1.
Germans in the American Revolution
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Ethnic Germans served on both sides of the American Revolutionary War. Many supported the Loyalist cause and served as allies of Great Britain, other Germans came to assist the rebelling American patriots, but most of the Germans who were patriots were colonists. During the American Revolution, there were many German-speaking states loosely unified under the Holy Roman Empire, King George III came from an ethnic German family and was the first of the British royal House of Hanover to speak English as his first language. When the British colonies in America rebelled a decade later, several German-speaking states contracted soldiers to the British Army. Although the leasing of soldiers to a power was controversial to some Europeans. In some instances, ethnic Germans even enlisted directly into British units, Americans were alarmed at the arrival of German-speaking troops on American soil, viewing it as a betrayal by King George III. The financial basis of several smaller continental states was the rental of their regiments to fight for various larger nations during the 18th century. Historian Charles W. Ingrao examines The Hessian Mercenary State, Ideas, Institutions, the mercenaries of Hesse were very well trained and equipped, they fought well for whomever was paying their prince. At the conclusion of the war, Congress offered incentives—especially free farmland—for these ethnic Germans to remain in the United States, Great Britain also offered land and tax incentives to its continental soldiers willing to settle in Nova Scotia. The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel, under Frederick II, an uncle of King George III and it has been estimated that Hesse-Kassel contributed over 16,000 troops during the course of the Revolutionary War, of whom 6,500 did not return. Hessian officer Adam Ludwig Ochs estimated that 1,800 Hessian soldiers were killed, but many in the Hessian army intended on staying in America, and remained after the war. Because the majority of the German-speaking troops came from Hesse, modern Americans sometimes refer to all troops of this war generically as Hessians. Hesse-Kassel signed a treaty of alliance with Great Britain to supply fifteen regiments, four grenadier battalions, the jägers in particular were carefully recruited and well paid, well clothed, and free from manual labor. These jägers proved essential in the Indian style warfare in America, German-speaking armies could not quickly replace men lost on the other side of the Atlantic, so the Hessians recruited African-Americans as servants and soldiers. There were 115 black soldiers serving with Hessian units, most of them as drummers or fifers, perhaps the best-known officer from Hesse-Kassel is General Wilhelm von Knyphausen, who commanded his troops in several major battles. Other notable officers include Colonel Carl von Donop and Colonel Johann Rall, ralls regiment was captured, and many of the soldiers were sent to Pennsylvania to work on farms. Hesse-Hanau was a semi-independent appendage of Hesse-Kassel, governed by the Protestant Hereditary Landgrave William, when William received news of the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775, he unconditionally offered a regiment to King George III. During the course of the war, Hanau provided 2,422 troops, a significant number of Hessian soldiers were volunteers from Hanau, who had enlisted with the intention of staying in the Americas when the war was over
2.
Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel
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His eldest son William IV inherited the northern half and the capital of Kassel. The other sons received the Landgraviate of Hesse-Marburg, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Rheinfels, the line of Landgraves was founded by William IV, surnamed the Wise, the eldest son of Philip I. On his fathers death in 1567, he received one half of the Landgraviate of Hesse, with Kassel as his capital, and this formed the Landgraviate. The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel expanded in 1604 when Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel inherited the Landgraviate of Hesse-Marburg from his childless uncle, Louis IV and his younger sons received apanages, which created several cadet lines of the house. The family line of the Landgraviate of Hesse-Rotenburg survived till 1834, with the aid of the French and Swedes, she held it, together with part of Westphalia. During the Thirty Years War, the Calvinist Hesse-Kassel proved to be Swedens most loyal German ally and they maintained an army, garrisoning many strongholds, including Dorsten, the strongest fortress on the right bank of the Rhine which was subsequently lost as the Siege of Dorsten. Meanwhile, Hesse-Kassel was occupied by Imperial troops, at the Peace of Westphalia, accordingly, Hesse-Kassel was augmented by the larger part of the County of Schaumburg and by the Hersfeld Abbey, secularized as a principality of the Empire. The regent Amalie Elisabeth of Hanau-Münzenberg introduced the rule of primogeniture, William VI, who came of age in 1650, was an enlightened patron of learning and the arts. He was succeeded by his son William VII, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, then an infant and he was succeeded by his brother Charles I. Frederick I of Sweden, the next landgrave, had become by marriage King of Sweden, on his death, he was succeeded in the landgraviate by his brother William VIII, who fought as an ally of Kingdom of Great Britain during the Seven Years War. This action, often criticized, has in later years found apologists. Historians now argue that the troops were Auxiliaries or mercenaries, Frederick II used the revenue thus derived to develop the economic and intellectual life of the country. Due to their involvement in the American War of Independence, Hessian has become an American slang term for all German soldiers deployed by the British against the American Revolution, one such regiment was the Musketeer Regiment Prinz Carl. Since the early years of the Reformation, the House of Hesse was Protestant, Landgraves Philip I, William V, and Maurice married descendants of King George of Bohemia. From William VI onwards, mothers of the heads of Hesse-Kassel were always descended from William the Silent, William V was succeeded by Landgraves William VI and William VII. Under King Frederick I of Sweden, Hesse-Kassel was in union with Sweden from 1730–51. But the Kings younger brother, Prince William, ruled in Kassel as regent until he succeeded his brother, Hesse-Kassel maintained 7% of its entire population under arms throughout the eighteenth century. This force served as a source of mercenaries for other European states, the principality thus became known as Kurhessen, although still usually referred to as Hesse-Kassel
3.
Hesse-Hanau
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Hanau is a town in the Main-Kinzig-Kreis, in Hesse, Germany. It is located 25 km east of Frankfurt am Main and its station is a major railway junction and it has a port on the river Main, making it an important transport centre. Hanau is known for being the birthplace of Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm, since the 16th century it was a centre of precious metal working with many goldsmiths. It is home to Heraeus, one of the largest family-owned companies in Germany, in 1963, the town hosted the third Hessentag state festival. Until 2005, Hanau was the centre of the Main-Kinzig-Kreis. The historic core of Hanau is situated within a semicircle of the river Kinzig which flows into the river Main just west of the town, after this change, Hanau for the first time also extended to the south bank of the Main river. The name is derived of Hagenowe which is an out of Haag. As a place of settlement Hanau was first mentioned in 1143, then it was the site of a castle which used the waters of the river Kinzig as a defense. The castle belonged to a family, calling themselves of Hanau since the 13th century. Starting from this castle a village developed and became a town in 1303, as a result of this history, the main church of Hanau stood outside its walls in the village of Kinzdorf. The villagers moved into the town, Kinzdorf became a village leaving only the church. Only in the 15th century was the status of the Hanau parish church transferred to the church of Mary Magdalene within the town walls, shortly after the first town walls were built at the beginning of the 14th century, the town outgrew this limit. These new fortifications enclosed three elements, The medieval castle, the town of Hanau and the Vorstadt. At the end of the 16th century, Count Philipp Ludwig II attracted Protestant refugees from the Netherlands and this was of high economic interest for him because these Walloons brought high-class trade, their knowledge of jewellery and other production of luxury items and therefore taxes to his county. Out of this tradition, goldsmiths are still trained in Hanau, Hanau also was the site of the first workshop to produce Faience within Germany. These new citizens were granted privileges and they formed their own community, church and it took more than 200 years to amalgamate both. The new town – larger than the old one – was protected by a very modern fortification in Baroque-style which proved a big asset only a few years later in the Thirty Years War. The town survived a siege in 1637 with only minor damage, in 1736 Johann Reinhard III of Hanau-Lichtenberg, the last of the Counts of Hanau, died
4.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
5.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
6.
Battle of Long Island
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The Battle of Long Island is also known as the Battle of Brooklyn and the Battle of Brooklyn Heights. It was fought on August 27,1776 and was the first major battle of the American Revolutionary War to take place after the United States declared its independence on July 4,1776. It was a victory for the British Army and the beginning of a campaign that gave them control of the strategically important city of New York. In terms of troop deployment and fighting, it was the largest battle of the entire war, Washington understood that the citys harbor would provide an excellent base for the British Navy during the campaign, so he established defenses there and waited for the British to attack. After five days of waiting, the British attacked American defenses on the Guan Heights, unknown to the Americans, however, Howe had brought his main army around their rear and attacked their flank soon after. The Americans panicked, resulting in twenty percent losses through casualties and captures, the remainder of the army retreated to the main defenses on Brooklyn Heights. The British dug in for a siege but, on the night of August 29–30, Washington and the Continental Army were driven out of New York entirely after several more defeats and forced to retreat through New Jersey and into Pennsylvania. In the first stage of the war, the British Army was trapped in the city of Boston and they abandoned it on March 17, setting sail to Halifax. Washington then began to transfer regiments to New York City which he believed the British would next attack because of its strategic importance. Washington left Boston on April 4, arrived at New York on April 13, Washington had sent his second in command Charles Lee ahead to New York the previous February to establish the citys defenses. Lee remained in New York City until March, when the Continental Congress sent him to South Carolina, troops were in limited supply, so Washington found the defenses incomplete, but Lee had concluded that it would be impossible to hold the city with the British commanding the sea. He reasoned that the defenses should be located with the ability to inflict casualties upon the British if any move was made to take. Barricades and redoubts were established in and around the city, Lee also saw that the immediate area was cleared of Loyalists. Washington began moving troops to Brooklyn in early May, and there were several thousand of them there in a short time. Three more forts were under construction on the side of the East River to support Fort Stirling. These new fortifications were Fort Putnam, Fort Greene, and Fort Box and they lay from north to south, with Fort Putnam farthest to the north, Greene slightly to the southwest, and Box slightly farther southwest. Each of these structures was surrounded by a large ditch, all connected by a line of entrenchments. Fort Defiance was also being constructed at this time, located farther southwest, past Fort Box, hulks were sunk at strategic locations to deter the British from entering the East River and other waterways
7.
Landing at Kip's Bay
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The Landing at Kips Bay was a British amphibious landing during the New York Campaign in the American Revolutionary War on September 15,1776, occurring on the eastern shore of present-day Manhattan. Heavy advance fire from British naval forces in the East River caused the inexperienced militia guarding the area to flee. Skirmishes in the aftermath of the resulted in the British capture of some of those militia. British maneuvers following the very nearly cut off the escape route of some Continental Army forces stationed further southeast on the island. The flight of American troops was so rapid that George Washington, the operation was a British success, and resulted in the withdrawal of the Continental Army to Harlem Heights, ceding control of New York City on the lower half of the island. However, General Washington established strong positions on Harlem Heights which he proved determined to defend in a skirmish between the two armies the following day. General Howe, unwilling to risk a frontal attack, did not attempt to advance further up the island for another two months. The American Revolutionary War had not gone well for the British military in 1775, at besieged Boston, the arrival of heavy guns for the Continental Army camp prompted General William Howe to withdraw from Boston to Halifax, Nova Scotia in March 1776. He regrouped there, acquired supplies and reinforcements, and embarked in June on a campaign to control of New York City. On the night of August 29–30, Washington successfully evacuated his army of 9,000 troops to York Island. Despite showing discipline and unity during the evacuation, the army quickly devolved in despair, large numbers of militia, many of whose summertime enlistments ended in August, departed for home. Leadership was questioned in the ranks, with soldiers openly wishing for the return of the colorful and they would derive great conveniences from it, on the one hand, and much property would be destroyed on the other, Washington wrote. York Island was occupied principally on the tip by New York City, on the western tip by Greenwich village. The sparsely-populated center of the featured a few low hills, principally Indianburg. The island was bordered by two rivers, on the west by the Hudson River and on the east by the East River, which separated the island from Long Island. Kips Bay was a cove on the shore of the island, extending roughly from present-day 32nd to 38th Streets. Opposite the bay on Long Island, the mouth of Newtown Creek, also surrounded by meadowlands. He also ordered an attempt to be made on HMS Eagle, Lee was able to escape, although he was forced to release his explosive payload to fend off small boats sent by the British to investigate when he surfaced to orient himself
8.
Battle of White Plains
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The Battle of White Plains was a battle in the New York and New Jersey campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought on October 28,1776, near White Plains, New York. Alerted to this move, Washington retreated farther, establishing a position in the village of White Plains, Howes troops drove Washingtons troops from a hill near the village, following this loss, Washington ordered the Americans to retreat farther north. Later British movements chased Washington across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania, Washington then crossed the Delaware and surprised a brigade of Hessian troops in the December 26 Battle of Trenton. British General William Howe, after evacuating Boston in March 1776, regrouped in Halifax, Nova Scotia, the campaign began with an unopposed landing on Staten Island in early July. After losing the Battle of Long Island on August 27, General Washington, General Howe followed up with a landing on Manhattan on September 15, but his advance was checked the next day at Harlem Heights. Howe established a camp at New Rochelle, but advance elements of his army were near Mamaroneck, only 7 miles from White Plains, on October 20, General Washington sent Colonel Rufus Putnam out on a reconnaissance mission from his camp at Harlem Heights. Putnam discovered the general placement of the British troop locations and recognized the danger to the army, when he reported this to Washington that evening, Washington immediately dispatched Putnam with orders to Lord Stirling, whose troops were furthest north, to immediately march to White Plains. They arrived at White Plains at 9 am on October 21, Washington decided to withdraw most of the army to White Plains, leaving a garrison of 1,200 men under Nathanael Greene to defend Fort Washington on Manhattan. General Howes army advanced slowly, with troops from his center and right moving along the road from New Rochelle to White Plains, while a unit of Loyalists occupied Mamaroneck. The latter was attacked that night by a detachment of Lord Stirlings troops under John Haslet, who more than thirty prisoners as well as supplies. As a result, Howe moved elements of his wing to occupy Mamaroneck. On October 22, Howe was reinforced by the landing at New Rochelle of an additional 8,000 troops under the command of Wilhelm von Knyphausen. Washington established his headquarters at the Elijah Miller House in North White Plains on October 23, the trenches were situated on raised terrain, protected on the right by the swampy ground near the Bronx River, with steeper hills further back as a place of retreat. The American defenses were 3 miles long, beyond that, on the right, was Chattertons Hill, which commanded the plain over which the British would have to advance. The hill was occupied by militia companies numbering several hundred. On October 24 and 25, Howes army moved from New Rochelle to Scarsdale and this move was apparently made in the hopes of catching Charles Lees column, which had to alter its route toward White Plains and execute a forced march at night to avoid them. While Washington was inspecting the terrain to determine where it was best to station his troops, messengers alerted him that the British were advancing. Spencers force advanced to a position on the old York road at Harts corners, Ralls troops attempted to gain the hill, but were repelled by fire from Haslets troops and the militia, and retreated to a nearby hilltop on the same side of the river
9.
