1.
Syllabary
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A syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent the syllables or moras which make up words. This loosely corresponds to shallow orthographies in alphabetic writing systems, most syllabaries only feature one or two kinds of syllabograms and form other syllables by graphemic rules. Otherwise they are synthetic, if they vary by onset, rime, nucleus or coda, or systematic, some scholars, e. g. Daniels, reserve the general term for analytic syllabaries and invent other terms as necessary. Some system provides katakana language conversion, in addition, the undecoded Cretan Linear A is also believed by some to be a syllabic script, though this is not proven. Chinese characters, the script used for Sumerian, Akkadian and other languages. They are therefore referred to as logosyllabic. The contemporary Japanese language uses two syllabaries together called kana, namely hiragana and katakana, which were developed around 700. They are mainly used to some native words and grammatical elements, as well as foreign words. Because Japanese uses mainly CV syllables, a syllabary is well suited to write the language, as in many syllabaries, however, vowel sequences and final consonants are written with separate glyphs, so that both atta and kaita are written with three kana, あった and かいた. It is therefore called a moraic writing system. Languages that use syllabaries today tend to have simple phonotactics, with a predominance of monomoraic syllables, few syllabaries have glyphs for syllables that are not monomoraic, and those that once did have simplified over time to eliminate that complexity. For example, the Vai syllabary originally had separate glyphs for syllables ending in a coda, the modern script has been expanded to cover all moras, but at the same time reduced to exclude all other syllables. g. Ko-no-so for Κνωσός Knōsos, pe-ma for σπέρμα sperma, the Cherokee syllabary generally uses dummy vowels for coda consonants, but also has a segmental grapheme for /s/, which can be used both as a coda and in an initial /sC/ consonant cluster. The languages of South Asia and Southeast Asia, as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages, have a type of alphabet called an abugida or alphasyllabary, in the 19th century these systems were called syllabics, a term which has survived in the name of Canadian Aboriginal syllabics. In a true syllabary there may be graphic similarity between characters that share a common consonant or vowel sound, but it is not systematic or close to regular. For example, the characters for ke, ka, and ko in Japanese hiragana have no similarity to indicate their common k sound, compare abugida, where each grapheme typically represents a syllable but where characters representing related sounds are all similar graphically. For example, in Devanagari, an abugida, the characters for ke, ka and ko are के, का and को respectively. English, along many other Indo-European languages like German and Russian, allows for complex syllable structures
2.
Japanese writing system
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The modern Japanese writing system is a combination of two character types, logographic kanji, which are adopted Chinese characters, and syllabic kana. Almost all written Japanese sentences contain a mixture of kanji and kana, because of this mixture of scripts, in addition to a large inventory of kanji characters, the Japanese writing system is often considered to be the most complicated in use anywhere in the world. Several thousand kanji characters are in regular use, each has an intrinsic meaning, and most have more than one pronunciation, the choice of which depends on context. Japanese primary and secondary students are required to learn 2,136 jōyō kanji as of 2010. The total number of kanji is well over 50,000, in modern Japanese, the hiragana and katakana syllabaries each contain 46 basic characters, or 71 including diacritics. With one or two exceptions, each different sound in the Japanese language corresponds to one character in each syllabary. Unlike kanji, these characters represent sounds only, they convey meaning only as part of words. Hiragana and katakana characters also originally derive from Chinese characters, but have been simplified and modified to such an extent that their origins are no longer visually obvious, the principle of the syllabic script itself is thought to have been borrowed from the Indian Sanskritic Siddham script. Although rare, there are words that use all three scripts in the same word. An example of this is the term くノ一, which uses a hiragana, a katakana, and it is said that if all three characters are put in the same kanji square, they all combine to create the kanji 女. Another example is 消しゴム which means eraser, and uses a kanji, a hiragana, to a lesser extent, modern written Japanese also uses acronyms from the Latin alphabet, for example in terms such as BC/AD, a. m. /p. m. Romanized Japanese, called rōmaji, is most frequently used by students of Japanese who have not yet mastered kana. Most kanji have more than one pronunciation, and some common kanji have many. Unusual or nonstandard readings may be glossed using furigana, kanji compounds are sometimes given arbitrary readings for stylistic purposes. For example, in Natsume Sōsekis short story The Fifth Night, the author uses 接続って for tsunagatte, the gerundive -te form of the verb tsunagaru, the word 接続, meaning connection, is normally pronounced setsuzoku. There are even kanji terms that have pronunciations that correspond with neither the onyomi or the kunyomi of the individual kanji within the term, such as 明日 and 大人. Hiragana are used to write the following, okurigana —inflectional endings for adjectives and verbs—such as る in 見る and い in 白い, and respectively た and かった in their past tense inflections 見た and 白かった. Miscellaneous other words of various types that lack a kanji rendition, or whose kanji is obscure, difficult to typeset
3.
