1.
Yes Tor
–
Yes Tor is the second highest point on Dartmoor, Devon, South West England, at 619 metres above sea level. It is one of two wholly English peaks south of the Peak District National Park—the other being nearby High Willhays—that are above 2,000 feet. It lies within a British Army firing range and safe access is possible on days or nights when firing is not taking place. See the current Dartmoor Firing Notice, Yes Tor is 2 metres lower than the nearby High Willhays. A notable mine is located in the area, in his memoir Father and Son, Edmund Gosse views Yes Tor, near which he lived when a boy, as an unthreatening and unprepossessing hill, Alas. We might as well have attempted to rouse the summit of Yes Tor into volcanic action, Yes Tor was the original inspiration for the name of the Yes album Tormato and a picture of the Tor features on the album cover. US science fiction author Kim Stanley Robinson makes a reference to Yes Tor in his novel 2312. Media related to Yes Tor at Wikimedia Commons
2.
Summit
–
A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, a summit is a maximum in elevation. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak, and zenith are synonymous, the UIAA definition is that a summit is independent if it has a prominence of 30 metres or more, it is a mountain if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres. This can be summarised as follows, A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top, Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the western United States, the term refers to the highest point along a road, highway. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit while the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit, geoid Hill List of highest mountains Maxima and minima Nadir Summit accordance Peak finder
3.
Topographic prominence
–
It is a measure of the independence of a summit. A peaks key col is a point on this contour line. By convention, the prominence of Mount Everest, the Earths highest mountain, is taken to equal the elevation of its summit above sea level, if the peaks prominence is P metres, to get from the summit to any higher terrain one must descend at least P metres. Together with the convention for Mount Everest, this implies that the prominence of any island or continental highpoint is equal to its elevation above sea level, for every ridge connecting the peak to higher terrain, find the lowest point on the ridge. The key col is defined as the highest of these cols, the prominence is the difference between the elevation of the peak and the elevation of the key col. The following mental exercise may illustrate the meaning of topographic prominence, imagine you are standing at the top of a peak and imagine that an imaginary sea level rises to your feet. Now slowly lower the sea level and an imaginary island appears beneath your feet. Your island will grow and will merge with other islands that emerge, the parent peak may be either close or far from the subject peak. The summit of Mount Everest is the parent peak of Aconcagua at a distance of 17,755 km, the key col may also be close or far from the subject peak. The key col for Aconcagua is the Bering Strait at a distance of 13,655 km, the key col for the South Summit of Mount Everest is about 100 m distant. Prominence is interesting to many mountaineers because it is a measurement that is strongly correlated with the subjective significance of a summit. Peaks with low prominences are either subsidiary tops of some higher summit or relatively insignificant independent summits, peaks with high prominences tend to be the highest points around and are likely to have extraordinary views. Only summits with a sufficient degree of prominence are regarded as independent mountains, for example, the worlds second-highest mountain is K2. While Mount Everests South Summit is taller than K2, it is not considered an independent mountain because it is a subsummit of the main summit, many lists of mountains take topographic prominence as a criterion for inclusion, or cutoff. John and Anne Nuttalls The Mountains of England and Wales uses a cutoff of 15 m, in the contiguous United States, the famous list of fourteeners uses a cutoff of 300 ft /91 m. Also in the U. S.2000 feet of prominence has become a threshold that signifies that a peak has major stature. This generates lists of peaks ranked by prominence, which are different from lists ranked by elevation. Such lists tend to emphasize isolated high peaks, such as range or island high points, one advantage of a prominence-ranked list is that it needs no cutoff, since a peak with high prominence is automatically an independent peak
4.
Cross Fell
–
Cross Fell is the highest mountain in the Pennine Hills of Northern England and the highest point in England outside the Lake District. It is located in the North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The summit, at 2,930 feet, is a plateau, part of a 7. 8-mile-long ridge running north-west to south-east. Cross Fell summit is crowned by a cross-shaped dry-stone shelter which has been damaged over the years by snow, on a clear day there are excellent views from the summit across the Eden Valley to the mountains of the Lake District. On the northern side of Cross Fell there are fine views across the Solway Firth to the Southern Uplands of Scotland. The fell is prone to dense fog and fierce winds. A shrieking noise induced by the Helm Wind is a characteristic of the locality and it can be an inhospitable place for much of the year. In ancient times it was known as Fiends Fell and believed to be the haunt of evil spirits, Cross Fell and the adjoining fells are mainly a bed of hard, carboniferous limestone. Where this bed surfaces, there are steep rock faces, there are also strata of shale and gritstone that surface on the fell. On the south and west facing slopes of Cross Fell the rock faces have been broken up by frost action to give a scree slope made up of large boulders, the local terrain shows obvious evidence of recent glaciation and is covered by thin soil and acidic peat. Cross Fell, Great Dun Fell and Little Dun Fell form a block of high terrain which is all over 800 metres in altitude and this is the largest block of high ground in England and tends to retain snow-cover longer than neighbouring areas. Snow can be found in gullies on the side of Cross Fell as late as May in most years. In some years, lying snow has been known to persist until July, precipitation on Cross Fell averages around 280 centimetres per year. Local flora includes a number of alpine plants such as the Starry Saxifrage. Cross Fell is covered by what is known as siliceous alpine and it is the southernmost outlier of this vegetation type, which is common to highlands in Scotland and Scandinavia. It is a designated Special Area of Conservation, local farmers are required to keep free-roaming sheep off the tops of the fells in order to avoid damaging the natural flora. Cross Fell is a feature in the landscape. It dominates the skyline on almost the entire 20 miles length of the A66 trunk road between Penrith and Stainmore and it can also be seen from many points in the Lake District, including the Helvellyn summit, and from high ground throughout Dumfriesshire and Northumberland
5.