Battle of Fort Washington
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The Battle of Fort Washington was a battle fought in New York on November 16,1776 during the American Revolutionary War between the United States and Great Britain. It was a British victory that gained the surrender of the remnant of the garrison of Fort Washington near the end of Manhattan Island. It was one of the worst Patriot defeats, General Washington issued a discretionary order to General Nathanael Greene to abandon the fort and remove its garrison – then numbered at 1,200 men but later to grow to 3,000 – to New Jersey. Colonel Robert Magaw, commanding the fort, declined to abandon it as he believed it could be defended from the British, howes forces attacked the fort before Washington reached it to assess the situation. Howe launched his attack on November 16 and he led an assault from three sides, the north, east and south. Tides in the Harlem River prevented some troops from landing and delayed the attack, when the British moved against the defenses, the southern and western American defenses fell quickly. Patriot forces on the north side offered stiff resistance to the Hessian attack, with the fort surrounded by land and sea, Colonel Magaw chose to surrender. A total of 59 Americans were killed and 2,837 were taken as prisoners of war, after this defeat, most of Washingtons army was chased across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania, and the British consolidated their control of New York and eastern New Jersey. During the American Revolutionary War, Fort Washington was located at the highest point of the island of Manhattan, along with Fort Lee, located just across the Hudson River atop the New Jersey Palisades, the twin forts were intended to protect the lower Hudson from British warships. Later in June, the Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, George Washington, inspected the location, shortly after Washingtons survey, troops from Pennsylvania began construction on the fort under the supervision of Rufus Putnam. They first prepared a cheval de frise to prevent British ships from sailing up the Hudson, when the cheval de frise was finished, they began work on the fort. Little soil covered the surface, so men had to haul soil up from the low ground. They were unable to dig the ditches or trenches around the fort. The fort was built in the shape of a pentagon with five bastions, the main walls were made of earth, constructed with ravelins with openings for guns from every angle. The fort enclosed a total of three to four acres, the troops built an abbattis around the fort. After the barracks were finished in September, all the troops in the area were placed under the command of Major General William Heath, Washington established his headquarters near the fort. Supporting the fort were numerous defenses, to the south of the fort were three lines of defense. The lines went through the hills and were made of trenches and foxholes, the first line was supported by a second line about 0.33 mi to the north, and a third line was planned to be built 0.25 mi north of the second
10.
Fort Lee Historic Park
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Fort Lee Historic Park is located atop a bluff of the Hudson Palisades overlooking Burdetts Landing, known as Mount Constitution, in Fort Lee, New Jersey. Native Americans appear to have lived in the area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, site of George Washingtons 1776 encampment opposite Fort Washington at the northern end of Manhattan. Fort Lee is named for General Charles Lee, the site is a reconstruction of the encampment including the blockhouse, battery, quarters as well as a visitors center. It is adjacent to Palisades Interstate Park, General George Washington issued orders to General Mercer to summon all available troops and erect a fort on the west side of the Hudson River. Construction commenced in July 1776 on the new fort, to be called Fort Constitution and it was located on the western side of the road that led up the hill from the landing. Concurrently, Fort Washington was being built almost directly across the North River in New York, chevaux-de-frise, south of the Hudson River Chain, were laid between them. These twin forts were intended to protect the lower Hudson from British warships, at first efforts were concentrated close to the water level near Burdetts Landing. Later, fortifications were added atop the bluff under the supervision of Joseph Philips, at the end of September 1776, Fort Constitution was renamed Fort Lee, for General Charles Lee of the Continental Army. George Washington used the stone Bourdette house for his headquarters when he passed time at Fort Lee, at this stage of the war the ferry operated as a supply line and the only link between Forts Lee and Washington. Peter Bourdettes sixteen-year-old son, also named Peter, provided assistance by direct use of the landing, during the week leading up to the evacuation of Fort Lee he rowed back and forth across the river gathering information for General Washington on the anticipated movements of the British forces. On November 16,1776 George Washington witnessed the battle for New York from across the river on the bluff of Fort Lee, Fort Lee was rendered defenseless after Continental Army troops holding Fort Washington were defeated and captured on November 16,1776. The Royal Navy controlled the Hudson River, General William Howe ordered Charles Cornwallis to clear the rebel troops from New Jersey without a major engagement, and to do it quickly before the weather changed. The force included Hessian units commanded by Colonel Carl von Donop, the invasion of New Jersey began the night of November 19–20, when 5,000 British troops ferried across the Hudson on barges and began landing near New Dock Landing. George Washington and Nathanael Greene quickly ordered the evacuation of the fort on the morning of November 20,1776, Fort Lee Museum is located in Monument Park. Which was created by the Daughters of the American Revolution and dedicated in 1908 at ceremony attended by General John Black Jack Pershing, the park was part of the original Fort Constitution of the Continental Army under the leadership of General George Washington. Over 2,600 troops were stationed in and around the Monument Park area, in 2004, the park was reconstructed for the Fort Lee Centennial Celebration. A time capsule was placed at the foot of the monument, Monument Park and Continental Army Plaza in Williamsburg, Brooklyn are the only parks in the United States dedicated to the soldiers of the American Revolution. New Jersey during the American Revolution Battle of Fort Washington Hudson River Chain New Bridge Landing Palisades Interstate Park Adams, Cornwallis and the Conquest of New Jersey
11.
Battle of Iron Works Hill
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The Battle of Iron Works Hill, also known as the Battle of Mount Holly, was a series of minor skirmishes that took place on December 22 and 23,1776, during the American War of Independence. In July 1776 forces of Great Britain under the command of General William Howe landed on Staten Island, General Howe established a chain of outposts across New Jersey, and ordered his troops into winter quarters. The southernmost outposts were located at Trenton and Bordentown, Bordentown itself was not large enough to house all of von Donops force. Rall went so far as to order his men to fully dressed like on watch. One militia force that rose in December 1776 was a company under the command of Virginia Colonel Samuel Griffin, Griffin was the adjutant to General Israel Putnam, who was responsible for the defense of Philadelphia. Griffins force, whose composition is uncertain, probably included some Virginia artillerymen, Pennsylvania infantry, and New Jersey militia. By mid-December he had reached Moorestown, about ten miles southwest of Mount Holly, by December 21, Griffin had advanced to Mount Holly and established a rough fortification atop a hill near an iron works, south of the Rancocas Creek and the village center. Von Donop sent a Loyalist to investigate, who reported a force of not above eight hundred, nearly one half boys, when von Donop asked Stirling for advice, he replied, You sir, with the troops at Bordentown, should come here and attack. I am confident we are a match for them, on December 21, about 600 of Griffins troops overwhelmed a guard outpost of the 42nd located about one mile south of Blackhorse at Petticoat Bridge. On the evening of December 22, Washingtons adjutant, Joseph Reed, went to Mount Holly, Griffin was ill, and his men poorly equipped for significant action, but they apparently agreed to some sort of actions the next day. On the morning of December 23, von Donop brought about 3,000 troops to Petticoat Bridge where they overwhelmed Griffins men, Griffins troops retreated to Mount Holly where von Donop reported scattering about 1,000 men near the towns meeting house. Jäger Captain Johann Ewald reported that some 100 men were posted on a hill near the church, Griffin, whose troops had occupied Mount Holly, slowly retreated to their fortified position on the hill, following which the two sides engaged in ineffectual long-range fire. Von Donops forces bivouacked in Mount Holly on the night of December 23, von Donop himself took quarters in the house that Ewald described as belonging to an exceedingly beautiful widow of a doctor, whose identity is uncertain. The next day, December 24, they moved in force to drive the militia from the hill, news of the skirmishes at Mount Holly was often exaggerated. Published accounts of the day varied, including participants in the battle. One Pennsylvanian claimed that sixteen of the enemy were killed, while a New Jersey militiaman reported seven enemy killed, Reed noted in his journal that this manouver, though perfectly accidental, had a happy effect as it drew off Count Donop. The planning for Washingtons crossing of the Delaware did include sending a force to Griffin in an attack on von Donop at Mount Holly. The hill that Griffins militia occupied is located at Iron Works Park in Mount Holly, a Guide to New Jerseys Revolutionary War Trail, For Families and History Buffs
12.
Battle of Trenton
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The Battle of Trenton was a small but pivotal battle during the American Revolutionary War which took place on the morning of December 26,1776, in Trenton, New Jersey. After a brief battle, nearly the entire Hessian force was captured, the battle significantly boosted the Continental Armys flagging morale, and inspired re-enlistments. The Continental Army had previously suffered several defeats in New York and had forced to retreat through New Jersey to Pennsylvania. Because the river was icy and the severe, the crossing proved dangerous. Two detachments were unable to cross the river, leaving Washington with only 2,400 men under his command in the assault, the army marched 9 miles south to Trenton. The Hessians had lowered their guard, thinking they were safe from the American army, Washingtons forces caught them off guard and, after a short but fierce resistance, most of the Hessians surrendered. Almost two thirds of the 1, 500-man garrison was captured, and only a few troops escaped across Assunpink Creek, despite the battles small numbers, the American victory inspired rebels in the colonies. With the success of the revolution in doubt a week earlier, the dramatic victory inspired soldiers to serve longer and attracted new recruits to the ranks. In early December 1776, American morale was very low, the Americans had been ousted from New York by the British and their Hessian auxiliaries, and the Continental Army was forced to retreat across New Jersey. Ninety percent of the Continental Army soldiers who had served at Long Island were gone, men had deserted, feeling that the cause for independence was lost. Washington, Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, expressed doubts, writing to his cousin in Virginia. At the time a town in New Jersey, Trenton was occupied by three regiments of Hessian soldiers commanded by Colonel Johann Rall. Washingtons force comprised 2,400 men, with divisions commanded by Major Generals Nathanael Greene and John Sullivan. Washington had stationed a spy named John Honeyman, posing as a Tory, Honeyman had served with Major General James Wolfe in Quebec at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham on September 13,1759, and had no trouble establishing his credentials as a Tory. Honeyman was a butcher and weaver, who traded with the British and this enabled him to gather intelligence, and also to convince the Hessians that the Continental Army was in such a low state of morale that they would not attack Trenton. Shortly before Christmas, he arranged to be captured by the Continental Army, after being questioned by Washington, he was imprisoned in a small hut, to be tried as a Tory in the morning, but a small fire broke out nearby, enabling him to escape. The American plan relied on launching coordinated attacks from three directions, General John Cadwalader would launch a diversionary attack against the British garrison at Bordentown, New Jersey, to block off reinforcements from the south. General James Ewing would take 700 militia across the river at Trenton Ferry, seize the bridge over the Assunpink Creek and prevent enemy troops from escaping
13.
Forage War
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The British troops wanted to have fresh provisions to consume, and also required fresh forage for their draft animals and horses. While many of these operations were small, in some cases they became quite elaborate, the American operations were so successful that British casualties in New Jersey exceeded those of the entire campaign for New York. In August 1776 the British army began a campaign to control over New York City. Over the next two months, General William Howe quickly gained control of New York, pushing Washington into New Jersey and he then chased Washington south toward Philadelphia. Washington retreated across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, taking him all the boats for miles in each direction. Howe then ordered his army into winter quarters, establishing a chain of outposts across New Jersey, from the Hudson River through New Brunswick to Trenton and Bordentown on the Delaware River. The occupation of New Jersey by British and German troops caused friction with the local communities, on the night of December 25–26,1776, Washington crossed the Delaware and surprised the Trenton outpost the following morning. Over the next two weeks, he went on to win two further battles at Assunpink Creek and Battle of Princeton, leading the British to retreat to northern New Jersey. General Washington established his headquarters at Morristown, separated from the coast by the Watchung Mountains, over the course of January and February, Washingtons Continental Army shrank to about 2,500 regulars after Washingtons incentives for many men to overstay their enlistment periods ran out. A large number of militia from New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania bolstered these forces, the British army was initially deployed from posts as far north as Hackensack to New Brunswick. The garrison, numbering about 10,000, was concentrated between New Brunswick and Amboy, with a sizable contingent farther north, from Elizabethtown to Paulus Hook, militia pressure in January led General Cornwallis to withdraw most of the northern troops to the shores of the Hudson. The area had been heavily plundered during the American retreat in the fall, the men subsisted largely on rations such as salt pork, but their draft animals required fresh fodder, for which they sent out raiding expeditions. Early in the winter, Washington sent out detachments of troops to remove any remaining provisions. General Cornwallis sent out small foraging and raiding parties in January and these were met by larger formations of American militia companies, sometimes with Continental Army support, that led on occasion to significant casualties. In one early example, Brigadier General Philemon Dickinson mustered 450 militia, Washington gave his commanders wide latitude in how to act, issuing commands that they were to be constantly harassing the enemy, and that they should be aggressive in their tactics. These early successes depended in part on successful intelligence, one British commander reported being met with force notwithstanding the Orders were given and their difficulties led British commanders to change tactics, attempting to lure these militia units into traps involving larger numbers of British regulars. In one encounter in late February, British Colonel Charles Mawhood, thinking he had flanked a party of New Jersey militia, as they were driven back toward Amboy, more and more Americans appeared, ultimately inflicting about 100 casualties. The elite grenadiers of the 42nd Foot, part of Mawhoods vanguard, were badly mauled in the encounter, a British force of 2,000 was repulsed by Maxwell in another well-organized attack a few weeks later
14.