Okinawan scripts
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This article describes the modern Okinawan writing system. See the Okinawan language article for an overview of the language, for the writing systems in Ryukyuan languages in general, see the Ryukyuan languages article. Okinawan language, spoken in Okinawa Island, was once the language of the Ryukyu Kingdom. At the time, documents were written in kanji and hiragana, however, after Japan annexed the kingdom, the language was labeled as the dialect of Standard Japanese, and punished in schools through the use of dialect cards. Nowadays, most Japanese, as well as most Okinawans, tend to think of Okinawan as merely a dialect of Standard Japanese, as a dialect, modern Okinawan language is not written frequently. When it is, the Japanese writing system is used with an ad hoc manner. There is no standard orthography for the modern language, nonetheless, there are a few systems announced by scholars and lay-people alike. None of them are widespread among the speakers, but those systems can write the language with less ambiguity than the ad hoc conventions. The Roman alphabet in form or another is used in some publications. The modern conventional ad hoc spellings found in Okinawa, the system devised by the Council for the Dissemination of Okinawan Dialect. The system devised by Okinawa Center of Language Study, a section of University of the Ryukyus, unlike others, this method is intended purely as a phonetic guidance, basically uses katakana only. For the sake of a comparison, corresponding hiragana are used in this article. 新沖縄文字, devised by Yoshiaki Funazu, in his textbook Utsukushii Okinawa no Hougen, the rule applies to hiragana only. Katakana is used as in Japanese, just like in the usage of Okinawan. 1, At the beginning of a word,2, University of the Ryukyus system is an exception, always using ゐ, をぅ, え, を for, and い, う, いぇ, お for, respectively. 3, Hatsuon 4, Sokuon 5, Chōon, In conventional usages, longer vowels are sometimes spelt like in mainland Japanese as well, ou for ō, doubled kana for others
4.
Oracle bone script
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The vast majority were found at the Yinxu site. They record pyromantic divinations of the last nine kings of the Shang dynasty, beginning with Wu Ding, whose accession is dated by different scholars at 1250 BCE or 1200 BCE. After the Shang were overthrown by the Zhou dynasty in c.1046 BCE, divining with milfoil became more common and it is also the oldest known member and ancestor of the Chinese family of scripts, preceding the bronzeware script. The term oracle bone was first coined by the American missionary Frank H. Chalfant in his 1906 book Early Chinese Writing, because turtle shells as well as bones were used, the oracle bone script is also sometimes called shell and bone script. As the majority of oracle bones bearing writing date to the late Shang dynasty and it is certain that Shang-lineage writing underwent a period of development before the Anyang oracle bone script, because of its mature nature. However, no significant quantity of clearly identifiable writing from before or during the early to middle Shang cultural period has been discovered, the oracle bone script of the late Shang appears pictographic, as does its contemporary, the Shang writing on bronzes. The earliest oracle bone script appears even more so than examples from late in the period, additionally, the writing of characters in vertical columns, from top to bottom, is for the most part carried over from the bamboo books to oracle bone inscriptions. The vertical columns of text in Chinese writing are traditionally ordered from right to left and this level of maturity clearly implies an earlier period of development of at least several hundred years. Compare, for instance, the third and fourth graphs in the row below, without careful research to compare these to later forms, one would probably not know that these represented 豕 shĭ swine and 犬 quǎn dog respectively. By the late Shang oracle bone script, the graphs had already evolved into a variety of mostly non-pictographic functions, phonetic loan graphs, semantic-phonetic compounds, and associative compounds were already common. Although it was a fully functional writing system, the oracle bone script was not fully standardized, a graph when inverted horizontally generally refers to the same word, and additional components are sometimes present without changing the meaning. These irregularities persisted until the standardization of the script in the Qin dynasty. Of the thousands of characters found from all the fragments so far. One reason for this is that components of certain oracle bone script characters may differ in later script forms, such differences may be accounted for by character simplification and/or by later generations misunderstanding the original graph, which had evolved beyond recognition. Another reason is that some characters exist only in oracle bone script, in such cases, context - when available - may be used to determine the possible meaning of the character. One good example is shown in the fragment below, labeled oracle bone script for Spring, the top left character in this image has no known modern Chinese counterpart. One of the better known characters however is shown directly beneath it looking like an isosceles triangle with a line cutting through the upper portion. This is the oracle bone script character for 王 wáng, the numbers of oracle bones with inscriptions contemporaneous with the end of Shang and the beginning of Zhou is relatively few in number compared with the entire corpus of Shang inscriptions
5.
Seal script
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Seal script is an ancient style of writing Chinese characters that was common throughout the latter half of the 1st millennium BC. It evolved organically out of the Zhou dynasty script, arising in the Warring State of Qin, there are two uses of the word seal script, the Large or Great Seal script and the lesser or Small Seal Script, the latter is also called simply seal script. The Large Seal script was originally a later, vague Han dynasty reference to writing of the Qin system similar to and it has also been used to refer to Western Zhou forms or even oracle bones as well. There were several different variants of seal script which developed in each kingdom independently during the warring state period and spring, the birds and worms script was used in the Kingdoms of Wu, Chu, and Yue. It was found on several artifacts including the Spear of Fuchai, on one side of the blade of Goujian, eight characters were written in an ancient script. The script was found to be the one called 鳥蟲文 birds and worms characters, initial analysis of the text deciphered six of the characters, 越王 and 自作用劍. As a southern state, Chu was close to the Wu-Yue influences, Chu produced broad bronze swords that were similar to Wuyue swords, but not as intricate. Chu also used the Birds and Worms style, which was borrowed by the Wu, the script of the Qin system had evolved organically from the Zhou script starting in the Spring and Autumn period. Beginning around the Warring States period, it became vertically elongated with a regular appearance and this was the period of maturation of Small Seal script, also called simply seal script. Through Chinese commentaries, it is known that Li Si compiled Cangjiepian and their form is characterized by being less rectangular and more squarish. The first known character dictionary was the 3rd century BC Erya, collated and bibliographed by Liu Xiang and his son Liu Xin, not long after, however, the Shuowen Jiezi, the lifework of Xu Shen, was written. Its 9,353 entries reproduce the standardized small-seal script variant for each entry, entries are categorized under 540 section headers. It has been anticipated that the Small Seal script will some day be encoded in Unicode, codepoints U+34000 to U+368FF have been tentatively allocated. Old Texts Phags-pa Chén Zhāoróng Research on the Qín Lineage of Writing, academia Sinica, Institute of History and Philology Monograph. Qin Yun Song, Big Seal Script Banner Script translation Richard Sears on seal script
6.