Marilyn (geography)
–
A Marilyn is a mountain or hill in the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland or Isle of Man with a prominence of at least 150 metres, regardless of absolute height or other merit. The name was coined as a punning contrast to the designation Munro, used of a Scottish mountain with a height of more than 3,000 feet, which is homophonous with Monroe. There are 2,010 Marilyns identified,1,218 in Scotland,454 in Ireland,175 in England,158 in Wales,5 on the Isle of Man. Black Mountain, in the Black Mountains, on the border between England and Wales, was counted in both countries but is now treated as being in Wales only. The list was extended into Ireland by Clem Clements in a booklet, The Hewitts, however, some lower hills such as Seatallan and Watch Hill on the edges of Lakeland and the Long Mynd in Shropshire do qualify because of their isolation from higher hills. At the other extreme are Stac Lee and Stac an Armin, nearly 80% of Marilyns in Great Britain are in Scotland. They logically extend earlier Scottish lists such as the Munros, Corbetts, Grahams, all Corbetts and Grahams,203 of the 282 Munros, and around half of the Donalds are also Marilyns. Some hillwalkers attempt to climb as many Marilyns as possible, some amateur radio operators attempt to operate from the summit of every Marilyn. Eddie Dealtry became the person to achieve Woodalls feat, later on the same day. By 28 September 2016, the Marilyns of Great Britain had been completed by 10 hillwalkers, while 320 had entered the Marilyn Hall of Fame by attaining a count of at least 600
6.
Lists of mountains and hills in the British Isles
–
The mountains and hills of Great Britain, and to a lesser extent Ireland, are the subject of a considerable number of lists that categorise them by height, topographic prominence, or other criteria. They are commonly used as a basis for peak bagging, whereby hillwalkers attempt to reach all the summits on a given list. The oldest and best known of these lists is that of the Munros, mountains in Scotland over 3,000 feet, other well-known lists include the Corbetts, Wainwrights and Marilyns. There is no consensus on the definition of mountain, but in Great Britain. The UK government defines mountain as land over 600 metres for the purposes of freedom of access, in addition, some definitions also include a topographical prominence requirement, typically 100 or 500 feet. In practice, mountains in Scotland are frequently referred to as no matter what their height, as reflected in names such as the Cuillin Hills. In Wales, the distinction is more a term of land use, the Munros are mountains in Scotland over 3,000 ft. The list was compiled by Sir Hugh Munro in 1891. There are 282 Munros and 227 further tops, all of them in the Scottish Highlands, list of Munros The Murdos are an attempt to apply objective criteria to the Munros and their associated tops. They comprise all the summits in Scotland over 3,000 feet with a prominence of at least 30 metres, there are currently 442 Murdos, compared to 282 Munros or 509 Munros plus tops. The list was compiled by Alan Dawson, all Murdos are also Munro Tops, but many Munro Tops fail to qualify as Murdos because of insufficient relative height. Before 1997 there were seven Murdos that were not Munro Tops, all seven were included in the 1997 edition of Munros Tables, plus two non-Murdos, Little Pap on Lochnagar and Knights Peak on Sgurr nan Gillean or a UK top-tier administrative area. There are now 347 Hardys with the recent addition of 5 low lying English coastal estuary islands,61 hill ranges,96 islands and 190 administrative areas,183 are in England,31 in Wales,107 in Scotland and 26 in Northern Ireland. The list was first compiled in the 1990s by Ian Hardy, the Marilyns were supplemented in 2007 by the HuMPs which reduces the Prominence requirement to 100m. The list was compiled by Mark Jackson from a number of sources. There are almost 3,000 British HuMPs, including three in the Channel Islands, More recently, Mark Jackson compiled the TuMPs, a list of all hills in Britain having a prominence of 30 metres. By definition, all Murdos, Corbett Tops, Graham Tops, Hewitts, there are over 16,000 TuMPs, approximately half of that number that did not appear in previously researched lists were researched by Mark Jackson between 2006 and 2009. Since 2012 the list has been published and maintained by the editors of The Database of British and Irish Hills, a list of mountains, over 2, 000-foot-high, in England and Wales was published by Buxton & Lewis in 1986
7.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
Dartmoor
–
Dartmoor is an area of moorland in southern Devon, England. Protected by National Park status as Dartmoor National Park, it covers 954 km2, the granite which forms the uplands dates from the Carboniferous Period of geological history. The moorland is capped with many exposed granite hilltops known as tors, the highest point is High Willhays,621 m above sea level. The entire area is rich in antiquities and archaeology, Dartmoor is managed by the Dartmoor National Park Authority, whose 22 members are drawn from Devon County Council, local district councils and Government. Parts of Dartmoor have been used as firing ranges for over 200 years. The public is granted land access rights on Dartmoor and it is a popular tourist destination. Dartmoor includes the largest area of granite in Britain, with about 625 km2 at the surface, the granite was intruded at depth as a pluton into the surrounding sedimentary rocks during the Carboniferous period, probably about 309 million years ago. A considerable gravity anomaly is associated with the Dartmoor pluton as with other such plutons, measurement of the anomaly has helped to determine the likely shape and extent of the rock mass at depth. Dartmoor is known for its tors – hills topped with outcrops of bedrock, more than 160 of the hills of Dartmoor have the word tor in their name but quite a number do not. However this does not appear to relate to whether or not there is an outcrop of rock on their summit, the best-known tor on Dartmoor is Haytor,457 m. For a more complete list see List of Dartmoor tors and hills, the high ground of Dartmoor forms the catchment area for many of Devons rivers. As well as shaping the landscape, these have provided a source of power for moor industries such as tin mining and quarrying. The moor takes its name from the River Dart, which starts as the East Dart and West Dart and it leaves the moor at Buckfastleigh, flowing through Totnes below where it opens up into a long ria, reaching the sea at Dartmouth. For a full list, expand the Rivers of Dartmoor navigational box at the bottom of this page, much more rain falls on Dartmoor than in the surrounding lowlands. As much of the park is covered in thick layers of peat. In areas where water accumulates, dangerous bogs or mires can result, some of these, topped with bright green moss, are known to locals as feather beds or quakers, because they can shift beneath a persons feet. Quakers result from sphagnum moss growing over the water accumulates in the hollows in the granite. The vegetation of the bogs depends on the type and location, the valley bogs have lush growth of rushes, with sphagnum, cross-leaved heath, sundews and several other species
9.