Battle of Bound Brook
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The Battle of Bound Brook was a surprise attack conducted by British and Hessian forces against a Continental Army outpost at Bound Brook, New Jersey during the American Revolutionary War. The British objective of capturing the garrison was not met. The American commander, Major General Benjamin Lincoln, left in haste, abandoning papers. Late on the evening of April 12,1777, four thousand British, all but one detachment reached positions surrounding the outpost before the battle began near daybreak the next morning. During the battle, most of the 500-man garrison escaped by the unblocked route, American reinforcements arrived in the afternoon, but not before the British plundered the outpost and began the return march to New Brunswick. One of the bases used for these operations was at Bound Brook, located on the Raritan River upriver from New Brunswick. The post was responsible for patrolling three bridges across the Raritan likely to be used by the British in moves against the camp at Morristown. In February 1777, the Bound Brook outpost consisted of 1,000 men under the command of Major General Benjamin Lincoln, on the night of April 12, the plan was put into action. Under the overall command of Cornwallis,4,000 British, the right flank, under the command of Major General James Grant, consisted of the Hessian jäger corps, grenadiers from the English Brigade of Guards, and a detachment of British light dragoons. Ewald and a few of his jägers were in the vanguard of Grants column, unaware that this was supposed to be a feint, Ewald drove the sentries back nearly to the main redoubt where the outposts cannons were located. By sunrise he was surrounded, the timely arrival of von Donops column just over the river. The surprise was nearly complete, the Pennsylvania artillery company. Colonel von Donop reported that General Lincoln must have retired en Profond Négligé, the British plan was marred by the early skirmishing involving Ewald, and the too-late arrival of the companies sent to cut off the road to Morristown, Many Americans escaped via this route. The British captured also cannons, ammunition, and supplies, and looted Bound Brook, the Continental Army response was immediate, Washington sent a large force under Major General Nathanael Greene to reoccupy Bound Brook. The British had already left by the time arrived, Greene sent a detachment to harass their rear guard. This detachment caught up with the British near Raritan Landing, where they killed 8, General Howe reported that about 30 Americans were killed and 80 to 90 were captured, while General Lincoln reported that 60 of his men were killed or wounded. Howe claimed no deaths and seven wounded among the British and Hessians, Washington reported that he enemy lost the post at Eleven OClock the same day, & our people took possession of it again, and that the armys losses were trifling and not worth mentioning. He did, however, also report that between 35 and 40 killed or captured, and the loss of three field cannons, in a report to the Board of War, Washington admitted the capture of two cannons, two officers and 20 men from Colonel Proctors Regiment
15.
Battle of Short Hills
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The Battle of Short Hills was a conflict between a Continental Army force commanded by Brigadier General William Alexander, and an opposing British force commanded by Lieutenant General William Howe. The battle took place on June 26,1777, at Scotch Plains and Metuchen, New Jersey, despite the name, no fighting occurred in modern-day Short Hills, a section of Millburn. When Washington refused to abandon his position Howe returned to Amboy on June 22, Washingtons forward divisions, including that of Lord Stirling, shadowed this British movement, and Washington moved his main army out of the hills. Howe seized this opportunity, and on June 26 marched two columns of troops out in an attempt to cut Washington off from the high ground and these troops skirmished with Lord Stirlings troops, and eventually engaged in a pitched battle in Scotch Plains. Stirlings outnumbered force retreated, but Washington, alerted to the British movement, had by then retreated back into the hills, in March 1776 the British forces of Lieutenant General William Howe withdrew from Boston after Major General George Washington fortified high ground threatening the city and its harbor. With this army augmented by reinforcements from Europe, General Howe captured New York City, at the end of 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River and surprised German troops at Trenton, New Jersey, and eventually regained control of most of the state. The two armies settled into winter quarters, and engaged in a war of skirmishes during the winter months. General Howe spent the winter planning a campaign to capture the seat of the rebel Congress, historians who mention this battle only occasionally give it a name. It is often called Short Hills, even though the battle took place primarily in present-day Edison and Scotch Plains, historians also give the battle other names, David Martin calls it Flat Hills or Metuchen Meeting House, one British regimental history refers to it by Westfield. On June 9, Howe began moving troops from Staten Island to Perth Amboy, on June 11, almost his entire army moved up the roads along the Raritan River to New Brunswick. On June 14, Howes army marched again, its destination Somerset Court House, apparently seeking to draw Washington into battle on open terrain, Howe remained there five days. Washington refused to out of the hills, and on June 19, Howe began the march back to Perth Amboy. Stirlings command, numbering about 2,500, comprised William Maxwells New Jersey brigade, Thomas Conways Pennsylvania brigade, Daniel Morgans Corps of Riflemen and Ottendorfs Corps. Maxwells brigade consisted of the 1st through 4th New Jersey Continentals and Oliver Spencers Additional Regiment, while Conways consisted of the 3rd, 6th, 9th, at 1,00 am on the morning on June 26 Howe marched two columns of troops out of Perth Amboy. The second column was under the command of Major General John Vaughan and it consisted of jäger companies from Hesse-Kassel and Ansbach-Bayreuth, and battalions of British light infantry and grenadiers. The column of General Cornwallis marched for Woodbridge, while Vaughans marched toward Bonhamton, the retreating Americans lead both of the armies into the Ash Swamp and Scotch Plains areas, where Stirling prepared a defensive position. Severe cannon fire and strength of British numbers forced Stirling, as determined as he was to stand against them, to even further back. There the British, suffering under the heat of the day, ended the pursuit
16.
Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777)
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The 1777 Siege of Fort Ticonderoga occurred between 2 and 6 July 1777 at Fort Ticonderoga, near the southern end of Lake Champlain in the state of New York. Lieutenant General John Burgoynes 8, 000-man army occupied high ground above the fort and these movements precipitated the occupying Continental Army, an under-strength force of 3,000 under the command of General Arthur St. Clair, to withdraw from Ticonderoga and the surrounding defences. Some gunfire was exchanged, and there were casualties, but there was no formal siege. Burgoynes army occupied Fort Ticonderoga and Mount Independence, the fortifications on the Vermont side of the lake. Advance units pursued the retreating Americans, General St. Clair and his superior, General Philip Schuyler, were vilified by Congress. Both were eventually exonerated in courts martial, but their careers were adversely affected, Schuyler had already lost his command to Horatio Gates by the time of the court martial, and St. Clair held no more field commands for the remainder of the war. In September 1775, early in the American Revolutionary War, the American Continental Army embarked on an invasion of Quebec, the invasion ended in disaster in July 1776, with the army chased back to Fort Ticonderoga by a large British army that arrived in Quebec in May 1776. A small Continental Navy fleet on Lake Champlain was defeated in the October 1776 Battle of Valcour Island, the delay required by the British to build their fleet on Lake Champlain caused General Guy Carleton to hold off on attempting an assault on Ticonderoga in 1776. His British Army troops consisted of the 9th, 20th, 21st, 24th, 47th, 53rd and 62nd regiments, the light infantry and flank companies formed the armys advance force, and were commanded by Brigadier General Simon Fraser. The remaining regulars, under the leadership of Major General William Phillips, formed the wing of the army. His forces consisted of the Rhetz, Riedesel, Specht, Barner, most of these forces had arrived in 1776, and many participated in the campaign that drove the American army out of Quebec. The total size of Burgoynes regular army was about 7,000, in addition to the regulars, there were about 800 Indians, and a relatively small number of Canadiens and Loyalists, who acted primarily as scouts and screening reconnaissance. The army was accompanied by more than 1,000 civilians, including a pregnant woman. Including these non-military personnel, the number of people in Burgoynes army was more than 10,000. Burgoyne and General Carlton recited the troops at Fort Saint-Jean, near the end of Lake Champlain. By 21 June, the carrying the army was on the lake. While en route, Burgoyne authored a proclamation to the Americans, written in the turgid, pompous style for which he was well-known, American forces had occupied the forts at Ticonderoga and Crown Point since they captured them in May 1775 from a small garrison. In 1776 and 1777, they undertook significant efforts to improve the defenses surrounding Ticonderoga, a peninsula on the east side of the lake, renamed Mount Independence, was heavily fortified
17.
Battle of Hubbardton
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The Battle of Hubbardton was an engagement in the Saratoga campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought in the village of Hubbardton, Vermont. On the morning of July 7,1777, British forces, under General Simon Fraser and it was the only battle in Vermont during the revolution. The American retreat from Fort Ticonderoga began late on July 5 after British cannons were seen on top of high ground, Mount Defiance that commanded the fort. The bulk of General Arthur St. Clairs army retreated through Hubbardton to Castleton, while the guard, commanded by Seth Warner, stopped at Hubbardton to rest. General Fraser, alerted to the American withdrawal early on July 6, immediately set out in pursuit and that night Fraser camped a few miles short of Hubbardton, and the German General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel, leading reinforcements, camped a few miles further back. Rising early in the morning, Fraser reached Hubbardton, where he surprised some elements of the American rear, the battle took a large enough toll on the British forces that they did not further pursue the main American army. The many American prisoners were sent to Ticonderoga while most of the British troops made their way to Skenesboro to rejoin Burgoynes army, most of the scattered American remnants made their way to rejoin St. Clairs army on its way toward the Hudson River. General John Burgoyne began his 1777 campaign for control of the Hudson River valley by moving an army of 8,000 down Lake Champlain in late June, arriving near Fort Ticonderoga on July 1. On July 5, General Arthur St. Clairs American forces defending Fort Ticonderoga and they evacuated the fort that night, with the majority of the army marching down a rough road toward Hubbardton in the disputed New Hampshire Grants territory. The day was hot and sunny, and the pace was rapid and grueling, the British general, a Scotsman named Simon Fraser discovered early on July 6 that the Americans had abandoned Ticonderoga. Leaving a message for General Burgoyne, he set out in pursuit with companies of grenadiers and light infantry, as well as two companies of the 24th Regiment and about 100 Loyalists and Indian scouts. Burgoyne ordered Riedesel to follow, he set out with a few companies of Brunswick jägers and grenadiers, Frasers advance corps was only a few miles behind Colonel Ebenezer Francis 11th Massachusetts Regiment, which acted as St. Clairs rear guard. American general St. Clair paused at Hubbardton to give the main armys tired, when Francis and Hales men arrived, Warner decided, against St. Clairs orders, that they would spend the night there, rather than marching on to Castleton. Baron Riedesel caught up with Fraser around 4 pm, and insisted that his men could not go further before making camp. Fraser, who acquiesced to this as Riedesel was senior to him in the chain of command, pointed out that he was authorized to engage the enemy and he then advanced until he found a site about three miles from Hubbardton, where his troops camped for the night. Riedesel waited for the bulk of his men, about 1,500 strong, Frasers men were up at 3 am, but did not make good time due to the darkness. St. Clairs instructions were to him immediately to Rutland. Francis men had formed a column to march out around 7,15 when the British vanguard began cresting the hill behind them, rapidly reforming into a line behind some cover, the Massachusetts men unleashed a withering volley of fire at the winded British
18.
Siege of Fort Stanwix
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The Siege of Fort Stanwix began on August 2,1777, and ended August 22. The fort was occupied by Continental Army forces from New York, St. Legers expedition was a diversion in support of General John Burgoynes campaign to gain control of the Hudson River Valley to the east. One attempt at relief was thwarted early in the siege when a force of New York militia under Nicholas Herkimer was stopped in the August 6 Battle of Oriskany by a detachment of St. Legers forces. While that battle did not involve the forts garrison, some of its occupants sortied and raided the nearly empty Indian and Loyalist camps, which was a blow to the morale of St. Legers Indian support. This misinformation, combined with the departure of Indian fighters not interested in siege warfare and upset over their losses from the raids, led St. Leger to abandon the effort and retreat. St. Legers failure to advance on Albany contributed to Burgoynes surrender following the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777, although St. Leger reached Fort Ticonderoga in late September, he was too late to aid Burgoyne. The first official US flag was flown during battle on August 3,1777, there was a delay in displaying this flag. The resolution was not signed by the secretary of the Congress until September 3, Massachusetts reinforcements to Fort Schuyler brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag. Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes, scarlet material was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers wives, a voucher shows that Congress paid Capt. Swartwout for his coat for the flag. Built by the British in 1758 during the French and Indian War on the dry ground in the area. When the American Revolutionary War widened in 1776 to include the areas between New York and the Province of Quebec, the site again became strategically important. In March 1777 Germain issued orders assigning the expedition to Lieutenant Colonel Barry St. Leger, arriving in May, they immediately began working on the forts defenses. Although they officially renamed the fort to Fort Schuyler, it was widely known by its original name. Warnings from the friendly Oneida Indians that the British were planning an expedition to the Mohawk Valley were confirmed by mid-July, in early July, Gansevoort reported on the state of affairs to Schuyler, noting that provisions and ammunition were in short supply. Schuyler ordered additional supplies sent to the fort on July 8 and his artillery consisted of two six-pound pieces, two 3-pounders, and four small mortars. He expected these to be adequate for the taking of a fort with about 60 defenders. St. Leger first learned that the Americans had occupied Stanwix in force when prisoners captured from its garrison were brought to him on the St. Lawrence and he learned from the prisoners that Fort Stanwix had been repaired and was garrisoned by upwards of 600 men. And the rebels are expecting us, and are acquainted with our strength, daniel Claus, the Indian agent accompanying the expedition, convinced St. Leger to go to Oswego, where a body of Indians could be recruited
19.