Clerical script
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Due to its high legibility to modern readers, it is still used for artistic flavor in a variety of functional applications such as headlines, signboards, and advertisements. This legibility stems from the rectilinear structure, a feature shared with modern regular script. Clerical script is popularly but mistakenly thought to have developed or been invented in the early Han dynasty from the seal script. Another traditional account is that it was invented by government scribes, in particular involved in the justice. Furthermore, rather than being established by government scribes, it has argued that clerical script was already in popular use. The popularity of this vulgar writing grew as the use of writing became more widespread. The Qín bamboo script is an example of this transition, having evolved from vulgar Qín writing. The etymology of the Chinese name for the script lìshū is uncertain, during Warring States, proto-clerical script emerged in casual, informal usage. During the Qin dynasty it appears to have also used in some scribal capacity. Thus, the evolution from clerical script to standard script was not a step as commonly supposed. Translation of 文字學概論 by Mattos and Norman, Early China Special Monograph Series No.4. Berkeley, The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley
7.
Regular script
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Regular script, also called 正楷, 真書, 楷體 and 正書, is the newest of the Chinese script styles, hence most common in modern writings and publications. Regular script came into being between the Eastern Hàn and Cáo Wèi dynasties, and its first known master was Zhōng Yáo and he is known as the “father of regular script”, and his famous works include the Xuānshì Biǎo, Jiànjìzhí Biǎo, and Lìmìng Biǎo. Qiu Xigui describes the script in Zhong’s Xuānshì Biǎo as, …clearly emerging from the womb of early period semi-cursive script. However, other than a few literati, very few wrote in this script at the time, most continued writing in neo-clerical script, or a form of semi-cursive. Thus, regular script has parentage in early semi-cursive as well as neo-clerical scripts and those in between are usually called medium regular script, or zhongkai. What these are relative to other characters, the Eight Principles of Yong are said to contain a variety of most of the strokes found in regular script. The most common printed typeface styles Ming and sans-serif are based on the structure of regular script, the Japanese textbook typefaces are based on regular script, but modified so that they appear to be written with a pencil or pen. They also follow the character forms prescribed in the Jōyō kanji. Zhuyin Fuhao characters, although not true Chinese characters, are always written with regular script strokes. Translation of 文字學概論 by Mattos and Norman, Early China Special Monograph Series No.4. Berkeley, The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, regular Script tao te king CHAPTER LVII More on Standard Script In English, at BeyondCalligraphy. com
8.
Kanji
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Kanji, or kanji, are the adopted logographic Chinese characters that are used in the modern Japanese writing system along with hiragana and katakana. The Japanese term kanji for the Chinese characters literally means Han characters and is using the same characters as the Chinese word hànzì. Chinese characters first came to Japan on official seals, letters, swords, coins, mirrors, the earliest known instance of such an import was the King of Na gold seal given by Emperor Guangwu of Han to a Yamato emissary in 57 AD. Chinese coins from the first century AD have been found in Yayoi-period archaeological sites, however, the Japanese of that era probably had no comprehension of the script, and would remain illiterate until the fifth century AD. The earliest Japanese documents were written by bilingual Chinese or Korean officials employed at the Yamato court. For example, the correspondence from King Bu of Wa to Emperor Shun of Liu Song in 478 has been praised for its skillful use of allusion. Later, groups of people called fuhito were organized under the monarch to read, during the reign of Empress Suiko, the Yamato court began sending full-scale diplomatic missions to China, which resulted in a large increase in Chinese literacy at the Japanese court. The Japanese language had no form at the time Chinese characters were introduced. Chinese characters also came to be used to write Japanese words, around 650 CE, a writing system called manyōgana evolved that used a number of Chinese characters for their sound, rather than for their meaning. Manyōgana written in cursive style evolved into hiragana, or onna-de, that is, ladies hand, major works of Heian-era literature by women were written in hiragana. Katakana emerged via a path, monastery students simplified manyōgana to a single constituent element. Thus the two writing systems, hiragana and katakana, referred to collectively as kana, are descended from kanji. Katakana are mostly used for representing onomatopoeia, non-Japanese loanwords, the names of plants and animals, and for emphasis on certain words. In 1946, following World War II and under the Allied Occupation of Japan and this was done with the goal of facilitating learning for children and simplifying kanji use in literature and periodicals. The number of characters in circulation was reduced, and formal lists of characters to be learned during each grade of school were established, some characters were given simplified glyphs, called shinjitai. Many variant forms of characters and obscure alternatives for common characters were officially discouraged and these are simply guidelines, so many characters outside these standards are still widely known and commonly used, these are known as hyōgaiji. The kyōiku kanji are 1,006 characters that Japanese children learn in elementary school, originally the list only contained 881 characters. This was expanded to 996 characters in 1977 and it was not until 1982 the list was expanded to its current size
9.