Ordnance Survey National Grid
–
The Ordnance Survey National Grid reference system is a system of geographic grid references used in Great Britain, different from using Latitude and Longitude. It is often called British National Grid, the Ordnance Survey devised the national grid reference system, and it is heavily used in their survey data, and in maps based on those surveys. Grid references are commonly quoted in other publications and data sources. The Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system is used to provide references for worldwide locations. European-wide agencies also use UTM when mapping locations, or may use the Military Grid Reference System system, the grid is based on the OSGB36 datum, and was introduced after the retriangulation of 1936–1962. It replaced the previously used Cassini Grid which, up to the end of World War Two, had issued only to the military. The Airy ellipsoid is a regional best fit for Britain, more modern mapping tends to use the GRS80 ellipsoid used by the GPS, the British maps adopt a Transverse Mercator projection with an origin at 49° N, 2° W. Over the Airy ellipsoid a straight grid, the National Grid, is placed with a new false origin. This false origin is located south-west of the Isles of Scilly, the distortion created between the OS grid and the projection is countered by a scale factor in the longitude to create two lines of longitude with zero distortion rather than one. Grid north and true north are aligned on the 400 km easting of the grid which is 2° W. 2° 0′ 5″ W. OSGB36 was also used by Admiralty nautical charts until 2000 after which WGS84 has been used, a geodetic transformation between OSGB36 and other terrestrial reference systems can become quite tedious if attempted manually. The most common transformation is called the Helmert datum transformation, which results in a typical 7 m error from true, the definitive transformation from ETRS89 that is published by the OSGB is called the National Grid Transformation OSTN02. This models the detailed distortions in the 1936–1962 retriangulation, and achieves backwards compatibility in grid coordinates to sub-metre accuracy, the difference between the coordinates on different datums varies from place to place. The longitude and latitude positions on OSGB36 are the same as for WGS84 at a point in the Atlantic Ocean well to the west of Great Britain. In Cornwall, the WGS84 longitude lines are about 70 metres east of their OSGB36 equivalents, the smallest datum shift is on the west coast of Scotland and the greatest in Kent. But Great Britain has not shrunk by 100+ metres, a point near Lands End now computes to be 27.6 metres closer to a point near Duncansby Head than it did under OSGB36. For the first letter, the grid is divided into squares of size 500 km by 500 km, there are four of these which contain significant land area within Great Britain, S, T, N and H. The O square contains an area of North Yorkshire, almost all of which lies below mean high tide
10.
Topographic map
–
Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and man-made features. A topographic map is published as a map series, made up of two or more map sheets that combine to form the whole map. A contour line is a line connecting places of equal elevation, however, in the vernacular and day to day world, the representation of relief is popularly held to define the genre, such that even small-scale maps showing relief are commonly called topographic. The study or discipline of topography is a broader field of study. Topographic maps are based on topographical surveys, performed at large scales, these surveys are called topographical in the old sense of topography, showing a variety of elevations and landforms. This is in contrast to older cadastral surveys, which primarily show property, the first multi-sheet topographic map series of an entire country, the Carte géométrique de la France, was completed in 1789. Topographic surveys were prepared by the military to assist in planning for battle, as such, elevation information was of vital importance. As they evolved, topographic map series became a resource in modern nations in planning infrastructure. Excluding borders, each sheet was 44 cm high and up to 66 cm wide, although the project eventually foundered, it left an indexing system that remains in use. TIGER was developed in the 1980s and used in the 1990, digital elevation models were also compiled, initially from topographic maps and stereographic interpretation of aerial photographs and then from satellite photography and radar data. Since all these were government projects funded with taxes and not classified for security reasons. Initial applications were mostly professionalized forms such as innovative surveying instruments, by the mid-1990s, increasingly user-friendly resources such as online mapping in two and three dimensions, integration of GPS with mobile phones and automotive navigation systems appeared. As of 2011, the future of standardized, centrally printed topographical maps is left somewhat in doubt, the various features shown on the map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. For example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads and these signs are usually explained in the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet. Topographic maps are commonly called contour maps or topo maps. In the United States, where the national series is organized by a strict 7. 5-minute grid. Topographic maps conventionally show topography, or land contours, by means of contour lines, contour lines are curves that connect contiguous points of the same altitude. In other words, every point on the line of 100 m elevation is 100 m above mean sea level
11.
Ordnance Survey
–
Ordnance Survey is a non-ministerial government department which acts as the national mapping agency for Great Britain and is one of the worlds largest producers of maps. Since 1 April 2015 it has operated as Ordnance Survey Ltd, the Ordnance Survey Board remain accountable to the Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy. It is also a member of the Public Data Group, the agencys name indicates its original military purpose, mapping Scotland in the wake of the Jacobite rebellion in 1745. There was also a general and nationwide need in light of the potential threat of invasion during the Napoleonic Wars. Ordnance Survey mapping is usually classified as either large-scale or small-scale, the Surveys large-scale mapping comprises maps at six inches to the mile or more and was available as sheets until the 1980s, when it was digitised. Small-scale mapping comprises maps at less than six inches to the mile, such as the one inch to the mile leisure maps. These are still available in sheet form. Ordnance Survey maps remain in copyright for fifty years after their publication, some of the Copyright Libraries hold complete or near-complete collections of pre-digital OS mapping. The origins of the Ordnance Survey lie in the aftermath of the last Jacobite rising which was defeated by forces loyal to the government at the Battle of Culloden in 1746. In 1747, Lieutenant-colonel David Watson proposed the compilation of a map of the Highlands to facilitate the subjugation of clans, in response, King George II charged Watson with making a military survey of the Highlands under the command of the Duke of Cumberland. Among Watsons assistants were William Roy, Paul Sandby and John Manson, the survey was produced at a scale of 1 inch to 1000 yards and included the Duke of Cumberlands Map now held in the British Library. This work was the point of the Principal Triangulation of Great Britain. Roys technical skills and leadership set the standard for which Ordnance Survey became known. Work was begun in earnest in 1790 under Roys supervision, when the Board of Ordnance began a military survey starting with the south coast of England. A set of stamps, featuring maps of the Kentish village of Hamstreet, was issued in 1991 to mark the bicentenary. In 1801, the first one-inch-to-the-mile map was published, detailing the county of Kent, during the next twenty years, roughly a third of England and Wales was mapped at the same scale under the direction of William Mudge, as other military matters took precedence. It took until 1823 to re-establish a relationship with the French survey made by Roy in 1787, by 1810, one inch to the mile maps of most of the south of England were completed, but were withdrawn from sale between 1811 and 1816 because of security fears. It was gruelling work, major Thomas Colby, later the longest serving director general of Ordnance Survey, in 1824, Colby and most of his staff moved to Ireland to work on a six-inches-to-the-mile valuation survey
12.