Battle of Bennington
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Baums detachment was a mixed force of 700 composed primarily of Hessians but also including small amounts of dismounted Brunswick dragoons, Canadians, Loyalists, and Indians. He was sent by Burgoyne to raid Bennington in the disputed New Hampshire Grants area for horses, draft animals, provisions, believing the town to be only lightly defended, Burgoyne and Baum were unaware that Stark and 1,500 militiamen were stationed there. After a rain-caused standoff, Starks men enveloped Baums position, taking many prisoners, reinforcements for both sides arrived as Stark and his men were mopping up, and the battle restarted, with Warner and Stark driving away Breymanns reinforcements with heavy casualties. The victory galvanized colonial support for the movement, and played a key role in bringing France into the war on the rebel side. The battles anniversary is celebrated in the state of Vermont as Bennington Battle Day, with the American Revolutionary War two years old, the British changed their plans. Giving up on the rebellious New England colonies, they decided to split the Thirteen Colonies, the British command devised a grand plan to divide the colonies via a three-way pincer movement. The western pincer, under the command of Barry St, the northern pincer, proceeding southward from Montreal, enjoyed the most success. Burgoynes progress towards Albany had initially met some success, including the scattering of Seth Warners men in the Battle of Hubbardton. However, his advance had slowed to a crawl by late July, due to difficulties, exacerbated by the American destruction of a key road. Burgoynes concern over supplies was magnified in early August when he received word from Howe that he was going to Philadelphia, Baums detachment was primarily made up of dismounted Brunswick dragoons of the Prinz Ludwig regiment. Along the way it was joined by companies of Loyalists, some Canadians and about 100 Indians. Baum was originally ordered to proceed to the Connecticut River valley where they believed horses could be procured for the dragoons, New Hampshire responded on July 18 by authorizing John Stark to raise a militia for the defense of the people or the annoyance of the enemy. Using funds provided by John Langdon, Stark raised 1,500 New Hampshire militiamen in the space of six days and they were first marched to the Fort at Number 4, then crossed the river border into the Grants and stopped at Manchester, where Stark conferred with Warner. Stark refused, stating that he was responsible to the New Hampshire authorities. Stark then went on to Bennington with Warner as a guide, Baums movements significantly altered these plans. Baums Germans left Burgoynes camp at Fort Edward on August 9 and marched to Fort Miller, where they waited until they were joined by the Indians, the company marched off toward Bennington on August 11. In minor skirmishes along the way they learned from prisoners taken that a force was in place at Bennington. On August 14 Baums men encountered a detachment of Starks men that had sent out to investigate reports of Indians in the area
20.
Battle of Staten Island
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The Battle of Staten Island was a raid by Continental Army troops under Major General John Sullivan against British forces on Staten Island on August 22,1777, during the American Revolutionary War. As a result, Sullivan did not take as many prisoners as expected, although Sullivan was accused of mismanaging the raid, a court martial held later in 1777 exonerated Sullivan of all charges. In March 1776 the British forces of General William Howe withdrew from Boston after Major General George Washington fortified high ground threatening the city, with this army augmented by reinforcements from Europe, General Howe captured New York City, forcing Washington to retreat all the way across New Jersey. At the end of 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River and surprised German troops at Trenton, New Jersey, the two armies then settled into winter quarters, although there was much skirmishing before the 1777 campaign got underway. General Washington, although he was notified promptly of the departure, was unaware of its destination. He heard on August 10 that the fleet appeared to be moving south of Philadelphia, possibly heading for Charleston, as a result, he prepared to move north to assist General Horatio Gates defend the Hudson River against Lieutenant General John Burgoynes march south from Quebec. On August 21 he was alerted that the fleet had been spotted one week earlier at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay, realizing the danger to Philadelphia, he immediately issued orders to move the entire army south with all speed. His orders to Major General John Sullivan, who commanded the front line defenses in eastern New Jersey, were to rejoin the army with all convenient speed. Sullivan, in the meantime, had learned that the departure of Howes army had left Staten Island vulnerable and his plan was to cross two groups onto the island from points in Elizabethtown, capture prisoners from the isolated militia outposts, and destroy supplies. They would then go to the Old Blazing Star Ferry to return to the mainland, Campbells men numbered about 900, and were stationed near the northeastern tip of the island. Skinners men, numbering about 400 according to Campbells report, were stationed at outposts along the shore between Dexters Ferry and Wards Point. General Sullivan, at his base in Hanover, New Jersey, sources do not describe the precise composition of the troops chosen, but most of them were drawn from Sullivans division, which consisted of the First and Second Maryland Brigades. These brigades comprised the regiments of the Maryland Line, additional troops chosen for the operation included companies from the 2nd Canadian Regiment, on the afternoon of August 21 two columns numbering about 1,000 in all left the camp. After reaching Elizabethtown late that evening, they rested for a few hours, one detachment, led by Colonel Matthias Ogden, crossed opposite Fresh Kills and rowed partway up the kill, in order to approach their target, the militia brigade of Elisha Lawrence, from its rear. The remaining troops crossed near Palmers run on the side of the island. Smallwood and Sullivan led most of their columns away to attack specific targets, Ogden attacked Lawrences outpost at dawn, surprising and routing the militia company. After a few minutes of battle he had taken 80 prisoners, dongans men put up stiff resistance, even though he was felled with a mortal wound. This prompted Ogden to retreat toward the Old Blazing Star, after waiting there as long as he thought prudent, Ogden crossed his men back to the mainland before Sullivan and Smallwood arrived
21.
Battle of Cooch's Bridge
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It was the only significant military action during the war on the soil of Delaware, and it took place about a week before the major Battle of Brandywine. Reportedly, the saw the first flying of the American flag. Their advance was monitored by an infantry corps of Continental Army and militia forces that had based itself at Coochs Bridge, near Newark. On September 3, German troops leading the British advance were met by fire from the American light infantry in the woods on either side of the road leading toward Coochs Bridge. Calling up reinforcements, they flushed the Americans out and drove them across the bridge, after having successfully captured New York City in 1776, British military planners organized two expeditions to divide the Thirteen Colonies and, they hoped, decisively end the rebellion. One expedition was to control of the Hudson River by a descent from Quebec, while the other was targeted at the colonial capital. In pursuit of the objective, Lieutenant General William Howe embarked an army numbering about 18,000 onto transports in late July 1777. The Continental Army of Major General George Washington remained near New York until Howes objective became clear, Howes plan was gauged to the south, intending to move against Philadelphia via the Chesapeake. Washington marched his army, numbering about 16,000, through Philadelphia, riding further south and west to perform reconnaissance on August 26, Washington learned that the British had landed. On August 25, Howes army disembarked below a small town called Head of Elk in Maryland, due to the relatively poor quality of the landing area, his troops moved immediately to the north, reaching Head of Elk itself on August 28. The bridge was named for Thomas Cooch, a landowner whose house was near the bridge. These troops occupied Iron Hill and Coochs Bridge, Maxwells men were encamped on either side of the road leading south from Coochs Bridge toward Aikens Tavern in a series of small camps designed to facilitate ambushes. Those of our officers who know Washington well, maintained that the man in the coat was Washington. On September 2, Howes right wing, under the command of the Hessian general, Wilhelm von Knyphausen, left Cecil County Court House and headed north, hampered by rain and bad roads. Early the next morning, Howes left wing, headed by troops under the command of Charles Cornwallis, left Head of Elk, expecting to join with Knyphausens division at Aikens Tavern, about 5 miles east. Cornwallis reached the tavern first, and Howe, traveling with Cornwallis, a small company of Hessian dragoons led by Captain Johann Ewald headed up the road from the tavern toward Coochs Bridge as Cornwalliss advance guard. These were struck by a volley of fire from an American ambush, Ewald did not, and he quickly alerted the Hessian and Ansbach jägers, who rushed forward to meet the Americans. This began a running skirmish that Major John André described as follows, Howe rode to the front lines, and seeing Iron Hill crawling with enemy soldiers, ordered his troops to clear it
22.
Battle of Brandywine
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The British Army defeated the American Army and forced them to withdraw toward the American capital of Philadelphia. The engagement occurred near Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania during Howes campaign to take Philadelphia, more troops fought at Brandywine than any other battle of the American Revolution. It was also the longest single-day battle of the war, with fighting for 11 hours. Howes army departed from Sandy Hook, New Jersey, on July 23,1777, marching north, the British Army brushed aside American light forces in a few skirmishes. Washington offered battle with his army posted behind Brandywine Creek, while part of his army demonstrated in front of Chadds Ford, Howe took the bulk of his troops on a long march that crossed the Brandywine beyond Washingtons right flank. Due to poor scouting, the Americans did not detect Howes column until it reached a position in rear of their right flank, belatedly, three divisions were shifted to block the British flanking force near a Quaker meeting house. After a stiff fight, Howes wing broke through the newly formed American right wing which was deployed on several hills, at this point Lieutenant General Wilhelm von Knyphausen attacked Chadds Ford and crumpled the American left wing. As Washingtons army streamed away in retreat, he brought up elements of Nathanael Greenes division which held off Howes column long enough for his army to escape to the northeast, polish General Casimir Pulaski defended Washingtons rear assisting in his escape. The defeat and subsequent maneuvers left Philadelphia vulnerable, the British captured the city on September 26, beginning an occupation that would last until June 1778. Unloading the ships proved to be a problem because the narrow river neck was shallow. General George Washington had situated the American forces, about 20, 300-strong and his forces were able to reconnoiter the British landing from Iron Hill near Newark, Delaware, about nine miles to the northeast. Because of the delay disembarking from the ships, Howe did not set up a typical camp, as a result, Washington was not able to accurately gauge the strength of the opposing forces. This site was important as it was the most direct passage across the Brandywine River on the road from Baltimore to Philadelphia, on September 9, Washington positioned detachments to guard other fords above and below Chadds Ford, hoping to force the battle there. Further upstream was a brigade under Colonel Moses Hazen covering Buffingtons Ford, Washington was confident that the area was secure. The British grouped forces at nearby Kennett Square, Howe, who had better information about the area than Washington, had no intention of mounting a full-scale frontal attack against the prepared American defenses. He instead employed a flanking maneuver, similar to that used in the Battle of Long Island, about 6,800 men under the command of Wilhelm von Knyphausen advanced to meet Washingtons troops at Chadds Ford. September 11 began with a fog, which provided cover for the British troops. Washington received contradictory reports about the British troop movements and continued to believe that the force was moving to attack at Chadds Ford
23.
Battle of the Clouds
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The Battle of the Clouds was an aborted engagement of the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War on September 16,1777, in the area surrounding present day Malvern, Pennsylvania. After the American defeat at the Battle of Brandywine, the British Army remained encamped near Chadds Ford, when British commander William Howe was informed that the weakened American force was less than ten miles away, he decided to press for another decisive victory. George Washington learned of Howes plans, and prepared for battle, before the two armies could fully engage, a torrential downpour ensued. Significantly outnumbered, and with tens of thousands of cartridges ruined by the rain, bogged down by rain and mud, the British allowed Washington and his army to withdraw. After Washingtons defeat at the Battle of Brandywine, he was intent on accomplishing two tasks and he wanted to protect Philadelphia from British forces under the command of Howe, and he needed to replenish the rapidly dwindling supplies and munitions which were stored in Reading, Pennsylvania. Washington withdrew across the Schuylkill River, marched through Philadelphia, since the Schuylkill was fordable only far upstream starting at Matsons Ford, Washington could protect both the capital and the vital supply areas to the west from behind the river barrier. Yet he reconsidered, and recrossed the river to face the British, the going was difficult because the weather had been rainy and windy, and the troops and wagons turned the roads into muddy quagmires. The next morning, Washingtons 10,000 man army was moving west through the Great Valley and he learned from his cavalry, led by General Pulaski, that the British were advancing on him from the south just a few miles away. The position was three miles long and was strong, especially in the center, Washington sent an advance force under General Anthony Wayne to slow the British progress. At about 2,00 pm, his men encountered the advance units of the Hessian column on one road. These forces began skirmishing, and the Americans very nearly captured Colonel Carl von Donop when he separated from his main column with a small company of jägers. The main British column, led by General Charles Cornwallis, met with Waynes Pennsylvania militia on another road at around 3,00, who gave way in a panicked retreat, suffering 10 killed or wounded. While this went on, Washington, who was trying to organize the line of battle, had a change of heart about the position and this withdrawal was just getting underway when it began pouring rain. Hessian jäger captain Johann Ewald described it as an extraordinary thunderstorm, the British army halted its advance, although General Wilhelm von Knyphausen ordered the jägers to engage the enemy. Ewald and his men rushed forward, swords drawn since their muskets were inoperable due to wet powder, Ewald reported losing 5 killed,7 wounded, and 3 captured in this action. The storm, which historian Thomas McGuire describes as a classic noreaster, the British were forced to construct a makeshift camp, and Washington managed to form a battle line, but a great deal of his ammunition was spoiled by the rain and poorly constructed cartridge boxes. Howes army found it impossible to follow Washington over the rutted. The decision was made to wait out the storm, then move toward their objective, Wayne was to be joined by militia, and together they were to strike at the enemy baggage train as the British advanced on Washingtons main army
24.