Katakana
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Katakana is a Japanese syllabary, one component of the Japanese writing system along with hiragana, kanji, and in some cases the Latin script. The word katakana means fragmentary kana, as the characters are derived from components of more complex kanji. Katakana and hiragana are both kana systems, with one or two minor exceptions, each syllable in the Japanese language is represented by one character, or kana, in each system. Katakana are characterized by short, straight strokes and sharp corners, there are two main systems of ordering katakana, the old-fashioned iroha ordering, and the more prevalent gojūon ordering. The gojūon inherits its vowel and consonant order from Sanskrit practice, in vertical text contexts, which used to be the default case, the grid is usually presented as 10 columns by 5 rows, with vowels on the right hand side and ア on top. Katakana glyphs in the row or column do not share common graphic characteristics. The 50-sound table is often amended with a character, the nasal stop ン. This can appear in positions, most often next to the N signs or, because it developed from one of many mu hentaigana. It may also be appended to the row or the a column. Here, it is shown in a table of its own, the script includes two diacritic marks that change the initial sound of a syllabogram. Both appear mutually exclusive at the right of the base character. A double dot, called dakuten, indicates a primary alteration, most often it voices the consonant, k→g, s→z, t→d and h→b, for example, secondary alteration, where possible, is shown by a circular handakuten, h→p, For example, ハ becomes パ. Diacritics, though used for over a thousand years, only became mandatory in the Japanese writing system in the half of the 20th century. Their application is limited in proper writing systems, but may be more extensive in academic transcriptions. Furthermore, some characters may have special semantics when used in smaller size after a normal one, but this does not make the script truly bicameral. The layout of the gojūon table promotes a systematic view of kana syllabograms as being pronounced with the same single consonant followed by a vowel. As a particle, it is written in hiragana and the katakana form. A small version of the katakana for ya, yu or yo may be added to katakana ending in i and this changes the i vowel sound to a glide to a, u or o, e. g. キャ /kja/
10.
Hentaigana
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In the Japanese writing system, hentaigana are obsolete or nonstandard hiragana. They include both stylistic variants of current hiragana and distinct alternative hiragana characters, today, with a few exceptions, there is only one hiragana for each of the fifty consonant–vowel sequences in Japanese. However, traditionally there were generally several more-or-less interchangeable hiragana for each, a 1900 script reform ordained that only one selected character be used for each mora, with the rest deemed hentaigana. Although not normally used in publication, hentaigana are still used in shop signs, hiragana originate in manyōgana, a system where kanji were used to write sounds without regard to their meaning. There was more than one kanji that could be used equivalently for each syllable, over time the manyōgana was reduced to a cursive form, the hiragana. Many hentaigana derive from different kanji from the ones for the now-standard hiragana, as hentaigana have derived from manyōgana, there are hundreds of different hentaigana used to represent only 90 morae of the Japanese language. On the other hand, katakana do not have hentaigana, katakanas choices of manyōgana segments had stabilized early on and established – with few exceptions – an unambiguous phonemic orthography long before the 1900 script regularization. Hentaigana are not currently included in Unicode, although they have been accepted for Unicode 10.0, the hiragana syllabic n derives from a cursive form of the character 无, and originally signified /mu͍/, the same as む. The spelling reform of 1900 separated the two uses, declaring that む could only be used for /mu͍/ and ん could only be used for syllable-final /ɴ/. Previously, in the absence of a character for the syllable-final /ɴ/, the sound was spelled identically to /mu͍/ and this ambiguity has led to some modern expressions based on what are, in effect, spelling pronunciations. For example, iwan to suru trying to say is ultimately a reading of mu as n, hentaigana are considered obsolete, but a few marginal uses remain. For example, the word otemoto is written in hentaigana on some chopsticks, hentaigana are used in some formal handwritten documents, particularly in certificates issued by classical Japanese cultural groups. Also, they are used in reproductions of classic Japanese texts, akin to the use of blackletter in English. Modern poems may be composed and printed in hentaigana for visual effect, however, most Japanese people are unable to read hentaigana nowadays, only recognizing a few from their common use in shop signs, or figuring them out from context. Some of the following hentaigana are cursive forms of the kanji as their standard hiragana counterparts. Others descend from unrelated kanji that represent the same sound, hentaigana are adapted from the reduced and cursive forms of the following man’yōgana characters. Source characters for the kana are not repeated below for hentaigana even when there are alternative glyphs, some uncertain
11.
Universal Character Set characters
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The Unicode Consortium and the International Organisation for Standardisation collaborate on the Universal Character Set. The UCS is a standard to map characters used in natural language, mathematics, music. By creating this mapping, the UCS enables computer software vendors to interoperate, because it is a universal map, it can be used to represent multiple languages at the same time. UCS has a capacity to encode over 1 million characters. Each UCS character is represented by a code point, which is an integer between 0 and 1,114,111, used to represent each character within the internal logic of text processing software. The number of encoded characters is made up as follows,128,019 graphical characters 218 special purpose characters for control, ISO maintains the basic mapping of characters from character name to code point. Often the terms character and code point will get used interchangeably, however, when a distinction is made, a code point refers to the integer of the character, what one might think of as its address. Input methods can be through keyboard or a character palette. The UCS can be divided in various ways, such as by plane, block, character category, the x must be lowercase in XML documents. The nnnn or hhhh may be any number of digits and may include leading zeros, the hhhh may mix uppercase and lowercase, though uppercase is the usual style. In contrast, an entity reference refers to a character by the name of an entity which has the desired character as its replacement text. The entity must either be predefined or explicitly declared in a Document Type Definition, the format is the same as for any entity reference, &name, where name is the case-sensitive name of the entity. Unicode and ISO divide the set of points into 17 planes. As of 2016 ISO and the Unicode Consortium has only allocated characters, the others remain empty and reserved for future use. Most characters are assigned to the first plane, the Basic Multilingual Plane. This is to ease the transition for legacy software since the Basic Multilingual Plane is addressable with just two octets. The characters outside the first plane usually have very specialized or rare use. Each plane corresponds with the value of the one or two hexadecimal digits preceding the four ones, hence U+24321 is in Plane 2, U+4321 is in Plane 0
12.