Devon
–
Devon, also known as Devonshire, which was formerly its common and official name, is a county of England, reaching from the Bristol Channel in the north to the English Channel in the south. It is part of South West England, bounded by Cornwall to the west, Somerset to the northeast, combined as a ceremonial county, Devons area is 6,707 km2 and its population is about 1.1 million. Devon derives its name from Dumnonia, which, during the British Iron Age, Roman Britain, the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain resulted in the partial assimilation of Dumnonia into the Kingdom of Wessex during the eighth and ninth centuries. The western boundary with Cornwall was set at the River Tamar by King Æthelstan in 936, Devon was constituted as a shire of the Kingdom of England thereafter. The north and south coasts of Devon each have both cliffs and sandy shores, and the bays contain seaside resorts, fishing towns. The inland terrain is rural, generally hilly, and has a low density in comparison to many other parts of England. Dartmoor is the largest open space in southern England at 954 km2, to the north of Dartmoor are the Culm Measures and Exmoor. In the valleys and lowlands of south and east Devon the soil is fertile, drained by rivers including the Exe, the Culm, the Teign, the Dart. As well as agriculture, much of the economy of Devon is linked with tourism, in the Brittonic, Devon is known as Welsh, Dyfnaint, Breton, Devnent and Cornish, Dewnens, each meaning deep valleys. One erroneous theory is that the suffix is due to a mistake in the making of the original letters patent for the Duke of Devonshire. However, there are references to Defenascire in Anglo-Saxon texts from before 1000 AD, the term Devonshire may have originated around the 8th century, when it changed from Dumnonia to Defenascir. Kents Cavern in Torquay had produced human remains from 30–40,000 years ago, Dartmoor is thought to have been occupied by Mesolithic hunter-gatherer peoples from about 6000 BC. The Romans held the area under occupation for around 350 years. Devon became a frontier between Brittonic and Anglo-Saxon Wessex, and it was absorbed into Wessex by the mid 9th century. This suggests the Anglo-Saxon migration into Devon was limited rather than a movement of people. The border with Cornwall was set by King Æthelstan on the east bank of the River Tamar in 936 AD, the arrival of William of Orange to launch the Glorious Revolution of 1688 took place at Brixham. Devon has produced tin, copper and other metals from ancient times, Devons tin miners enjoyed a substantial degree of independence through Devons Stannary Parliament, which dates back to the 12th century. The last recorded sitting was in 1748, agriculture has been an important industry in Devon since the 19th century
13.
Brecon Beacons
–
The Brecon Beacons is a mountain range in South Wales. In a narrow sense, the name refers to the range of Old Red Sandstone peaks which lie to the south of Brecon, sometimes referred to as the central Beacons they include South Wales highest mountain, Pen y Fan. The range forms the central section of the Brecon Beacons National Park and this much wider area is also commonly referred to as the Brecon Beacons, and it includes the Black Mountains to the east as well as the similarly named but quite distinct Black Mountain to the west. The highest peaks include Fan Brycheiniog to the west and Pen y Fan in the central part and they share the same basic geology as the central range, and so exhibit many similar features, such the north-facing escarpment and glacial features such as lakes and cwms below the escarpment. They all fall within the border of the national park. The Brecon Beacons range, in its narrower sense comprises six main peaks, from west to east these are, Corn Du, Pen y Fan, the highest peak, Cribyn, Fan y Big, Bwlch y Ddwyallt and Waun Rydd. These summits form a ridge, and the sections joining the first four form a horseshoe shape around the head of the Taf Fechan river. To the northeast of the ridge, interspersed with long spurs, are four round-headed valleys or cwms, from west to east these are Cwm Sere, Cwm Cynwyn. There are especially good examples of round barrows on Fan Foel, Pen y Fan, the former was excavated in 2002–4 and the ashes in the central cist dated to about 2000 BC using carbon dating. A wreath of Meadowsweet was likely placed in the burial, over twenty hill-forts were established in the area during the Iron Age. The largest, and indeed the largest in south Wales, were the pair of forts atop Y Garn Goch near Bethlehem – Y Gaer Fawr and Y Gaer Fach – literally the big fort, the forts are thought to have once been trading and political centres. When the Romans came to Wales in 43 AD, they stationed more than 600 soldiers in the area, Y Gaer, near the town of Brecon was their main base. During the Norman Conquest many castles were erected throughout the park, one of the most famous is Carreg Cennen Castle but there are many more. Brecon Castle is of Norman origin, there are many old tracks which were used over the centuries by drovers to take their cattle and geese to market in England. The drovers brought back gorse seed which they sowed to provide food for their sheep, the Brecon Beacons are one of four ranges of mountains and hills in South Wales which make up the Brecon Beacons National Park. The National Park was established in 1957, the third of the three Welsh parks after Snowdonia in 1951 and the Pembrokeshire Coast in 1952, Mountain rescue in south Wales is provided by five volunteer groups, with the police having overall command. In serious situations they are aided by RAF helicopters from RAF Chivenor or RAF Valley and their work is not restricted to mountain rescue – they frequently assist the police in their search for missing or vulnerable people in the community. The Brecon Beacons, are used for training members of the UK armed forces, the Army’s Infantry Battle School is located at Brecon, and the Special Air Service use the area to test the fitness of applicants
14.