Battles of Saratoga
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The Battles of Saratoga marked the climax of the Saratoga campaign giving a decisive victory to the Americans over the British in the American Revolutionary War. Burgoyne fought two battles to break out. They took place eighteen days apart on the ground,9 miles south of Saratoga. Trapped by superior American forces, and with no relief in sight, Burgoyne retreated to Saratoga and his surrender, says historian Edmund Morgan, was a great turning point of the war because it won for Americans the foreign assistance which was the last element needed for victory. Burgoynes strategy to divide New England from the colonies had started well. He won a tactical victory over General Horatio Gates and the Continental Army in the September 19 Battle of Freemans Farm at the cost of significant casualties. His gains were erased when he attacked the Americans in the October 7 Battle of Bemis Heights. Burgoyne was therefore compelled to retreat, and his army was surrounded by the much larger American force at Saratoga and this battle also resulted in Spain joining France in the war against Britain. The first battle, on September 19, began when Burgoyne moved some of his troops in an attempt to flank the entrenched American position on Bemis Heights, Benedict Arnold, anticipating the maneuver, placed significant forces in his way. While Burgoyne did gain control of Freemans Farm, it came at the cost of significant casualties, skirmishing continued in the days following the battle, while Burgoyne waited in the hope that reinforcements would arrive from New York City. Militia forces continued to arrive, swelling the size of the American army, disputes within the American camp led Gates to strip Arnold of his command. Burgoyne attacked Bemis Heights again on October 7 after it became apparent he would not receive relieving aid in time, when the American Revolutionary War approached the two-year point, the British changed their plans. Giving up on the rebellious New England colonies, they decided to split the Thirteen Colonies and isolate New England from what the British believed to be the more loyal middle, the British command devised a grand plan to divide the colonies via a three-way pincer movement in 1777. The northern pincer was to proceed southward from Montreal, and the three forces were to meet in the vicinity of Albany, New York, severing New England from the other colonies. In June 1777 British General John Burgoyne, known as Gentleman Johnny for his manners, after his early capture of Fort Ticonderoga, his campaign had become bogged down in difficulties. Elements of the army had reached the upper Hudson as early as the end of July, one attempt to alleviate these difficulties failed when nearly 1,000 men were killed or captured at the August 16 Battle of Bennington. Furthermore, news reached Burgoyne on August 28 that St. Legers expedition down the Mohawk River valley had turned back after the failed Siege of Fort Stanwix. Faced with the need to reach defensible winter quarters, which would require either retreat back to Ticonderoga or advance to Albany, consequent to this decision he made two further crucial decisions
25.
Battle of Germantown
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The Battle of Germantown was a major engagement in the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War. Howe left a garrison of some 3,000 troops in Philadelphia, while moving the bulk of his force to Germantown, learning of the division, Washington determined to engage the British. His plan called for four columns to converge on the British position at Germantown. The ambition behind the plan was to surprise and destroy the British force, much in the way as Washington had surprised. In Germantown, Howe had his infantry and the 40th Foot spread across his front as pickets. In the main camp, Wilhelm von Knyphausen commanded the British left, a heavy fog caused a great deal of confusion among the approaching Americans. After a sharp contest, Sullivans column routed the British pickets, unseen in the fog, around 120 men of the British 40th Foot barricaded the Chew Mansion. When the American reserve moved forward, Washington made the decision to launch repeated assaults on the position. Penetrating several hundred yards beyond the mansion, Sullivans wing became dispirited, running low on ammunition, as they withdrew, Anthony Waynes division collided with part of Greenes late-arriving wing in the fog. Mistaking each other for the enemy, they opened fire, meanwhile, Greenes left-centre column threw back the British right. With Sullivans column repulsed, the British left outflanked Greenes column, the two militia columns had only succeeded in diverting the attention of the British, and had made no progress before they withdrew. Despite the defeat, France, already impressed by the American success at Saratoga, Howe did not vigorously pursue the defeated Americans, instead turning his attention to clearing the Delaware River of obstacles at Red Bank and Fort Mifflin. After unsuccessfully attempting to draw Washington into combat at White Marsh, Washington, his army intact, withdrew to Valley Forge, where he wintered and re-trained his forces. The Philadelphia campaign had begun badly for the Americans, the Continental Army had suffered a string of defeats at Brandywine, and at Paoli, leaving the city of Philadelphia defenceless. Charles Cornwallis subsequently seized Philadelphia for the British on September 26,1777, Howe left a garrison of 3,462 men to defend the city, moving the bulk of his force north, some 9,728 men, to the outlying community of Germantown. With the campaigning season drawing to a close, Howe determined to locate, Howe established his headquarters at the Stenton Mansion, the former country home of James Logan. Despite having suffered successive defeats, Washington saw an opportunity to entrap and he resolved to attack the Germantown garrison, as the last effort of the year before entering winter quarters. His plan called for a complex, ambitious assault, four columns of troops were to assail the British garrison from different directions, at night, Washingtons hope was that the British would be surprised and overwhelmed much how the Hessians were at Trenton
26.
Battle of Red Bank
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To that end, two forts were constructed commanding the river. One was Fort Mercer on the New Jersey side at the Red Bank Plantation in what was part of Deptford Township. The other was Fort Mifflin on Mud Island, in the Delaware River just south of the confluence of the Schuylkill River, so long as the Americans held both forts, British navy ships could not reach Philadelphia to resupply the army. On October 18, General Sir William Howe, the commander of the British Army, evacuated his camp at Germantown and he sent a part of his force to capture the two American forts denying him use of the Delaware River. Earlier, Howe had sent a group of men via Webbs Ferry, at the mouth of the Schuylkill River, the first bombardment of Fort Mifflin came on October 11. This was merely a desultory attack which convinced the British to expand, von Donop, whose attack had been repulsed at the Second Battle of Trenton, was eager to avenge what he considered to be a humiliation. He declared to his men, Either the fort will be called Fort Donop, von Donop divided his force into two groups totaling 1,200 men for a two-pronged attack upon the fort on the morning of October 22. With six British men-of-war in the river to support the attack, after a cannonade by the Hessian artillery, Linsing moved against the nine-foot-high southern parapet, and his men were cut down by devastating cannon and musket fire and were forced to retreat. On the north, Minnigerodes grenadiers managed to scale the ramparts of a section of the fort. But when they moved on they were confronted by a mass of felled trees with pointed branches. With little in the way of tools, they were soon spotted trying to claw their way through the barricade and were fired upon by the Americans waiting for them on the other side. Suffering heavy casualties, the Hessians began to retreat, falling back to their camp ten miles away in the village of Haddonfield which they had taken after landing at nearby Coopers Ferry. Von Donop was wounded in the thigh during the attack and was left on the battlefield by his retreating troops. Mortally wounded, von Donop died three days later in the Whitall House, a farmhouse just outside the works of the fort between the fort and Woodbury Creek. To make matters worse for the British and Hessians, the six British men-of-war were engaged by smaller American gunboats, overnight attempts to free the ships were unsuccessful. Fort Mifflin and the Pennsylvania Navy engaged the stranded ships the next morning, with cannons and fire ships, the Augusta caught fire and within an hour the fire reached the magazine and the ship exploded. The loss of the Augusta was attributed to accidental ignition by the British, soon after, the crew of Merlin was ordered to abandon the ship and destroy it also. The Hessian army reported casualties of 377 killed and wounded with 20 missing or captured, frustrated by the failure to capture Fort Mercer, Howe ordered the Hessian regiments withdrawn from New Jersey while he made plans to attack Fort Mifflin by a massive artillery bombardment
27.
Battle of White Marsh
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The battle, which took the form of a series of skirmish actions, was the last major engagement of 1777 between British and American forces. From here, Washington monitored British troop movements in Philadelphia and evaluated his options, after a series of skirmishes, Howe called off the attack and returned to Philadelphia without engaging Washington in a decisive conflict. With the British back in Philadelphia, Washington was able to march his troops to winter quarters at Valley Forge. They then marched east on Skippack Pike, turned left on Forty-Foot Road, and marched to Sumneytown Pike, while there, Brig. Gen. Francis Nash died of wounds incurred at Germantown and was buried in the Mennonite Meeting Cemetery. Washington remained at Towamencin for one week, gathering supplies and waiting to see if Howe would move against him, on October 16, Washington moved his forces to Methacton Hill in Worcester Township. After learning of Howes withdrawal from Germantown to Philadelphia, Washington moved his army to Whitpain,5 miles closer to Philadelphia, on October 20. On October 29, Washingtons army numbered 8,313 Continentals and 2,717 militia, although the terms of enlistment of many soldiers from Maryland and Virginia were due to expire. With his ranks reinforced, Washington dispatched a brigade to assist with the defense of Forts Mifflin and Mercer, on November 2, at the recommendation of his council of war, Washington marched his forces to White Marsh, approximately 13 miles northwest of Philadelphia. At White Marsh, the army began to build redoubts and defensive works, after the surrender of British Lt. Gen. Maj. Gen. Horatio Gates sent Col. Daniel Morgans rifle corps, and the brigades of Paterson and Glover. With these additional forces, and the onset of winter. A quarter of the troops were barefooted, and there were very few blankets or warm clothing, Washington became so desperate that he even offered a reward of $10 to the person who could supply the best substitute for shoes, made of raw hides. Morale was so low and desertion so common that Washington offered a pardon on October 24 to all deserters who returned by January 1, Washingtons loss of Philadelphia and inactivity brought criticism from Congress, who pressured him to attack the city. He therefore called a council of war on November 24 which voted against an attack 11 to 4, nonetheless, Washington rode out the next day to view the British defenses, which turned to be stronger than he had expected. On October 19, Howe withdrew the British forces from Germantown, Howe took advantage of his time in Philadelphia to raise additional forces from the loyalist population in the region. Newly-promoted Maj. John Graves Simcoe reinforced his unit, the Queens Rangers, William Allen, Jr. the son of notable loyalist William Allen, raised the 1st Battalion of Pennsylvania Loyalists, and was made its lieutenant colonel. Loyalist James Chalmers raised the 1st Battalion of Maryland Loyalists, and was given its command, recruitment also took place among the citys Irish Catholic population, with the formation of the Irish Catholic Volunteers, and in the counties immediately surrounding Philadelphia. The weeks with two major armies sitting within miles of each other were not without conflict, and a petite guerre ensued in the no mans land between White Marsh and Northern Liberties. Minor skirmishes between light troops increased in intensity throughout November, with almost daily losses being incurred by both the British and the Americans, eleven houses in all were burned to the ground, and residents of Philadelphia climbed onto rooftops and church steeples to watch the spectacle
28.
Battle of Barren Hill
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The Battle of Barren Hill was a minor engagement during the American Revolution. On May 20,1778, a British force attempted to encircle a smaller Continental force under the Marquis de Lafayette, the maneuver failed, with the Continentals escaping the trap, but the British took the field. On May 18, Lafayette left the Valley Forge camp with 2,100 troops, after crossing the Schuylkill River and turning south, he took up position at Barren Hill, which was close to Matsons Ford. A brigade and the guns were posted on the ground, near a church. Another posting was at the Ridge Road to the south, the British quickly discovered that the American force was nearby and decided to attack and seek its destruction. On May 19, around 10,30 p. m, maj. Gen. James Grant and a 5, 000-man British force, including 15 guns, was sent toward Barren Hill. The plan was to take a route leading to the junction of White Marsh Road. This would cut off any avenue of retreat for the Americans, a body of 2,000 grenadiers and dragoons would then move along Lafayettes left flank while another group would move into position on the American right. The plan would result in the American position being encircled from 3 positions, the British force was to wait until morning to attack and destroy or capture the entire American force. On May 20, the British launched their attack, the militia scattered at the sight of the British troops, not offering any resistance and failing to notify Lafayette of the attack. On Ridge Road, the American group learned of the British attack, a small group was sent to fight a delaying action against the British while their commander sent word to Lafayette about the developments. After Lafayette learned of the attack, another patriot came up, Lafayette knew of another small road that led back to Matsons Ford that would bypass the British force. It ran along some low ground that would conceal the Americans from the British, the British did not know about this road. Lafayette ordered his men to retreat down this road while ordering a rear guard to delay the British at the church, a few small patrols were sent to engage the British, skirmishing including the Oneida, making them think that the American force intended to stay and fight. Lafayette calmed his retreating force and slipped away with few casualties. The British, having failed to bag Lafayette, resumed their retreat from Philadelphia to New York, washingtons army shadowed Clinton on his withdrawal and forced a battle at Monmouth on June 28,1778, the last major battle in the North. Historians have questioned the decision of Washington for dispatching a force under the command of such a young general in the vicinity of the British Army. d. C
29.