International Phonetic Alphabet
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The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of language, phones, phonemes, intonation. IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a letter, or with a letter plus diacritics. Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription, thus, /t/ is less specific than, occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters,52 diacritics and these are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA. In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, for example, the sound was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the digraph ⟨ch⟩ in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, the idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the International Phonetic Association Kiel Convention in 1989, a minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives. The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap, apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology were created in 1990, the general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as do hard, finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as selectiveness. These are organized into a chart, the chart displayed here is the chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet, for this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither, for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a question mark
13.
Specials (Unicode block)
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Specials is a short Unicode block allocated at the very end of the Basic Multilingual Plane, at U+FFF0–FFFF. Of these 16 codepoints, five are assigned as of Unicode 9, U+FFFD � REPLACEMENT CHARACTER used to replace an unknown, unrecognized or unrepresentable character U+FFFE <noncharacter-FFFE> not a character. FFFE and FFFF are not unassigned in the sense. They can be used to guess a texts encoding scheme, since any text containing these is by not a correctly encoded Unicode text. The replacement character � is a found in the Unicode standard at codepoint U+FFFD in the Specials table. It is used to indicate problems when a system is unable to render a stream of data to a correct symbol and it is usually seen when the data is invalid and does not match any character, Consider a text file containing the German word für in the ISO-8859-1 encoding. This file is now opened with an editor that assumes the input is UTF-8. The first and last byte are valid UTF-8 encodings of ASCII, therefore, a text editor could replace this byte with the replacement character symbol to produce a valid string of Unicode code points. The whole string now displays like this, f�r, a poorly implemented text editor might save the replacement in UTF-8 form, the text file data will then look like this, 0x66 0xEF 0xBF 0xBD 0x72, which will be displayed in ISO-8859-1 as f�r. Since the replacement is the same for all errors this makes it impossible to recover the original character, a better design is to preserve the original bytes, including the error, and only convert to the replacement when displaying the text. This will allow the text editor to save the original byte sequence and it has become increasingly common for software to interpret invalid UTF-8 by guessing the bytes are in another byte-based encoding such as ISO-8859-1. This allows correct display of both valid and invalid UTF-8 pasted together, Unicode control characters UTF-8 Mojibake Unicodes Specials table Decodeunicodes entry for the replacement character
14.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
15.
Stroke order
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Stroke order refers to the order in which the strokes of a Chinese character are written. A stroke is a movement of an instrument on a writing surface. Chinese characters are used in forms in Chinese, Japanese, Korean. They are known as Hanzi in Chinese, kanji in Japanese, Hanja in Korean, Chinese characters are basically logograms constructed with strokes. Over the millennia a set of agreed rules have been developed by custom. This promotes writing speed, accuracy, and readability and this idea is particularly important since as learners progress, characters often get more complex. Since stroke order also aids learning and memorization, students are taught about it from a very early age in schools. The Eight Principles of Yong uses the single character 永, meaning eternity, in ancient China, the Jiǎgǔwén characters carved on ox scapula and tortoise plastrons showed no indication of stroke order. The characters show huge variations from piece to piece, sometimes even within one piece, during the divination ceremony, after the cracks were made, the characters were written with a brush on the shell or bone. In early Imperial China, the script was the Xiaozhuan style. About 220 BC, the emperor Qin Shi Huang, the first to all of China, imposed Li Sis character uniformisation. Its graphs on old steles — some dating from 200 BC — reveal indications of the order of the time. However, stroke order could not yet be ascertained from the steles. The true starting point of order is the Lìshū style which is more regularized. Kǎishū style — still in use today — is more regularized, the stroke order 1000 years ago was similar to that toward the end of Imperial China. For example, the order of 广 is clear in the Kangxi dictionary of 1716, but in a modern book. The Kangxi and current shapes have tiny differences, while current stroke order is still the same, however, the stroke orders implied by the Kangxi dictionary are not necessarily similar to nowadays norm. Cursive styles such as Xíngshū and Cǎoshū show stroke order more clearly than Regular Script, the modern governments of mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Japan have standardized official stroke orders to be taught in schools
16.
Kana
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Kana are syllabic Japanese scripts, a part of the Japanese writing system contrasted with the logographic Chinese characters known in Japan as kanji. There are three scripts, modern cursive hiragana, formerly known as a womens script, modern angular katakana. Hentaigana are historical variants of modern standard hiragana, in modern Japanese, hiragana and katakana have directly corresponding character sets. Katakana with a few additions is also used to write Ainu, Taiwanese kana was used in Taiwanese Hokkien as a gloss for Chinese characters during the Japanese administration of Taiwan. Each kana character corresponds to one sound in the Japanese language and this is always CV, such as ka, ki, etc. or V, such as a, i, etc. with the sole exception of the C grapheme for nasal codas usually romanised as n. Due to the number of phonemes in Japanese, as well as the relatively rigid syllable structure. The following table reads, in order, as a, i, u, e, o, then ka, ki, ku, ke, ko. N appears on its own at the end, there are presently no kana for ye, yi or wu, as corresponding syllables do not occur in Japanese natively. There was an archaic Hiragana ye, derived from the manyōgana kanji 江, which is encoded into Unicode at codepoint U+1B001, while there was a katakana wu, its usage ended due to that sound never having existed in Japanese, and it does not currently exist in Unicode. The sound is believed to have existed in pre-Classical Japanese, mostly prior to the advent of kana and it is believed that e and ye become both pronounced mostly as ye, and that the pronunciation e surpassed ye during the Edo period. In modern orthography, if necessary, may be written as いぇ, however, this usage is limited and nonstandard. Si, ti, tu, hu, wi, we and wo are often romanized respectively as shi, chi, tsu, fu, i, e and o instead, according to contemporary pronunciation. Syllables beginning with the consonants, and are spelled with kana from the corresponding unvoiced columns. Syllables beginning with are spelled with kana from the h column, zi, di, and du are often transcribed into English as ji, ji, and zu instead, respectively, according to contemporary pronunciation. Usually, are represented respectively by バ, ビ, ブ, ベ, and ボ, for example, in such as バイオリン, but the distinction can be preserved by using ヴァ, ヴィ, ヴ, ヴェ. Note that ヴ did not have a JIS-encoded Hiragana form until JIS X0213, syllables beginning with palatalized consonants are spelled with one of the seven consonantal kana from the i row followed by small ya, yu or yo. There are no digraphs for the y and w columns. The digraphs are usually transcribed with three letters, leaving out the i, CyV, for example, きゃ is transcribed as kya. si+y* and ti+y* are often transcribed sh* and ch* instead of sy* and ty*
17.