William Crossing
–
William Crossing was a writer and chronicler of Dartmoor and the lives of its inhabitants. He lived successively at South Brent, Brentor and at Mary Tavy but died at Plymouth, Crossing was born in Plymouth on the 14 November 1847. Early in his youth he was fond of Dartmoor, his early associations centring on the neighbourhood of Sheepstor, Walkhampton, Meavy and he acquired a taste for antiquities from his mother. He later went on to explore Tavistock, Coryton, Lydford, Okehampton, after finishing his schooling in Plymouth, he went to the Independent College at Taunton, and then returned to finish his education at the Mannamead School. His earliest literary efforts were in the direction of fiction - thrilling romances and his first essay in poetry was at the age of fourteen, when a poem written by him appeared in the pages of Young England, December,1861. Returning from this voyage, he took to business pursuits in Plymouth, in 1872 he married and settled down at South Brent. In the 1890s he published other works and his Guide to Dartmoor. He was much afflicted by rheumatism in the last 25 years of his life, from July 1925 to his death Crossing was an invalid and he died at Plymouth,3 September 1928. He is now considered one of the best authorities on Dartmoor and its antiquities and he was one of the earliest members of the Dartmoor Preservation Association, joining it immediately on its formation. It is quite probable that he started the popularity of the modern pursuit of letterboxing. In his book Guide to Dartmoor he refers to what is likely to have been the first letter box and it was placed at Cranmere Pool on northern Dartmoor by a local guide in 1854. In Crossings memory in 1938 a plaque and letterbox were placed at Ducks Pool on the moor by some individuals. He was buried with his wife at Mary Tavy, his house at Mary Tavy bears a tablet unveiled in 1952. The style of Crossings work in Guide to Dartmoor has similarities to the more recent work of Alfred Wainwright. The hand drawn sketches of views and rough maps of walks together with the nature of the walks are like those of the Wainwright guides to the Lake District. Leaves from Sherwood, etc. original poems, Plymouth,1868 The Ancient Crosses of Dartmoor, with a Description of their Surroundings, Exeter,1884. An expansion of a series of articles originally appeared in the Western Antiquary. Amid Devonias Alps, or, Wanderings and Adventures on Dartmoor, Plymouth,1888 Tales of the Dartmoor Pixies, Glimpses of Elfin Haunts and Antics
15.
Brown Willy
–
Brown Willy is a hill in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. The summit, at 1,378 feet above sea level, is the highest point of Bodmin Moor and it is situated about 2.5 miles north-west of Bolventor and 4 miles south-east of Camelford. The hill has an appearance that depends on the vantage point from which it is seen. It bears the appearance of a sugarloaf from the north. The first part of the name is a common Brythonic element meaning breast, pap, hill-side, slope, breast. The name has evolved through a variety of historical spellings as follows and it has frequently been noted on lists of unusual place names. In 2012 a campaign was launched to have the name restored to the original Bronn Wennili on the grounds that it would be slightly more attractive to residents and tourists than Brown Willy. Cornish residents objected to the idea, one commented, Its been Brown Willy for as far back as living memory goes and I suspect, as others have pointed out, that it will always be called that, whatever name we may formally give it. The Daily Telegraph ran an editorial supporting the name and called for campaigners to keep their hands off Brown Willy. The summit of Brown Willy is 1,378 feet above sea level, the geography of the surrounding terrain is typical of Bodmin Moor – tors surrounded by desolate moorland. Streams and marshes are common surrounding the summit, and the River Fowey rises nearby, there are naturally occurring piles of granite boulders around the summit, and one, known as the Cheesewring is composed of 5 separate rocks which get progressively higher towards the top. There are two cairns on the summit. Brown Willy Summit Cairn or Brown Willy North Cairn is a man made rock pile that sits alongside an Ordnance Survey triangulation station, the Cornish word for cairn is karn, and it has been suggested that Cornwalls ancient name Kernow is related. William Copeland Borlase classified ridge-top cairns such as these in the most common category a bowl- or cone-shaped tumulus and he also referred to them as sepulchral mounds but admitted that burials had not been found at many. Brown Willy Summit Cairn has never been excavated and folklore suggests an ancient Cornish king may lie entombed underneath and these are amongst the most intact due to their remote and inaccessible location. Many rocks from similar cairns have been spoiled and removed over centuries of neglect to be re-used in dry stone walling and these purported alignments have been taken as evidence of some astronomical purpose in cairn placement and construction. Brown Willy is a destination for walkers and is said to be one of the UKs best-loved high points. The hill features in a race held on New Years Day that starts and finishes at Jamaica Inn
16.
Bodmin Moor
–
Bodmin Moor is a granite moorland in northeastern Cornwall, England. It is 208 square kilometres in size, and dates from the Carboniferous period of geological history and it includes Brown Willy, the highest point in Cornwall, and Rough Tor, a slightly lower peak. Many of Cornwalls rivers have their sources here and it has been inhabited since at least the Neolithic era, when primitive farmers started clearing trees and farming the land. They left their megalithic monuments, hut circles and cairns, and the Bronze Age culture that followed left further cairns, by medieval and modern times, nearly all the forest was gone and livestock rearing predominated. The name Bodmin Moor is relatively recent, an Ordnance Survey invention of 1813, the upland area was formerly known as Fowey Moor after the River Fowey, which rises within it. Bodmin Moor is one of five granite plutons in Cornwall that make up part of the Cornubian batholith, dramatic granite tors rise from the rolling moorland, the best known are Brown Willy, the highest point in Cornwall at 417 m, and Rough Tor at 400 m. To the south-east Kilmar Tor and Caradon Hill are the most prominent hills, considerable areas of the moor are poorly drained and form marshes. The rest of the moor is mostly rough pasture or overgrown with heather and other low vegetation, the moor contains about 500 holdings with around 10,000 beef cows,55,000 breeding ewes and 1,000 horses and ponies. Most of the moor is a Site of Special Scientific Interest, Bodmin Moor, North, almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation, with the same status and protection as a National Park. The moor has also recognised as a separate natural region. Bodmin Moor is the source of several of Cornwalls rivers, they are mentioned here anti-clockwise from the south, the River Fowey rises at a height of 290 m and flows through Lostwithiel and into the Fowey estuary. The River Tiddy rises near Pensilva and flows southeast to its confluence with the River Lynher, the River Inny rises near Davidstow and flows southeast to its confluence with the River Tamar. The River Camel rises on Hendraburnick Down and flows for approximately 40 km before joining the sea at Padstow, the River Warleggan rises near Temple and flows south to join the Fowey. On the southern slopes of the moor lies Dozmary Pool and it is Cornwalls only natural inland lake and is glacial in origin. In the 20th century three reservoirs have been constructed on the moor, these are Colliford Lake, Siblyback Lake, various species of waterfowl are resident around these waters. The parishes on the moor are as follows,10,000 years ago, in the Mesolithic period, there are several documented cases of flint scatters being discovered by archaeologists, indicating that these hunter gatherers practised flint knapping in the region. During the Neolithic era, from about 4,500 to 2,300 BC, people began clearing trees and it was also in this era that the production of various megalithic monuments began, predominantly long cairns and stone circles. It was also likely that the naturally forming tors were also viewed in a manner to the manmade ceremonial sites
17.