Battle of Monmouth
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The Battle of Monmouth was an American Revolutionary War battle fought on June 28,1778 in Monmouth County, New Jersey. The Continental Army under General George Washington attacked the rear of the British Army column commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton as they left Monmouth Court House and it is also known as the Battle of Monmouth Courthouse. Sensing the opportunity to smash the Continentals, Cornwallis pressed his attack, finally, Washington tried to hit the exhausted British rear guard on both flanks, but darkness forced the end of the engagement. Both armies held the field, but the British commanding general Clinton withdrew undetected at midnight to resume his armys march to New York City. The battle improved the military reputations of Washington, Lafayette and Anthony Wayne but ended the career of Charles Lee, who would face court martial at Englishtown for his failures on the day. According to some accounts, an American soldiers wife, Mary Hays, brought water to thirsty soldiers in the June heat, British forces had captured Philadelphia in 1777. Clinton was ordered to dispatch units to West Florida and the West Indies which left him too few troops to continue occupying Philadelphia, Clinton was also ordered to abandon New York and withdraw to Quebec if he felt his position there was untenable. A French fleet under dEstaing had sailed from Toulon in April,1778 and it was originally intended that the withdrawing British army would travel directly to New York via the sea, escorted by the Royal Navy. A lack of transports forced Clinton to change his plans, while the stores, heavy equipment and Loyalist American civilians fleeing revenge attacks would be shipped by sea, the main army would march overland across New Jersey. On June 18, the British began to evacuate Philadelphia, the British force comprised 11,000 British and German regulars, a thousand Loyalists from Philadelphia, and a baggage train 12 miles long. As the British advanced, the Americans slowed their advance by burning bridges, muddying wells, with a high of over 100 °F, both sides lost almost as many men to heat stroke as to the enemy. Major General Charles Lee, Washingtons second-in-command, advised awaiting developments as he did not wish to commit the American force against the British regulars. However, Washington determined that the British column was vulnerable to attack as it traveled across New Jersey with its baggage train, Washington was still undecided how to attack the British column, and held a council of war. The council, however, was divided on the issue, with a group of officers including General Anthony Wayne urging a partial attack on the British column while it was strung out on the road. Lee was still cautious, advising only harassing attacks with light forces, Lee, as Washingtons senior subordinate, was initially appointed commander of the advance force, but turned it down because of his doubts about the plan. However, when the force was increased to 5,000, Lee met with his subordinates but failed to give them proper orders, resulting in a piecemeal and disorganized attack on June 28 against the British rear guard under General Charles Cornwallis. After several hours of fighting in the hot weather, several American brigades executed a tactical retreat, the British rear guard counterattacked and as his flanks rapidly became routed, Lee was forced to order a withdrawal. Washington, advancing with the force along the Monmouth road, encountered Lees fleeing troops and finally Lee himself
30.
Great Siege of Gibraltar
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The Great Siege of Gibraltar was an unsuccessful attempt by Spain and France to capture Gibraltar from the British during the American War of Independence. This was the largest action fought during the war in terms of numbers, at three years and seven months, it is the longest siege endured by the British Armed Forces. In 1738 a dispute between Spain and Great Britain arose over commerce between Europe and the Americas, a short time later, the War of Jenkins Ear began, and both countries declared war on 23 October 1739, each side drawing up plans to establish trenches near Gibraltar. Seeing these first movements, Britain ordered Admiral Vernon to sail from Portobello, the passage of years failed to break the hostilities in the region. Then on 9 July 1746, King Philip V of Spain died in Madrid and his successor, Ferdinand VI, soon began negotiations with Britain on trade. The British Parliament was amenable to such negotiations, and even looked favourably upon lifting the British embargo on Spain, the neutrality adopted by Ferdinand VI quickly ended with his death in 1759. The new king, Charles III, was willing to negotiate with Great Britain. Instead, he signed a Family Compact with Louis XV of France on 15 August 1761, at that time France was at war with Britain, so Britain responded by declaring war on Spain and capturing the Spanish colonial capitals of Manila and Havana. Two years later, after cessation of hostilities, Spain recovered Manila, in the years of peace that followed both France and Spain hoped for an opportunity to launch a war against Britain on more favourable terms and recover their lost colonial possessions. Following the outbreak of the American War of Independence, both states supplied funding and arms to the American rebels, and drew up a strategy to intervene on the American side and defeat Britain. On 12 April 1779, France and Spain signed the Treaty of Aranjuez wherein they agreed to aid one another in recovering lost territory from Britain, then, in June 1779, Spain declared war on Great Britain, France having done so the year before. The Spanish blockade was directed by Martín Álvarez de Sotomayor, Spanish ground forces were composed of two battalions of Royal Guards, another two of Walloon Guards, with artillery and cavalry, about 13,000 in all. The artillery was commanded by Rudesindo Tilly, while the cavalry, antonio Barceló commanded the maritime forces responsible for blockading the bay, and established his base in Algeciras, commanding a fleet of several xebecs and gunboats. A fleet of 11 ships and two frigates were placed in the Gulf of Cadiz under the command of Luis de Córdova y Córdova to block the passage of British reinforcements. All the defences were strengthened, and many of the infantry, including picked men, the garrison included contingents of Hanoverian and Corsican troops. The British had anticipated an attack for some time, and a number of ships had sailed to reinforce and supply Gibraltar. The combined Spanish and French fleets blockaded Gibraltar from the sea, while on the side a enormous army constructed forts, redoubts, entrenchments. General Eliott formed a corps of sharpshooters, as the winter of 1779 came down the garrison began to suffer from want of fresh provisions, which became very scarce and dear
31.
Capture of Fort Bute
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The Capture of Fort Bute signalled the opening of Spanish intervention in the American Revolutionary War on the side of France and the United States. Spain officially entered the American Revolutionary War on May 8,1779 and this declaration was followed by another on July 8 that authorized his colonial subjects to engage in hostilities against the British. When Bernardo de Gálvez, the colonial Governor of Spanish Louisiana received word of this on July 21, to that end, he concealed from the public his receipt of the second proclamation. Fort Bute was located on Bayou Manchac, about 115 miles up the Mississippi River from New Orleans, lieutenant Colonel Alexander Dickson was charged with the defense of the Baton Rouge district, which included Fort Bute, Baton Rouge, and Fort Panmure. The British had begun sending larger numbers of troops to the area following George Rogers Clarks capture of Vincennes, Fort Bute was an older stockade fort built in 1766. It was in such disrepair that Dickson judged it to be indefensible, when Dickson received word of Spanish movements, he withdrew most of his forces to Baton Rouge and Panmure, leaving a small garrison of 20 Waldeckers under Captain von Haake behind. Gálvez originally planned to leave New Orleans on August 20, however, a hurricane on August 18 swept over the town, sinking most of his fleet and destroying provisions. The force departing New Orleans consisted of 520 regulars, of whom about two-thirds were recent recruits,60 militiamen,80 free men of color, as they marched upriver, the force grew by another 600 men, from Indians to Acadians. At its peak, the force numbered over 1,400, when the force neared Fort Bute on September 6, Gálvez informed them of the Spanish war declaration and the true purpose of their mission, eliciting cheers from the men. At dawn the next day they attacked the fort, and after a skirmish in which one German was killed. The six who escaped made their way to Baton Rouge to notify Dickson. Gálvez remained at Fort Bute for six days, giving his men time to rest, before moving on to Baton Rouge, the terms of capitulation agreed to by Dickson at Baton Rouge secured for Gálvez the surrender of the remaining British outposts on the Mississippi River. Gálvez then returned to New Orleans and began planning a campaign against Mobile and Pensacola, battle of Baton Rouge Fort New Richmond Deiler, John Hanno. The Settlement of the German Coast of Louisiana and the Creoles of German Descent, history of Louisiana, The Spanish domination, Volume 3. Fortress America, the forts that defended America,1600 to the present, the frontier war for American independence
32.
Battle of Baton Rouge (1779)
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The Battle of Baton Rouge was a brief siege during the Anglo-Spanish War that was decided on September 21,1779. Baton Rouge was the second British outpost to fall to Spanish arms during Bernardo de Gálvezs march into British West Florida, Spain officially entered the American Revolutionary War on May 8,1779, with a formal declaration of war by King Charles III. This declaration was followed by another on July 8 that authorized his subjects to engage in hostilities against the British. When Bernardo de Gálvez, the colonial Governor of Spanish Louisiana received word of this on July 21, as they marched upriver, the force grew by another 600 men, including Indians and Acadians. At its peak, the force numbered over 1,400, at dawn on September 7, this force attacked Fort Bute, a decaying relic of the French and Indian War that was defended by a token force. After a brief skirmish in which one German was killed, most of the garrison surrendered, the six who escaped capture made their way to Baton Rouge to notify the British troops there of the forts capture. After several days rest, Gálvez advanced on Baton Rouge, only 15 miles from Fort Bute, the troops consisted of British Army regulars from the 16th and 60th Regiments, as well as some artillerymen, and several companies of Germans from the 3rd Waldeck Regiment. Dickson had decided earlier that Fort Bute, built in 1766 and in ruins, was not defensible. Beginning in July 1779, he directed the construction of Fort New Richmond and this fortification was an earthen redoubt with chevaux de frise on the outside. It was surrounded by a moat 18 feet wide and 9 feet deep, Gálvez first sent a detachment of men further up the river to break communications between Baton Rouge and British sites further upriver. The British turned and unleashed massed volleys at this body, but the Spanish forces, shielded by substantial foliage, while this went on, Gálvez dug siege trenches and established secure gunpits within musket range of the fort. He placed his artillery there, opening fire on the fort on September 21. The British endured three hours of shelling before Dickson offered to surrender, Dickson surrendered 375 regular troops the next day, Gálvez had Dicksons militia disarmed and sent home. Gálvez then sent a detachment of 50 men to control of Panmure. He also dismissed his own companies, left a sizable garrison at Baton Rouge. When informed that Dickson had surrendered Fort Panmure, its commander was irate, the victory at Baton Rouge cleared the Mississippi River entirely of British forces and put the lower reaches of the river firmly under Spanish control. Gálvez was promoted to general for his successful campaign. Baton Rouge remained in Spanish hands for the rest of the war and it would not become American territory until 1810
33.
Siege of Charleston
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The Siege of Charleston was a major engagement fought between March 29 to May 12,1780 during the American Revolutionary War. The British, following the collapse of their strategy and their withdrawal from Philadelphia. By late 1779, two major British strategic efforts had failed, meanwhile, a strategic effort led by Sir William Howe to capture the Revolutionary capital of Philadelphia had met with initial success. The British were persuaded that there was a strong Loyalist sentiment in the south, largely due to the extensive business and it was expected that these Loyalists would rise against the American Patriots in large numbers. The opening British move was the Capture of Savannah, Georgia in December 1778, Sir Henry Clinton evacuated Newport, Rhode Island on October 25,1779, and left the substantial garrison of New York City under the command of Wilhelm von Knyphausen. In December, he sailed southward with 8,500 troops to join Colonel Mark Prevost at Savannah, the joint British naval-army forces were led overall by Sir Henry Clinton, with his subordinate, Lord Cornwallis as his second-in-command. The British regular troops were led by Brigadier General Alexander Leslie, the ground and naval forces were composed thus, The Franco-American garrison of Charleston was overall led by Benjamin Lincoln. The Continental Army troops were led by Brigadier General William Moultrie The ground and naval forces were composed thus. Cutting the city off from relief, he began a siege of the city on April 1, the following day, the British begun to dig their siege works, approximately 800 yards from the American lines. During these first few days, the British troops were under an artillery fire from the Americans. By April 6, the British fleet had moved into the harbour, Benjamin Lincoln held a council of war, and was advised by de Laumoy to surrender, with the American situation becoming untenable. On April 21, a parlay was made between Clinton and Lincoln, with Lincoln offering to surrender, should he be granted the honours of war, Clinton refused the terms, and the siege resumed with a heavy artillery exchange. On April 23, Lord Cornwallis crossed the Cooper River, assuming command of the British forces blocking an escape by land. On April 29, the British advanced down the end of a strategically important canal that fronted Charlestons defences, intending to destroy the dam. The Americans harried the British efforts with stiff resistance, however, by May 6, most of the water had drained. On the same day, Fort Moultrie surrendered, on May 8, Clinton called for Lincolns unconditional surrender, but Lincoln again attempted to negotiate for the honours of war. On May 11, the British fired red-hot shot into the city, burning several homes, on May 12, Lincoln, with over 5,000 troops, surrendered to the British. When word reached the back-country, the American troops holding Ninety-Six, following the surrender, the captured ordnance was brought to a powder magazine
34.