Japanese punctuation
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Japanese can be written horizontally or vertically, and some punctuation marks adapt to this change in direction. Parentheses, curved brackets, square quotation marks, ellipses, dashes, Japanese punctuation marks are usually full width. Punctuation began to be used in Japanese when translations from European languages became common in the 19th century, various types of brackets are used in Japanese. As in English, brackets are used in pairs to set apart or interject text within other text, when writing vertically, brackets are rotated clockwise ninety degrees. Each bracket occupies its own square when using genkō yōshi, ｛ ｝ namikakko （ ） marukakko ［ ］ kakukakko 【 】 sumitsukikakko, also known as lenticular brackets. The comma is used in contexts, principally for marking off separate elements within a sentence. In horizontal writing, the comma is placed at the right of the preceding character. In vertical writing, it is placed immediately below and to the right of the last character, in horizontally written manuscripts that contain a mixture of Japanese and Western characters, the full-width comma may be incorporated as well. No extra space is left after a comma, ellipses, but the katakana form of question mark is also common. ♪ This sign is added to the tail of a phrase, example, うさぎおひし♪ かのやま♪ Iteration mark Japanese typographic symbols East Asian punctuation, notably, Chinese punctuation, which uses a similar set of symbols but with some differences
18.
Iteration mark
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Iteration marks are characters or punctuation marks that represent a duplicated character or word. In Chinese, 二 or 々 is used in writing to represent a doubled character. In a tabulated table or list, vertical repetition can be represented by a ditto mark, iteration marks have been occasionally used for more than two thousand years in China. The bronze script from the Zhou Dynasty, shown right, ends with “子二孫二寶用”, in both Indonesian and Malay nouns that are repeated to form plurals can be shortened with the use of 2 e. g. kata becomes kata-kata which can be shortened to kata2. Its usage dates back to the time when the languages were written in Jawi, the usage of 2 can also replaced with superscript version of the same number ². Even though its usage is common in handwriting, it is considered to be slang and is not found in formal writing, the use of 2 and ² has increased in recent years and is no longer limited to pluralization. For example, the Malay word harap², shortened from harap-harap, is the version of harap. Some youths use 2 and ² for some changing sound words, E. g. hingar² for hingar-bingar, this differs from the original use of the mark for exact duplicates. Apart from the 2 and ² marks, the mark was also used in Malay. Japanese has various iteration marks for its three writing systems, namely kanji, hiragana, and katakana, but only the kanji iteration mark is used today. In Japanese, iteration marks are used to represent a character representing the same morpheme. Further, while hibi can in principle be written as 日日, hinichi cannot be written as ×日々, in potentially confusing examples such as this, readings can be disambiguated by writing words out in hiragana, so hinichi is often found as 日にち or even ひにち rather than 日日. Note that sound changes can occur in duplication, which is not reflected in writing, such as 人 hito + 人 hito = 人々 hitobito or 刻 koku + 刻 koku = 刻々 kokkoku, though this is also pronounced kokukoku. The formal name of the kanji repetition symbol is dōnojiten but is sometimes called noma because it looks like the katakana no and this symbol originates from a simplified form of the character 仝, a variant of 同 written in the Grass Script style. Although Japanese kanji iteration marks are borrowed from Chinese, the function of duplication differs. While Japanese does not have a plural form per se. This differs from Chinese, which normally repeats characters only for the purposes of adding emphasis, when the reading is different, the second kanji is often simply written out to avoid confusion. Where a character ends up appearing twice as part of a compound, it is written out in full, 民主主義 minshu-shugi—democracy, from 民主 + 主義
19.
Furigana
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Furigana is a Japanese reading aid, consisting of smaller kana, or syllabic characters, printed next to a kanji or other character to indicate its pronunciation. It is one type of ruby text, Furigana is also known as yomigana or rubi in Japanese. In modern Japanese, it is used to gloss rare kanji, to clarify rare, nonstandard or ambiguous kanji readings. Prior to the post-World War II script reforms, it was more widespread, Furigana is most often written in hiragana, though katakana is used in certain special cases explained later in the article. In vertical text, tategaki, the furigana is placed to the right of the line of text, while in text, yokogaki, it is placed above the line of text. These examples spell the word kanji, which is made up of two characters, 漢, and 字. The latter method is common, especially since some words in Japanese have unique pronunciations that are not related to readings of any of the characters the word is written with. These cause severe spacing problems due to length and these words being used as units, however, this distinction is really only important in dictionaries and other reference works. In ordinary prose, the chosen will usually be hiragana. Occasionally this style is used for loanwords from other languages. For example, the kanji 一角獣 might be glossed with katakana ユニコーン, yunikōn, to show the pronunciation of the loanword unicorn, generally, though, such loanwords are just written in straight katakana. This was especially common in old-fashioned movable type printing when smaller fonts were not available, nowadays, with computer-based printing systems, this occurs less frequently. Furigana are most commonly used in works for children, who may not have sufficiently advanced reading skills to recognize the kanji, because children learn hiragana before katakana, in books for very young children, there are hiragana furigana next to the katakana characters. It is common to use furigana on all characters in works for young children. This is called sōrubi in Japanese, many childrens and shōnen manga use furigana. There are also books with a guide for Japanese learners. These are popular with foreigners wishing to master Japanese faster and enjoy reading Japanese short stories, some websites and tools exist which provide a phonetic guide for Japanese web pages, these are popular with both Japanese children and foreign Japanese learners. In works aimed at adult Japanese speakers, furigana may be used on a written in uncommon kanji, in the mass media
20.