Beacon
–
A beacon is an intentionally conspicuous device designed to attract attention to a specific location. When used in fashion, beacons can be considered a form of optical telegraphy. Beacons help guide navigators to their destinations, types of navigational beacons include radar reflectors, radio beacons, sonic and visual signals. Visual beacons range from small, single-pile structures to large lighthouses or light stations, lighted beacons are called lights, unlighted beacons are called daybeacons. As signals, beacons are an ancient form of telegraph and were part of a relay league. Systems of this kind have existed for centuries over much of the world, the ancient Romans used beacons and beacons figure on several occasions on the column of Trajan. It was devised by Leo the Mathematician for Emperor Theophilos, but either abolished or radically curtailed by Theophilos son and successor, Michael III. Beacons were later used in Greece as well, while the parts of the beacon system in Anatolia seem to have been reactivated in the 12th century by Emperor Manuel I Komnenos. In Scandinavia many hill forts were part of networks to warn against invading pillagers. In Finland, these beacons were called vainovalkeat, persecution fires, or vartiotulet, guard fires, in Wales, the Brecon Beacons were named for beacons used to warn of approaching English raiders. In England, the most famous examples are the used in Elizabethan England to warn of the approaching Spanish Armada. Many hills in England were named Beacon Hill after such beacons, in the Scottish borders country, a system of beacon fires was at one time established to warn of incursions by the English. Hume and Eggerstone castles and Soltra Edge were part of this network, the Great Wall of China is also a beacon network. In Spain, the border of Granada in the territory of the Crown of Castile had a beacon network to warn against Moorish raiders. Vehicular beacons are rotating or flashing lights affixed to the top of a vehicle to attract the attention of surrounding vehicles, emergency vehicles such as fire engines, ambulances, police cars, tow trucks, construction vehicles, and snow-removal vehicles carry beacon lights. Beacons may be constructed with halogen bulbs similar to those used in vehicle headlamps, xenon flashtubes, incandescent and xenon light sources require the vehicle’s engine to continue running to ensure that the battery is not depleted when the lights are used for a prolonged period. The low power consumption of LEDs allows the engine to remain turned off while the lights operate nodes. Beacons and bonfires are used to mark occasions and celebrate events
18.
Okehampton
–
Okehampton is a town and civil parish in West Devon in the English county of Devon. It is situated at the edge of Dartmoor, and has an estimated population of 5,700. This increased to 7,160 at the 2011 census, two electoral wards are based in the town. Their joint population at the census is 7,500. Okehampton was founded by the Saxons, the earliest written record of the settlement is from 980 AD as Ocmundtune, meaning settlement by the Ockment, a river which runs through the town. It was recorded as a place for slaves to be freed at cross roads, like many towns in the West Country, Okehampton grew on the medieval wool trade. Notable buildings in the include the 15th century chapel of St. James and Okehampton Castle. Okehampton was the caput of a feudal barony, which at the time of the Domesday Book was held by Baldwin FitzGilbert. His French possessions were confiscated by the French King Louis VII, the Courtenay family rebuilt Okehampton Castle, until King Henry VIII seized the lands and had Henry Courtenay, 1st Marquess of Exeter executed for treason in 1539. Presently, the castle is owned by English Heritage and is open to the public during the summer season, the town is also home to the Museum of Dartmoor Life, which has received notable visitors such as Prince Charles. Okehampton elected two members to the Unreformed House of Commons, the Reform Act of 1832 abolished its representation as a rotten borough. There is an army training camp on Dartmoor which can be reached via Okehampton. It is managed by the Defence Training Estate, and used by a variety of units, including the Commando Training Centre Royal Marines, Lympstone, Devon. The Ten Tors event is run by the Army each year in early May from Okehampton Camp, schools in the town include Okehampton Primary School and Okehampton College. The towns football team, Okehampton Argyle F. C. is a club which was established in 1926 after the original side, Okehampton Town. The club competes in the South West Peninsula League which sits at Steps 6 and 7 of the National League System, four leagues below the top division of non-league football, the Football Conference. The town also has a club, Okehampton RFC, which is believed to have been founded in 1884. Okehamptons location at the edge of the means that it has always been a route centre
19.
Tor (rock formation)
–
In the South West of England, the term is commonly also used for the hills themselves – particularly the high points of Dartmoor in Devon and Bodmin Moor in Cornwall. Tors are landforms created by the erosion and weathering of rock, most commonly granites, tors are mostly less than 5 meters high. Many hypotheses have proposed to explain their origin and this remains a topic of discussion among geologists and geomorphologists. It is considered likely that tors were created by processes that differed widely in type and duration according to regional and local differences in climate. For example, the Dartmoor granite was emplaced around 280 million years ago, with the cover rocks eroded away soon afterwards, where joints are closely spaced, the large crystals in the granite readily disintegrate to form a sandy regolith known locally as growan. This is readily stripped off by solifluction or surface wash when not protected by vegetation, where joints happen to be unusually widely spaced, core blocks can survive and escape above the weathering surface, developing into tors. These can be monolithic, as at Haytor and Blackingstone Rock, each stack can comprise several tiers or pillows, which may become separated, rocking pillows are called logan stones. These stacks are vulnerable to frost action and often collapse leaving trails of blocks called clitter down the slopes, weathering has also given rise to circular rock basins formed by the accumulation of water and repeated freezing and thawing. An example is found at Kes Tor on Dartmoor, dating of 28 tors on Dartmoor showed that most are surprisingly young, less than 100,000 years old, with none over 200,000 years old. They probably emerged at the start of the last major ice age and this may reflect a dryer, more arctic climate. Bornhardt Etchplain Inselberg Nubbin List of tors Mercer, Ian, Dartmoor – A Statement of its Time
20.