Battle of Connecticut Farms
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The Battle of Connecticut Farms, fought June 7,1780, was one of the last major battles between British and American forces in the northern colonies during the American Revolutionary War. Hessian General Wilhelm von Knyphausen, in command of the British garrison at New York City, made an attempt to reach the principal Continental Army encampment at Morristown, Knyphausens advance was strongly met by companies of the New Jersey militia at Connecticut Farms. After stiff resistance, the militia were forced to withdraw, but the battle, after realizing that further advance on Morristown would probably be met by even more resistance, Knyphausen withdrew back toward New York. Seeing an opportunity to inflict a blow on the Revolutionary cause. Knyphausen had also led to believe that the war-weary people of New Jersey would give little resistance to his invasion. Knyphausens plan called for his troops to advance from Elizabethtown, to seven miles to the northwest and seize the town of Springfield. Knyphausens corps comprised some 6,000 men, the 2nd Division, under Major General Edward Mathew, comprised the British 22nd and 57th Regiments of Foot and the 1st and 4th New Jersey Volunteers. The 3rd Division, under Knyphausens personal command, comprised the British Guards Battalion, on June 6, Knyphausens troops boarded boats on Staten Island and, at midnight, started to land at Elizabethtown Point, New Jersey. As the column moved westward, one of the first shots fired severely wounded Brigadier General Stirling, the resulting confusion cost the British column valuable time. A quarter-mile further west, Colonel Elias Dayton, with a detachment of the New Jersey Continental Brigade and more militia, Brigadier General William Maxwell, with his New Jersey Brigade and a force of militia, received the attack of the British 1st Division. Using trees and bushes for cover, the Americans held their ground for three hours until von Wurmb was reinforced by General Mathew and part of his 2nd Division, now 3, 000-strong, the British drove the Americans through Connecticut Farms toward Springfield. Knyphausen noted, The Rebels, as they often did, withdrew from house to house and from wood path to wood path, the victors plundered the village and set on fire at least a dozen of its houses. General George Washington now arrived on the scene from his headquarters, Gibbs charged a Hessian unit, incurring 3 killed and 4 wounded, but to no avail. With the sun now setting, Knyphausen halted his advance, during the capture of Connecticut Farms, a stray bullet killed a civilian named Ball. In addition, Hannah Caldwell, wife of the Reverend James Caldwell, thomas Fleming recounts the Caldwells maid, Abigail Lennington, seeing a British light infantryman outside the window. Fleming describes what happened next, Nervously expecting trouble, the light infantryman approached the window, Abigail Lennington shrank back, pulling the little boy with her. Probably the…soldier caught a glimpse of her as she moved away from the window and it was a bright, sunny day, and it seems doubtful that a man standing several feet away from the window could see very far into a room that had no windows in three walls. But a movement, any movement, was all this jittery man and he fired his double-loaded musket through the window and both bullets struck Mrs. Caldwell
35.
Battle of Springfield (1780)
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The Battle of Springfield was fought during the American Revolutionary War on June 23,1780. Although the British were initially able to advance, they were forced to withdraw in the face of newly arriving colonial forces. Clinton hoped that Washington would respond to Knyphausen’s attack by bringing his main army round the tip of the Watchung Mountains west of Newark to hit Knyphausen’s right flank. In anticipation of this response, Major General Alexander Leslie was dispatched up the Hudson with 6,000 men in order to prevent Washington from retiring behind the Watchung Mountains. Meanwhile, Major General James Robertson was to remain in reserve in Elizabethtown with five regiments to protect Knyphausen’s rear against attack from militia and to reinforce Leslie if necessary. At Springfield and Elizabethtown, barring Knyphausen’s path to Hobart Gap, at 5 a. m. on June 23, Knyphausen’s force advanced for Elizabethtown Point, with the Queen’s Rangers and the New Jersey Volunteers in the vanguard. They overwhelmed the American outposts at Elizabethtown, capturing several men, warned by retreating men, General Maxwell sent Colonel Elias Dayton’s 3rd New Jersey Regiment to guard the Galloping Hill Road and Henry Lee’s 2nd Partisan Corps to the Vauxhall Road. Soon afterwards, the advancing Loyalist troops engaged Maxwell, who fell back toward Connecticut Farms with the rest of his brigade, meanwhile, General Greene ordered the planking to be destroyed on the Vauxhall and Galloping Hill bridges over the Rahway River. Greene organized his left wing, at the Galloping Hill Road, Connecticut Farms was to be held by Colonel Dayton’s 3rd New Jersey and some militia under Brigadier General Nathaniel Heard. Behind Dayton, Colonel Israel Angell with his 2nd Rhode Island Regiment, reduced by illness, on the American right wing, Greene reinforced Major Lee and his 2nd Partisan Corps at the Vauxhall Bridge with Colonel Matthias Ogden and his 1st New Jersey Regiment. In reserve, at Bryan’s Tavern up on the ground of the Short Hills. The New Jersey Volunteers under Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Barton, now approached Connecticut Farms and engaged Dayton’s force, outnumbered more than two-to-one by the defenders, Barton’s men made little progress. However, Lieutenant Colonel John Graves Simcoe with his Queen’s Rangers outflanked the Americans on the left, Dayton and Heard’s men were quickly swept away and Connecticut Farms was in British hands. Heard and some of his militiamen retired northward and reinforced the defenders of the Vauxhall Bridge, meanwhile, Knyphausen himself advanced on the bridge with 3,000 men, comprising the British 37th and 38th regiments and most of the German troops. At the Galloping Hill Bridge, Knyphausen bombarded Colonel Angell’s defenders with six cannons, “Give ‘em Watts, boys. ”, he advised. The British quickly followed up the retreat, driving back Shreve and Angell, who only narrowly foiled an attempt to outflank them by the British 38th Regiment, recognizing the danger of Shreve and Angell being encircled, Greene recalled them to Bryant’s Tavern, abandoning Springfield to the enemy. As directed by Knyphausen, Major General Edward Mathew had left the Galloping Hill Road and they were soon joined by the advancing Loyalist troops, who assailed them from front and flank, driving them back again, this time all the way to the slopes of the Short Hills. Here, they were reinforced by the 400 men of General Stark’s two Continental regiments and a cannon and this, and the presence of an increasing number of militia gathering on the slopes of Newark Mountain, persuaded General Mathew to halt his advance
36.
Battle of Mobile (1781)
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The Battle of Mobile was a British attempt to recapture the town of Mobile, in the British province of West Florida, from the Spanish during the Anglo-Spanish War. The Spanish had previously captured Mobile in March 1780, on January 7,1781, a British attack against a Spanish outpost on the east side of Mobile Bay was repulsed, and the German leader of the expedition was killed. He followed up these successes with the capture of Mobile on March 14,1780, after the Mobile victory, the Spanish built an entrenched outpost on the east side of Mobile Bay, in an area that controlled Mobiles water supply. When the British troops arrived on January 7, the outpost was manned by about 200 men, the British garrison nearest to Mobile was in West Floridas capital, Pensacola. The British relations with the Creeks, Chickasaw, and Choctaw Indians were also relatively good, hundreds of Choctaw warriors responded to British pleas for help and came to Mobile. Emboldened by the destruction of a Gálvez-led expedition against Pensacola by a hurricane in the fall of 1780, on January 3, he dispatched an expedition of more than 700 men under the command of the Waldecker Captain Johann von Hanxleden. Hanxledens force arrived near the outpost late on January 6, forty of the Spaniards made a dash for a boat anchored nearby, but the British cut many of them down with a musket volley. Indians from the expedition followed the Spaniards into the water to collect scalps. The remaining Spanish coolly opened fire on the British, killing Hanxleden and nineteen others, the British troops then disengaged and retreated. The British fled back to Pensacola, and made no attempts against Mobile. Spanish authorities in Cuba dispatched additional forces to hold Mobile when they learned of the attack, Spanish Field Marshal Gálvez captured Pensacola later in the year, completing his conquest of West Florida. List of American Revolutionary War battles Caughey, John Walton, bernardo de Gálvez in Louisiana, 1776-1783. Wars of the Americas, a chronology of armed conflict in the New World,1492 to the present. Colonial Mobile, An Historical Study, Largely from Original Sources, the frontier war for American independence
37.
Siege of Pensacola
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The Siege of Pensacola was a siege fought in 1781, the culmination of Spains conquest of the British province West Florida during the American Revolutionary War. When Spain entered the War in 1779, Bernardo de Gálvez and he followed up these successes with the capture of Mobile on March 14,1780, after a brief siege. Gálvez began planning an assault on Pensacola, West Floridas capital, using forces from Havana, British reinforcements arriving in Pensacola in April 1780 delayed the expedition, however, and when an invasion fleet finally sailed in October, it was dispersed by a hurricane a few days later. Gálvez spent nearly a month regrouping the fleet at Havana, following the outbreak of hostilities with Spain 1779, General John Campbell, concerned over the condition of the defenses, requested reinforcements, and began construction of additional defenses. By early 1781, the Pensacola garrison consisted of the 16th Regiment, a battalion from the 60th and these were augmented by the Third Regiment of Waldeck and The Maryland Loyalist Battalion, as well as the Pennsylvania Loyalists. These troops were provincial soldiers, rather than militia, in addition to the Loyalist soldiers, many Native Americans supported the British. After the fall of Mobile in March 1780, between 1, 500-2,000 Indians had come at various points to Pensacola to join in its defense and these included Choctaws and Creeks, with Creeks being the most numerous. Just before the Spanish attack only 800 Native American warriors remained in Pensacola, as Campbell, the majority of the Native Americans still present during the siege were Choctaw. Pensacolas defensive works in early 1781 consisted of Fort George, an earthen works topped by a palisade that was rebuilt under Campbells directions in 1780. North of the fort he had built the Prince of Wales Redoubt, Campbell erected a battery called Fort Barrancas Colorada near the mouth of the bay. Gálvez embarked his flag with the Spanish fleet, under the command of Captain José Calvo de Irazabal. With about 1,300 men, the troops included a Majorcan regiment and Arturo ONeill commanding 319 men of Spains Irish Hibernia Regiment. Gálvez had also ordered troops from New Orleans and Mobile to assist. The Spanish expeditionary force sailed from Havana on February 13, arriving outside Pensacola Bay on March 9, Gálvez landed some troops on Santa Rosa Island, the barrier island protecting the bay. ONeills Hibernians landed at the battery, which he found undefended, and landed artillery. However, bringing the Spanish ships into the bay turned out to be difficult, furthermore, some British guns seemed to have the range to fire on the bays entrance. Gálvez used his authority as Governor of Louisiana to commandeer the ships that were from Louisiana and he boarded the Gálveztown, and on March 18 he sailed her through the channel and into the bay. The three other Louisiana ships followed him, under what proved to be ineffective British artillery fire, after sending Calvo a detailed description of the channel, his captains his all insisted on making the crossing, which they did the next day
38.
Battle of Spencer's Ordinary
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The Battle of Spencers Ordinary was an inconclusive skirmish that took place on 26 June 1781, late in the American Revolutionary War. Lafayette had been shadowing Cornwallis as he moved his army toward Williamsburg from central Virginia, aware that Simcoe had become separated from Cornwallis, he sent Butler out in an attempt to cut Simcoe off. Both sides, concerned that the other might be reinforced by its main army, in May 1781, Lord Charles Cornwallis arrived in Petersburg, Virginia after a lengthy campaign through North and South Carolina. These forces were opposed by a much smaller Continental Army force led by the Marquis de Lafayette, Cornwallis then turned back to the east, marching for Williamsburg. These detachments were composed of units taken from a variety of regiments. Lafayette, once he was joined by Wayne and Campbell, wanted to engage elements of Cornwallis army without necessarily facing its full strength, Simcoes full force included, in addition to the Rangers, a few companies of Hessian jägers led by Captains Johann Ewald and Johann Althaus. On the night of 25 June, Wayne sent most of the guard under Colonel Richard Butler, including McPherson, Call. At Spencers Ordinary, the troops rejoined and paused to rest, Simcoe ordered fences in the area torn down since it was an admirable place for the chicanery of action. While they rested, some of the Loyalists went out to round up more cattle found in the area, McPhersons men encountered the latter, whose sentries raised the alarm to the main body. Simcoes cavalry charged McPhersons formation, breaking it up, McPherson and a number of his men were unhorsed in the melee, and several were taken prisoner before the leading edge of Butlers main force began to arrive. Simcoe ordered most of the infantry up to support his cavalry, by questioning the prisoners, Simcoe learned that Lafayette was not far off. He sent word to Cornwallis, dispatched the cattle convoy toward Williamsburg and he then arrayed his troops in a way calculated to mislead the Americans into believing that more troops were in formation just over a rise. When Butlers force arrived, Simcoe ordered an infantry charge and this scattered the first wave of Butlers men into the nearby woods, where the jägers then pushed them back. However, Butlers men continued to advance, Simcoe ordered a cavalry charge and fired a field cannon to give the impression that a larger force was arriving. Simcoe left his men at the tavern under a truce flag. The Americans retreated to Lafayettes camp at Tyres Plantation, and Simcoe was able to return to the tavern, Simcoe reported his losses at 11 killed and 25 wounded, and the American loss at 9 killed,14 wounded, and 32 captured. Lafayette claimed the Americans had killed 60 and wounded 100, while Cornwallis claimed the British had 33 killed and wounded, the location of the battle is now within the grounds of James City Countys Freedom Park in Williamsburg. Published park materials do not indicate if the location is marked in any way
39.
