Tower was orientated with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking Saxon London and it would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames. The castle is made up of three wards, or enclosures, the innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle
9.
Aylesbury
–
Aylesbury /ˈeɪəlzbri/ is the county town of Buckinghamshire, England. In 2011, it had a population of 71,977, the town name is of Old English origin. Its first recorded name Æglesburgh is thought to mean Fort of Ægel, since earliest records there have been 57 variations of the name. Excavations in the centre in 1985 found an Iron Age hill fort dating from the early 4th century BC. Aylesbury was a market town in Anglo-Saxon times, the burial place of Saint Osgyth. The Early English parish church of St. Mary has a crypt beneath, once thought to be Anglo-Saxon, it is now recognised as being of the same period as the medieval chapel above. At the Norman conquest, the king took the manor of Aylesbury for himself, in 1450, a religious institution called the Guild of St Mary was founded in Aylesbury by John Kemp, Archbishop of York. Known popularly as the Guild of Our Lady it became a place for local dignitaries. The guild was influential in the outcome of the Wars of the Roses. Its premises at the Chantry in Church Street, Aylesbury, are still there, the plague decimated the population in 1603/4. Aylesbury-born composer, Rutland Boughton, possibly inspired by the statue of John Hampden, bourbon Street in Aylesbury is named after the king. Louiss wife, Marie Josephine of Savoy died at Hartwell in 1810 and is the only French queen to have died on English soil, the town also received international publicity in the 1963 when the culprits responsible for the ] were tried at Aylesbury Crown Court. The robbery took place at Bridego Bridge, a bridge at Ledburn. A notable institution is Aylesbury Grammar School which was founded in 1598, according to the 2011 Census, the religious groupings in Aylesbury were, Christianity, No religion, Islam, Hinduism, Other. 7% of respondents did not state their religion, Aylesbury falls into a notional geographical region known as the South Midlands. In the 2001 census the Aylesbury Urban Area had 69,021 inhabitants by the 2011 census the urban population had grown to 74,748. Distinct whole areas that have a high property price in the town are Bedgrove. Anticipated developments are expected to raise the population of Aylesbury from its current approximation of 75,000 to 100,000 between 2018 and 2023
10.
Presbyterianism
–
Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism which traces its origins to the British Isles, particularly Scotland. Presbyterian churches derive their name from the form of church government. Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the Acts of Union in 1707 which created the Kingdom of Great Britain. In fact, most Presbyterians found in England can trace a Scottish connection, the Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there are a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. The roots of Presbyterianism lie in the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, most Reformed churches which trace their history back to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government. In the twentieth century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement, many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches. Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists, Lutherans, Anglicans, Presbyterian history is part of the history of Christianity, but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. As the Catholic Church resisted the reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church, the Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to England and Scotland. In August 1560 the Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom, Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine, institutional organization and worship, often using a Book of Order to regulate common practice and order. The origins of the Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism, many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, Presbyterian government is by councils of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, teaching elders have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors are called by individual congregations, a congregation issues a call for the pastors service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery. Ruling elders are usually laymen who are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the elders, assuming responsibility for nurture. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance and this group may variously be known as a Deacon Board, Board of Deacons Diaconate, or Deacons Court. These are sometimes known as presbyters to the full congregation, above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations, the presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly, although an intermediate level of a synod sometimes exists. The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993, Presbyterian governance is practised by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches
11.