Kinder Scout
–
Kinder Scout is a moorland plateau and National Nature Reserve in the Dark Peak of the Derbyshire Peak District in England. Part of the moor, at 636 metres above sea level, is the highest point in the Peak District, the highest point in Derbyshire, and the highest point in the East Midlands. In excellent weather conditions the city of Manchester and the Greater Manchester conurbation can be seen, as well as Winter Hill near Bolton, to the north across the Snake Pass lie the high moors of Bleaklow and Black Hill, which are of similar elevation. The history and meaning of the name have been studied by Broderick, in chronostratigraphy, the British sub-stage of the Carboniferous period, the Kinderscoutian derives its name from Kinder Scout. Kinder Scout is accessible from the villages of Hayfield and Edale in the High Peak of Derbyshire and it is a popular hiking location and the Pennine Way crosses Kinder Scout and the moors to the north. Historically, the plateau was the target of the mass trespass in 1932, from the National Parks inception, a large area of the high moorland north of Edale was designated as Open Country. In 2003, the right to roam on uncultivated land was enshrined into law, Kinder Downfall is the tallest waterfall in the Peak District, with a 30-metre fall. It lies on the River Kinder, where it flows west over one of the cliffs on the plateau edge. The waterfall was known as Kinder Scut, and it is from this that the plateau derives its name. Although usually little more than a trickle in summer, in spate conditions it is impressive, in certain wind conditions, the water is blown back on itself, and the resulting cloud of spray can be seen from several miles away. Below the Downfall the River Kinder flows into Kinder Reservoir, in cold winters the waterfall freezes providing local mountaineers with an icy challenge that can be climbed with ice axes, ropes and crampons. Some of Kinders many gritstone cliffs were featured in the first rock-climbing guide to the Peak District, Some Gritstone Climbs, published in 1913, the Edale Cross lies immediately south of Kinder Scout, under Kinder Low and on the former Hayfield to Edale road. It marks the junction of the three wards of the Forest of Peak, Glossop and Longdendale, Hopedale and Campagna. The first cross on the site may have set up by the Abbots of Basingwerk Abbey to mark the southern boundary of their land. The date of the current cross is unknown, although a plaque beside it claims it to be mediaeval, at some point it fell down, and was re-erected in 1810, when the date and initials JG, WD, GH, JH and JS were carved into it. These stand for John Gee, William Drinkwater, George and Joseph Hadfield and John Shirt, the cross is a Scheduled Ancient Monument. Mermaids Pool, a pool on Kinder Scout, is said to be inhabited by a mermaid who will grant immortality upon whoever sees her on Easter Eve. Pennines Rambling Kinder Scout Computer-generated summit panoramas, note, the panorama shown is not all visible from the summit
21.
Peak District
–
The Peak District is an upland area in England at the southern end of the Pennines. It is mostly in northern Derbyshire, but also parts of Cheshire, Greater Manchester. The Peak District National Park became the first national park in the United Kingdom in 1951, with its proximity to the cities of Manchester, Stoke-on-Trent, Derby and Sheffield and easy access by road and rail, it attracts millions of visitors every year. The Peak District forms the end of the Pennines and much of the area is uplands above 1,000 feet. Despite its name, the landscape generally lacks sharp peaks, being characterised by rounded hills, the area is surrounded by major conurbations, including Huddersfield, Manchester, Sheffield, Derby and Stoke-on-Trent. The National Park covers 555 square miles of Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Cheshire, Greater Manchester and South and West Yorkshire, including the majority of the area commonly referred to as the Peak. Its northern limits lie along the A62 road between Marsden and Meltham, north east of Oldham, while its southernmost point is on the A52 road on the outskirts of Ashbourne in Derbyshire. The town of Bakewell and numerous villages are included within the boundaries, as of 2010, it is the fifth largest National Park in England and Wales. 12% of the Peak District National Park is owned by the National Trust and it does not receive government funding. The Peak District National Park Authority directly owns around 5%, the Peak District is formed almost exclusively from sedimentary rocks dating from the Carboniferous period. They comprise the Carboniferous Limestone, the overlying Gritstone and finally the Coal Measures, in addition there are infrequent outcrops of igneous rocks including lavas, tuffs and volcanic vent agglomerates. The general geological structure of the Peak District is that of a broad dome, the southern edge of the dome is overlain by sandstones of Triassic age though these barely impinge upon the National Park. Earth movements after the Carboniferous period resulted in the up-doming of the area and, particularly in the west, the region was raised in a north–south line which resulted in this dome-like shape and the shale and sandstone were worn away until limestone was exposed. At the end of period, the Earths crust sank here which led to the area being covered by sea. Some time after its deposition, mineral veins were formed in the limestone and these veins and rakes have been mined for lead since Roman times. The Peak District was covered by ice during at least one of the ice ages of the last 2 million years as evidenced by the patches of glacial till or boulder clay that can be found across the area. It was not covered by ice during the last glacial period, a mix of Irish Sea and Lake District ice abutted against its western margins. Glacial meltwaters eroded a complex of channels along this margin of the Peak District during this period
22.
Black Mountain (hill)
–
Twyn Llech, also known as Black Mountain, is a mountain in the Black Mountains. It is the only Marilyn to fall exactly on the Welsh–English border, straddling Powys and its parent peak, Waun Fach, lies to the west. The Black Mountain is the highest point on Hatterrall Ridge, offas Dyke Path passes along the ridge, more or less from south to north. A steeper path leads to the summit from near the former youth hostel in the Vale of Ewyas to the west, the summit is unmarked and, because of the very shallow gradients along the summit ridge, virtually impossible to determine in situ. Open access to all the moorland here means that deviation from the paths is allowed, the ground is peaty and normally very wet even in good weather, especially on the highest ground. It is the highest summit in England south of Great Whernside in the Yorkshire Dales, however, some mountain lists, such as the Nuttalls, consider the mountain belongs only to Wales, due to the Black Mountains range being principally a Welsh massif. The mountain is composed of sandstones and mudstones of the Senni Formation of the Old Red Sandstone which is of Devonian age
23.