Battle of Green Spring
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The Battle of Green Spring took place near Green Spring Plantation in James City County, Virginia during the American Revolutionary War. Lafayette followed Cornwallis fairly closely, emboldened by the arrival of reinforcements to consider making attacks on the British force, on July 4, Cornwallis departed Williamsburg for Jamestown, planning to cross the James River en route to Portsmouth. Lafayette believed he could stage an attack on Cornwalliss rear guard during the crossing, Cornwallis anticipated Lafayettes idea, and laid an elaborate trap. General Waynes forces were nearly caught in the trap. Cornwallis did not follow the victory with pursuit, instead following his plan to cross the river, the action reinforced the perception among contemporaries that justified the moniker Mad to describe Wayne, although opinion on the merits of his actions was divided. The battlefield has been preserved, and reenactments are sometimes staged. In May 1781, Earl Charles Cornwallis arrived in Petersburg, Virginia after a campaign through North and South Carolina. These forces were opposed by a much smaller Continental Army force led by the Marquis de Lafayette, Lafayette successfully avoided engaging Cornwallis, who used his numerical advantage to detach forces for raids against economic, military, and political targets in central Virginia. After about one month of activity, Cornwallis turned back to the east. One such foray led to a clash at Spencers Ordinary, a crossroads not far from Williamsburg, when Cornwallis arrived at Williamsburg, he received orders from General Sir Henry Clinton to go to Portsmouth and prepare a detachment of troops to return to New York City. Pursuant to these orders, Cornwallis began moving south on the Virginia Peninsula on July 4, Lafayette followed, with advance units and most of his Continentals reaching Norrells Mill, about 8 miles from the ferry on July 5. Lafayette saw an opportunity to attack the British force as it made the crossing of the James. Cornwallis also recognized the possibility, and decided to lay a trap and he only sent his baggage train and John Graves Simcoes Queens Rangers across the river, and concealed his main force near the crossing. Cornwallis also sent men to desert to the Americans with information that most of the British force had crossed, the position where Cornwallis hid his army was well-chosen. To the left, impassable swampy terrain sloped down toward the river, to the right, there was more marshy ground and a few ponds. Both wings also included light infantry companies, Brigadier General Mad Anthony Wayne led Lafayettes advance company, about 500 men, out early on July 6 from Norrells Tavern. When Wayne reached Green Spring, he surveyed the terrain and noted the presence of the British guards, when Lafayette came up with his main force, the two men decided to go ahead with the attack, but Lafayette ordered more troops forward from Norrells Tavern around 1 pm. Some minor skirmishing took place while they awaited these troops, Waynes 500 soldiers included 200 Virginia riflemen under Majors John Willis and Richard Call backed by additional light infantry led by John Francis Mercer, William Galvan, and McPherson
40.
Battle of Groton Heights
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The raid was a success, but the Connecticut militia stubbornly resisted British attempts to capture Fort Griswold, across the Thames River in Groton. New London was burned, along with ships, but many more escaped upriver. More than 400 militia organized during the raid on the New London side from as far as Lyme and Stonington, but they had no leadership, as Col. Harris reportedly felt ill and rode off. Several leaders of the attacking British force were killed or seriously wounded, high British casualties led to criticism of General Arnold by some of his superiors. At the battle of Yorktown, the Marquis de Lafayette reportedly yelled Remember Ft. Griswold. as US, many received land grants in New York and Ohio after the battle, as they lost property. Groton, Connecticuts history dates back to 1655 and it was originally a part of New London, its larger counterpart on the other side of the Thames River on the northern shore of Long Island Sound. Groton was an important maritime port and became one of the largest along the New England coastline, Groton officially separated from New London and incorporated as a separate town in 1705. During the American Revolutionary War, the port was a center of American naval operations. They were typically garrisoned by companies of militia, including a few artillerymen. The forts suffered from shortages of provisions and equipment. Fort Trumbull was unfinished, Fort Griswolds infrastructure was complete, but it lacked sufficient gunpowder, cannonballs, food, in August 1781, Continental Army Major General George Washington realized that there was an opportunity to strike at the British army of Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis in Virginia. General Clinton realized on September 2 that he had been deceived, Clinton decided to launch a raid into Connecticut in an effort to draw Washingtons attention. He gave Brigadier General Benedict Arnold command of the forces for the raid, Arnold was an American, a native of Norwich, Connecticut just up the river from New London, who had betrayed his compatriots to join the British the previous September. The forces assembled by the British were divided into two battalions, numbering about 1,700 men, the first was under Lieutenant Colonel Edmund Eyre, composed of the 40th and 54th Regiments of Foot and a Loyalist provincial regiment of Cortlandt Skinners New Jersey Volunteers. The expedition also included about 100 Hessian jägers, a number of artillerymen. These troops were embarked on transports and sailed on September 4 in the company of a fleet of armed ships. The fleet anchored about 30 miles west of New London to make final preparations, however, contrary winds prevented the transports from reaching the port until it was already daylight on September 6. In the early hours of morning, Rufus Avery witnessed the fleets arrival as a colonial officer stationed at Fort Griswold
41.
Siege of Yorktown
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The battle boosted faltering American morale and revived French enthusiasm for the war, as well as undermining popular support for the conflict in Great Britain. In 1780, approximately 5,500 French soldiers landed in Rhode Island to assist their American allies in operations against British-controlled New York City. On the advice of Rochambeau, de Grasse informed them of his intent to sail to the Chesapeake Bay, where Cornwallis had taken command of the army. Cornwallis, at first given confusing orders by his officer, Henry Clinton, was eventually ordered to build a defensible deep-water port. Cornwallis movements in Virginia were shadowed by a Continental Army force led by the Marquis de Lafayette, the French and American armies united north of New York City during the summer of 1781. When word of de Grasses decision arrived, the armies began moving south toward Virginia. De Grasse sailed from the West Indies and arrived at the Chesapeake Bay at the end of August, bringing additional troops and providing a naval blockade of Yorktown. He was transporting 500,000 silver pesos collected from the citizens of Havana, Cuba, to fund supplies for the siege, while in Santo Domingo, de Grasse met with Francisco Saavedra de Sangronis, an agent of Carlos III of Spain. De Grasse had planned to leave several of his warships in Santo Domingo, Saavedra promised the assistance of the Spanish navy to protect the French merchant fleet, enabling de Grasse to sail north with all of his warships. In the beginning of September, he defeated a British fleet led by Sir Thomas Graves that came to relieve Cornwallis at the Battle of the Chesapeake, as a result of this victory, de Grasse blocked any escape by sea for Cornwallis. By late September Washington and Rochambeau arrived, and the army, after initial preparations, the Americans and French built their first parallel and began the bombardment. With the British defense weakened, on October 14,1781 Washington sent two columns to attack the last major remaining British outer defenses, a French column took redoubt #9 and an American column took redoubt #10. With these defenses taken, the allies were able to finish their second parallel, with the American artillery closer and more intense than ever, the British situation began to deteriorate rapidly and Cornwallis asked for capitulation terms on the 17th. After two days of negotiation, the ceremony took place on the 19th, Lord Cornwallis was absent from the ceremony. With the capture of more than 7,000 British soldiers, on December 20,1780, Benedict Arnold sailed from New York with 1,500 troops to Portsmouth, Virginia. He first raided Richmond, defeating the militia, from January 5–7 before falling back to Portsmouth. The Marquis de Lafayette was sent south with 1,200 men to help with the assault, however, Destouches was reluctant to dispatch many ships, and in February sent only three. Destouches withdrew due to the damage sustained to his fleet, leaving Arbuthnot, on March 26, Arnold was joined by 2,300 troops under command of Major General William Phillips, who took command of the combined forces
42.
Raid on Lunenburg, Nova Scotia (1782)
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Lunenburg was defended by militia leaders Colonel John Creighton and Major Dettlieb Christopher Jessen. In Nova Scotia, the assault on Lunenburg was the most spectacular raid of the war, on the morning of 1 July Stoddard led approximately 170 US privateers in four heavily armed vessels and overpowered Lunenburg’s defence, capturing the blockhouses and burning the house of Jessen. The privateers then looted the settlement and kept the militia at bay with the threat of destroying the entire town, the American privateers plundered the town and took three prisoners, including Creighton, who were later released from Boston without a ransom having been paid. During the American Revolution, Nova Scotia was invaded regularly by American Revolutionary forces by land, throughout the war, American privateers devastated the maritime economy by raiding many of the coastal communities. There were constant attacks by privateers, such as the raids on Liverpool. There was also an engagement with a French fleet at Spanish River. On 17 November 1775, Washingtons Marblehead Regiment aboard the Hancock and Franklin made a landing at Charlottetown. Three days later, they expedited to Nova Scotia and raided Canso, in 1779, American privateers returned to Canso and destroyed the fisheries, which were worth ₤50,000 a year to Britain. The 84th Regiment had been defending Nova Scotia, attacking an American privateer ship off of Lunenburg, the 84th was led by Captain John MacDonald. They boarded the warship when some of its crew were ashore seeking plunder and they captured the crew and sailed her into Halifax. There were also Patriot attacks on Nova Scotia by land, such as the Battle of Fort Cumberland, there was the constant threat that American Patriots would attack Halifax by land. Stoddards vessel the Scammell was commissioned in April 1782 and made the plan in Boston to raid Lunenburg, soon after, he rescued the 60 American prisoners on board the H. M. S. Blonde which was wrecked on Seal Island, Nova Scotia, Stoddard allowed the British crew to return to Halifax in the HMS Observer. On June 30, the day before the raid on Lunenburg, Stoddard and others were involved in gathering intelligence at Chester, Nova Scotia for the raid. During the early morning of 1 July 1782, five American privateers, Captain Stoddard’s ship was the schooner Scammel, which had sixteen guns and sixty men. Stoddard organized both a land and sea assault of the town, the vessels first landed at Red Head, two miles outside of the town and soldiers began to march toward the town. The vessels then moved toward a frontal assault on the town, the Lunenburg militia was led by Colonel John Creighton and Major D. C. Colonel Creighton and five other militia men occupied the eastern blockhouse, several of Captain Stoddard’s privateers were wounded
43.
Wilhelm von Knyphausen
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Reichsfreiherr Wilhelm von Innhausen und Knyphausen was a general officer of Hesse-Kassel. He fought in the American Revolutionary War, during which he commanded Hessian auxiliaries on behalf of Great Britain, Knyphausens father was the colonel of a Prussian regiment under the Duke of Marlborough. Educated in Berlin, the young Knyphausen entered the Prussian military service in 1734, in the army of Hesse-Cassel, he was a lieutenant general. In 1776, with 42 years of experience, he came to the Thirteen Colonies of British North America as second-in-command of an army of 12,000 men called “Hessians” under General Heister. Knyphausen led the Hessian troops in the Battles of White Plains, Fort Washington, Brandywine, Germantown, Springfield, in 1779 and 1780, he commanded British-held New York City. When Heister left for Germany, Knyphausen took command of the German troops serving under Sir William Howe, because of Knyphausens seniority, British officers held dormant commissions outranking him in case the British commander became disabled. Despite this, Knyphausen was trusted by his British superiors, Knyphausens regiment took part in the attack on Fort Washington and was in garrison at Trenton, New Jersey. Major von Dechow, who was in command in late 1776, warned Colonel Johann Rall to fortify the town, during the Battle of Trenton the regiment tried to escape across Assunpink Creek but was forced to surrender. Dechow was mortally wounded during the battle and he also commanded the vanguard of the army withdrawing from Philadelphia at the time of the Battle of Monmouth. For several years the body of Knyphausens force occupied the upper part of Manhattan Island. Knyphausens regiment served in the Americas from 1776 to 1783, Knyphausen left the North American theater in 1782 in part because of ill health, including blindness in one eye caused by a cataract. Friedrich Wilhelm von Lossberg succeeded to command of the Hessian troops in New York, Knyphausen returned to Europe, having, as he said, achieved neither glory nor advancement, but near the end of his life he became military governor of Cassel. He was a taciturn and discreet officer, who understood the temper of his troops and his was a hireling army of recruits gathered from work-houses and by impressment, drilled in the use of arms on shipboard. As he frequently declared, on such forces a judicious commander could place little reliance, in 1785, shortly after the end of the war, General Lafayette travelled to Cassel and met Knyphausen. He wrote to General Washington that they had reminisced about the war, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Wilson, James Grant, Fiske, John, eds. Eelking, Max von, Rosengarten, Joseph George, The German Allied Troops in the North American war of Independence 1776-1873, Baltimore Atwood, Rodney, The Hessians, Cambridge Knyphausen, Wilhelm von. Bernhard von Poten, Knyphausen, Wilhelm, Reichsfreiherr zu Innhausen und in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, vol
44.
Johann Rall
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Johann Gottlieb Rall was a German colonel, best known for being in command of Hessian troops in Trenton, New Jersey at the Battle of Trenton during the American Revolutionary War. Rall was probably born as a so-called soldier child in about 1726 and he was a son of Captain Joachim Rall from Stralsund, who served in the regiment of Major General Donop. The first mention of Johann Rall was as a new cadet of the regiment on March 1,1740. He was promoted to ensign on July 25,1741, to lieutenant on August 28,1745, and to captain on May 10,1753. Rall was promoted to major on May 7,1760, under Major General Bischhausen and transferred, in January 1763, into the Stein garrison regiment, on April 22,1771, he was transferred to the Mansbach Infantry Regiment as a colonel. He became commander of the regiment in January 1772, during this time, Rall fought in the War of the Austrian Succession and participated in campaigns in Bavaria, on the Rhine, in the Netherlands, and served in Scotland during the Jacobite Rebellion. He fought in the Seven Years War and was involved in many battles, from September 1771 until August 1772, he was in Russia and fought for Catherine the Great under Count Orlov in the Fourth Russo-Turkish War. He was at the Battle of Brooklyn at Flatbush, the Battle of White Plains, Battle of Long Island, on the night of December 25–26,1776 General George Washington crossed the Delaware River with his troops on the way to Trenton, New Jersey. The Hessian regiments, camped in and around Trenton, were attacked, the Hessians had supposedly let their guard down to celebrate the Christmas holiday, and Rall himself was misled by John Honeyman, a spy of Washington who convincingly posed as a loyalist. Then after receiving the message, placed it in his pocket without reading it. While leading his troops during the battle, Rall was mortally wounded and he was shot twice in the side and needed to be carried back to his headquarters, where he died that night. The note informing the colonel of the attack was found in his coat pocket. Cathedral of St. Mary of the Assumption – Site of his headquarters in Trenton, New Jersey General Donald N. Moran, Johann Gottlieb Rall, Trenton Historical Society Rall, Johan Gottlieb. Johann Gottlieb Rall at Find a Grave