New Model Army
–
The New Model Army of England was formed in 1645 by the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War, and was disbanded in 1660 after the Restoration. Its soldiers became full-time professionals, rather than part-time militia, to establish a professional officer corps, the armys leaders were prohibited from having seats in either the House of Lords or House of Commons. This was to encourage their separation from the political or religious factions among the Parliamentarians, many of its common soldiers therefore held Dissenting or radical views unique among English armies. Ultimately, the Armys Generals could rely both on the Armys internal discipline and its religious zeal and innate support for the Good Old Cause to maintain an essentially dictatorial rule. The New Model Army was formed as a result of dissatisfaction among Parliamentarians with the conduct of the Civil War in 1644, there was also increasing dissension among Parliaments generals in the field. Parliament suspected that many of its officers, who were mainly Presbyterians, were inclined to favour peace with King Charles. The Earl of Manchester was one of the prominent members favouring peace, Manchester and Cromwell clashed publicly over this issue several times. Parliaments senior commander, the Earl of Essex, was suspected of lack of determination and was on poor terms with his subordinates. The tensions among the Parliamentarian generals became a public argument after the Second Battle of Newbury. Some of them believed that King Charless army had escaped encirclement after the battle through inaction on the part of some commanders. In response, Parliament directed the Committee of Both Kingdoms, the body that oversaw the conduct of the War. On 19 December, the House of Commons passed the Self-denying Ordinance, originally a separate matter from the establishment of the New Model Army, it soon became intimately linked with it. Once the Self-denying Ordinance became Law, the Earls of Manchester and Essex, on 6 January 1645, the Committee of Both Kingdoms established the New Model Army, appointing Sir Thomas Fairfax as its Captain-General and Sir Philip Skippon as Sergeant-Major General of the Foot. The Self-denying Ordinance took time to pass the House of Lords, although Oliver Cromwell handed over his command of the Armys cavalry when the Ordinance was enacted, Fairfax requested his services when another officer wished to emigrate. Cromwell was commissioned Colonel of Vermuydens former regiment of horse, and was appointed Lieutenant General of the Horse in June, Cromwell and his son-in-law Henry Ireton were two of the only four exceptions to the Self-denying Ordinance, the other two being local commanders in Cheshire and North Wales. They were allowed to serve under a series of temporary commissions that were continually extended. They were intended to reduce the remaining Royalist garrisons in their areas, some of their regiments were reorganised and incorporated into the New Model Army during and after the Second English Civil War. Although the cavalry regiments were well up to strength and there was no shortage of volunteers
12.
Chepstow Castle
–
Chepstow Castle at Chepstow, Monmouthshire, Wales is the oldest surviving post-Roman stone fortification in Britain. Located above cliffs on the River Wye, construction began in 1067 under the instruction of the Norman Lord William fitzOsbern, in the 12th century the castle was used in the conquest of Gwent, the first independent Welsh kingdom to be conquered by the Normans. It was subsequently held by two of the most powerful Anglo-Norman magnates of medieval England, William Marshal and Richard de Clare, however, by the 16th century its military importance had waned and parts of its structure were converted into domestic ranges. Although re-garrisoned during and after the English Civil War, by the 1700s it had fallen into decay, with the later growth of tourism, the castle became a popular visitor destination. The ruins were Grade I listed on 6 December 1950, Chepstow Castle is situated on a narrow ridge between the limestone river cliff and a valley, known locally as the Dell, on its landward side. Its full extent is best appreciated from the bank of the River Wye. The castle has four baileys, added in turn through its history, despite this, it is not a defensively strong castle, having neither a strong keep nor a concentric layout. The multiple baileys instead show its construction history, which is considered in four major phases. The first serious study of Chepstow began in 1904 and the canonical description was long considered to be by Perks in 1955. Recent studies have revised the details of phases, but still maintain the same broad structure. The speed with which William the Conqueror committed to the creation of a castle at Chepstow is testament to its strategic importance, the site overlooked an important crossing point on the River Wye, a major artery of communications inland to Monmouth and Hereford. However, recent analysis suggests that the rulers of Gwent, who had fought against King Harold. The precipitous limestone cliffs beside the river afforded an excellent defensive location, building work started under William FitzOsbern in 1067 or shortly afterwards. The Great Tower was probably completed by about 1090, possibly intended as a show of strength by King William in dealing with the Welsh king Rhys ap Tewdwr. It was constructed in stone from the first, marking its importance as a stronghold on the border between England and Wales. Although much of the stone seems to have been quarried locally, the castle originally had the Norman name of Striguil, derived from the Welsh word ystraigl meaning river bend. FitzOsbern also founded a priory nearby, and the market town. The castle and the associated Marcher lordship were generally known as Striguil until the late 14th century, further fortifications were added by William Marshal, Earl of Pembroke, starting in the 1190s
_by_Sir_Peter_Lely.jpg)
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Marten, Henry". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 784, 785.