Okurigana
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Okurigana are kana suffixes following kanji stems in Japanese written words. They serve two purposes, to inflect adjectives and verbs, and to force a particular kanji to have a specific meaning and be read a certain way. For example, the verb form 見る inflects to past tense 見た, where 見 is the kanji stem. With very few exceptions, okurigana are used for kunyomi, not for onyomi. When used to inflect an adjective or verb, okurigana can indicate aspect, affirmative or negative meaning, or grammatical politeness, in modern usage, okurigana are almost invariably written with hiragana, katakana were also commonly used in the past. Analogous orthographic conventions find occasional use in English, which, being more familiar, by contrast, in the noun Xmas for Christmas, the character Χ is instead read as Christ. The suffixes serve as phonetic complements to indicate which reading to use, another common example is in ordinal and cardinal numbers –1 is read as one, while 1st is read as fir-st. Adjectives in Japanese use okurigana to indicate aspect and affirmation-negation, with all using the same pattern of suffixes for each case. A simple example uses the character 高 to express the four cases of a Japanese adjective. The root meaning of the word is expressed via the kanji, both individual kanji and multi-kanji words may have multiple readings, and okurigana are used in both cases. Note the okurigana are not considered part of the reading, grammatically the verb is kudasa-ru, compare with furigana, which, specify the complete reading, appear outside the line of the text, and which are omitted if understood. Another example includes a common verb with different meanings based on the okurigana, example, ちゃんと話す方がいい。, meaning Its better if you speak correctly. 話し noun form of the verb hanasu, to speak, example, 話し言葉と書き言葉, meaning spoken words and written words. 話 noun, meaning a story or a talk, example, 話はいかが？, meaning How about a story. Okurigana are not always sufficient to specify the reading, in such cases the reading must be deduced from context or via furigana. Ambiguity may be introduced in inflection – even if okurigana specify the reading in the form of a verb. Examples include nouns such as 気配り kikubari care, consideration versus 気配 kehai indication, hint, sign, Note that in this later case, the native verb and the borrowed Chinese word with the same kanji have approximately the same meaning, but are pronounced differently. For a few categories of words, okurigana correspond to historical suffixes which are no distinct or productive, and the suffix is now fused to the word
21.
Japanese Braille
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Japanese Braille is the braille script of the Japanese language. It is based on the original script, though the connection is tenuous. In Japanese it is known as tenji, literally dot characters and it transcribes Japanese more or less as it would be written in the hiragana or katakana syllabaries, without any provision for writing kanji. Japanese Braille is a vowel-based abugida and that is, the glyphs are syllabic, but unlike kana they contain separate symbols for consonant and vowel, and the vowel takes primacy. The vowels are written in the left corner and may be used alone. The consonants are written in the right corner and cannot occur alone. However, the y is indicated by point 4, one of the vowel points. When this point is written in isolation, it indicates that the syllable has a medial y. Syllables beginning with w are indicated by dropping the points to the bottom of the cell without additional consonant points. The chart below shows each braille character under the corresponding hiragana, in order to illustrate the derivation of each character from its component vowel and consonant, the vowel points are written in black, and the consonant points in green. There is no distinction in braille as it is actually used. The vowels are assigned the braille patterns that occupy the upper-left half of the cell in numerical order, the consonantal diacritics, on the other hand, have no apparent connection to international values or numerical order, corresponding as they do to international punctuation and formatting marks. In kana, a small tsu, called sokuon, is used to indicate that the consonant is geminate. In katakana only, a vowel is indicated with a horizontal stroke called a chōon. Similarly, p is derived from h by adding a small circle, two kana are fused into a single syllable by writing the second small, as in きゃ kya from ki + ya, this is called yōon. In Japanese Braille, the signs for these are prefixes and that is, the order is dakuten + ki for ぎ gi. When more than one occurs in a syllable, they are combined in a single prefix block. The yōon prefix uses the point that represents y in the blocks ya, yu, when placed before ka, ku, ko, it produces kya, kyu, kyo
22.