Ingleborough
–
Ingleborough is the second-highest mountain in the Yorkshire Dales, at 723 metres. It is one of the Yorkshire Three Peaks, the two being Whernside, at 736 metres, and Pen-y-ghent, at 694 metres. Ingleborough is frequently climbed as part of the Yorkshire Three Peaks Challenge, if done anti-clockwise Ingleborough is the last mountain climbed, and ascent is from Chapel-le-Dale. The second part of the name Ingleborough is derived from the Old English word burh, meaning a place, in this case. On the top of Ingleborough the remains of an old walled enclosure have been discovered inside which foundations of Iron Age huts have been found. Ingleborough is situated in the corner of the Yorkshire Dales, being at the highest point of a large triangle of land with corners at Ingleton, Ribblehead. The hill is connected to its nearest higher neighbour, Whernside, Ingleborough throws out a ridge to the north-east which develops into a summit, Simon Fell, and another summit further down, Park Fell. On the slopes of the former are the famed Norber Boulders, continuing south-east the high land is broken by a divide which carries the minor road from Austwick to Helwith Bridge. On the other side of the divide rises the low summit of Smearsett Scar along with its subsidiaries, Pot Scar and Giggleswick Scar, on the western side of Ingleborough is a large limestone plateau appropriately known as White Scars, below which White Scar Caves run for 4 miles. The entrance series of these has developed as a show cave. The plateau is bounded by Raven Scar, the longest unbroken cliff in the district, on the southern side is a similar plateau, this one containing potholes such as Fluted Hole and Pillar Hole. The plateau to the north of Norber, a known as The Allotment, is particularly rich in potholes, one of these, Long Kin East, can be followed by all. Also located here is Juniper Gulf, which descends 420 feet underground through an arduous rift, the Smearsett Scar region is not devoid of interesting features either, here can be found the Celtic Wall, the Ebbing and Flowing Well and a glacial hollow known as the Happy Valley. There are several popular hillwalking routes to its summit, the most frequently-used starting point is probably the village of Ingleton, which lies about 4 miles to the southwest. An ascent from here is about 7 1⁄2 miles there and back, the route follows a walled lane, Fell Lane, before emerging onto a flat area, Crina Bottom, scattered with potholes including the considerable Quaking Pot. A steep climb through the limestone cliffs leads to the summit, the hill may also be climbed from Horton in Ribblesdale 6 miles to the east, following a route crossing extensive areas of limestone pavement in the region of Sulber Nick. This is the route of descent of the Three Peaks Walk and has been improved by the National Trust after going in just thirty years from no path at all to a serious example of footpath erosion. Another route on this flank is from the farmstead of Crummack
24.
Granite
–
Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be white, pink, or gray in color. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the structure of such a holocrystalline rock. By definition, granite is a rock with at least 20% quartz. The term granitic means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of igneous rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks, petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite, Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use throughout human history, and more recently as a construction stone. The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3, its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6 •1019 Pa·s. The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C, it is reduced in the presence of water. Granite has poor primary permeability, but strong secondary permeability, true granite according to modern petrologic convention contains both plagioclase and alkali feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid or nearly devoid of plagioclase, the rock is referred to as alkali feldspar granite, when a granitoid contains less than 10% orthoclase, it is called tonalite, pyroxene and amphibole are common in tonalite. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite, two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. A worldwide average of the composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses. Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age, it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs, granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as small, less than 100 km² stock masses
25.
Feldspar
–
Feldspars are a group of rock-forming tectosilicate minerals that make up about 40% of the Earths continental crust. Feldspars crystallize from magma as veins in both intrusive and extrusive rocks and are also present in many types of metamorphic rock. Rock formed almost entirely of plagioclase feldspar is known as anorthosite. Feldspars are also found in types of sedimentary rocks. The name feldspar derives from the German Feldspat, a compound of the words Feld, field, and Spat, the change from Spat to -spar was influenced by the English word spar, a synonym for mineral. Feldspathic refers to materials that contain feldspar, the alternate spelling, felspar, has largely fallen out of use. This group of minerals consists of tectosilicates, solid solutions between albite and anorthite are called plagioclase, or more properly plagioclase feldspar. Only limited solid solution occurs between K-feldspar and anorthite, and in the two solid solutions, immiscibility occurs at temperatures common in the crust of the earth. Albite is considered both a plagioclase and alkali feldspar, the alkali feldspars are as follows, orthoclase —KAlSi3O8 sanidine —AlSi3O8 microcline —KAlSi3O8 anorthoclase —AlSi3O8 Sanidine is stable at the highest temperatures, and microcline at the lowest. Perthite is a texture in alkali feldspar, due to exsolution of contrasting alkali feldspar compositions during cooling of an intermediate composition. The perthitic textures in the alkali feldspars of many granites can be seen with the naked eye, microperthitic textures in crystals are visible using a light microscope, whereas cryptoperthitic textures can be seen only with an electron microscope. Barium feldspars are also considered alkali feldspars, barium feldspars form as the result of the substitution of barium for potassium in the mineral structure. The barium feldspars are monoclinic and include the following, celsian—BaAl2Si2O8 hyalophane—4O8 The plagioclase feldspars are triclinic, the immiscibility gaps in the plagioclase solid solutions are complex compared to the gap in the alkali feldspars. The play of colours visible in some feldspar of labradorite composition is due to very fine-grained exsolution lamellae, chemical weathering of feldspars results in the formation of clay minerals. About 20 million tonnes of feldspar were produced in 2010, mostly by three countries, Italy, Turkey, and China, Feldspar is a common raw material used in glassmaking, ceramics, and to some extent as a filler and extender in paint, plastics, and rubber. In glassmaking, alumina from feldspar improves product hardness, durability, in ceramics, the alkalis in feldspar act as a flux, lowering the melting temperature of a mixture. Fluxes melt at a stage in the firing process, forming a glassy matrix that bonds the other components of the system together. In the US, about 66% of feldspar is consumed in glassmaking, including glass containers, ceramics and other uses, such as fillers, accounted for the remainder
26.
Bed (geology)
–
In geology a bed is the smallest division of a geologic formation or stratigraphic rock series marked by well-defined divisional planes separating it from layers above and below. A bed is the smallest lithostratigraphic unit, usually ranging in thickness from a centimetre to several metres and distinguishable from beds above, beds can be differentiated in various ways, including rock or mineral type and particle size. The term is applied to sedimentary strata, but may also be used for volcanic flows or ash layers. In a quarry, a bedding is a used for a structure occurring in granite. Three kinds of beds are, parallel beds, cross beds, geological unit Lamination Stratigraphy Stratum Lamina, Laminaset, Bed and Bedset
27.
British Army
–
The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
28.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