Romanization of Japanese
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The romanization of Japanese is the application of the Latin script to write the Japanese language. This method of writing is referred to in English as rōmaji. There are several different romanization systems, the three main ones are Hepburn romanization, Kunrei-shiki romanization, and Nihon-shiki romanization. Variants of the Hepburn system are the most widely used, Japanese is normally written in a combination of logographic characters borrowed from Chinese and syllabic scripts which also ultimately derive from Chinese characters. It is also used to transliterate Japanese terms in text written in English on topics related to Japan, such as linguistics, literature, history, and culture. Rōmaji is the most common way to input Japanese into word processors and computers, all Japanese who have attended elementary school since World War II have been taught to read and write romanized Japanese. The word rōmaji literally means Roman letters, and in Japan it is often used to refer to the Latin alphabet itself than to any specific form of romanized Japanese. The earliest Japanese romanization system was based on the Portuguese orthography and it was developed around 1548 by a Japanese Catholic named Yajiro. Jesuit priests used the system in a series of printed Catholic books so that missionaries could preach and teach their converts without learning to read Japanese orthography. The most useful of these books for the study of early modern Japanese pronunciation and early attempts at romanization was the Nippo jisho, in general, the early Portuguese system was similar to Nihon-shiki in its treatment of vowels. The latter continued to be printed and read after the suppression of Christianity in Japan, the Hepburn system included representation of some sounds that have since changed. The Nihon-shiki romanization was an outgrowth of that movement, several Japanese texts were published entirely in rōmaji during this period, but it failed to catch on. Today, the use of Nihon-shiki for writing Japanese is advocated by the Oomoto sect, during the Allied occupation of Japan, the government of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers made it official policy to romanize Japanese. However, that failed and a more moderate attempt at Japanese script reform followed. Hepburn romanization generally follows English phonology with Romance vowels and it is an intuitive method of showing Anglophones the pronunciation of a word in Japanese. It was standardized in the USA as American National Standard System for the Romanization of Japanese, Hepburn is the most common romanization system in use today, especially in the English-speaking world. The Revised Hepburn system of romanization uses a macron to indicate long vowels. For example, the name じゅんいちろう, is written with the kana characters ju-n-i-chi-ro-u, without the apostrophe, it would not be possible to distinguish this correct reading from the incorrect ju-ni-chi-ro-u
23.
Hepburn romanization
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The system was originally proposed by the Romanization Club in 1885. The revised edition by Romaji-Hirome-kai in 1908 is called standard style romanization, Hepburn is based on English phonology and has competed with the alternative Nihon-shiki romanization, which was developed in Japan as a replacement of Japanese script. In 1930, a Special Romanization Study Commission was appointed to compare the two, the ordinance was temporarily overturned by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers during the Occupation of Japan, but was reissued in 1954. In 1972, a version of Hepburn was codified as ANSI standard Z39. 11-1972. It was proposed in 1989 as a draft for ISO3602, the ANSI Z39. 11-1972 standard was consequently deprecated on October 6,1994. As of 1978, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, in addition The Japan Times, the Japan Travel Bureau, and many other private organizations used Hepburn instead of Kunrei-shiki. The National Diet Library used Kunrei-shiki, although Hepburn is not a government standard, some government agencies mandate it. In many other areas where it de jure status, Hepburn remains the de facto standard. Signs and notices in city offices and police stations, at shrines, temples, English-language newspapers and media use the simplified form of Hepburn. Cities and prefectures use it in information for English-speaking residents and visitors, official tourism information put out by the government uses it, as do guidebooks, local and foreign, on Japan. Many students of Japanese as a foreign language learn Hepburn, there are many variants of Hepburn romanization. The two most common styles are, Traditional Hepburn, as defined in various editions of Hepburns dictionary and this variant is characterized by the rendering of syllabic n as m before the consonants b, m and p, e. g. Shimbashi for 新橋. Modified Hepburn, also known as Revised Hepburn, in which the rendering of syllabic n as m before certain consonants is no longer used, in Japan itself, there are some variants officially mandated for various uses, Railway Standard, which follows the Hyōjun-shiki Rōmaji. All JR railways and other major railways use this type for station names, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Standard, which follows the modified Hepburn style. This is used for road signs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Passport Standard, a permissive standard which explicitly allows the use of non-Hepburn romaji in personal names, notably for passports. In particular, rendering the syllabic n as m before b, m, p, details of these variants can be found below. The romanizations set out in the first and second versions of Hepburns dictionary are primarily of historical interest, supporters argue that Hepburn is not intended as a linguistic tool. The long vowels are indicated by macrons
24.
Kunrei-shiki romanization
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Kunrei-shiki rōmaji is a Cabinet-ordered, Japanese romanization system, i. e. a system for transcribing the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet. Its name is rendered Kunreisiki using Kunrei-shiki itself, Kunrei-shiki is sometimes known as the Monbushō system in English, because it is taught in the Monbushō-approved elementary school curriculum. The ISO has standardized Kunrei-shiki under ISO3602, Kunrei-shiki is based on the older Nihon-shiki system, modified for modern standard Japanese. For example, the word かなづかい, romanized kanadukai in Nihon-shiki, is pronounced kanazukai in common modern Japanese, Kunrei-shiki competes with the older Hepburn romanization system, which was promoted by the authorities during the occupation of Japan. In the period before World War II there was a conflict between supporters of Hepburn romanization and supporters of Nihon-shiki romanization. In 1930 a board of inquiry under the aegis of the Minister of Education was established to determine the proper romanization system, the Japanese government, by cabinet order, announced on September 21,1937 that a modified form of Nihon-shiki would be officially adopted as Kunrei-shiki. The form at the time differs slightly from the modern day form, originally the system was called the Kokutei system. The Japanese government gradually introduced Kunrei-shiki and it appeared in secondary education, on railway station signboards, on nautical charts, and on the 1,1,000,000 scale International Map of the World. In the period when the government had strong control, from 1937 to 1945. In Japan, some use of Nihon-shiki and Modified Hepburn remained because some individuals supported the use of those systems, some editorials printed in Japanese newspapers advocated for only using Hepburn. Supporters of Hepburn denounced pro-Kunrei-shiki and pro-Nihon-shiki advocates to the SCAP offices, accusing them of being inactive militarists, unger said that the nature of Kunrei-shiki led to pent-up anger among the Hepburn supporters. During the post-war period, several educators and scholars tried to introduce romanized letters as a teaching device, however Kunrei-shiki had associations with Japanese militarism and the U. S. occupying government was reluctant to promote it. On December 9,1954, the Japanese government re-confirmed Kunrei-shiki as its official system, eleanor Jorden, an American linguist, made textbooks that used a modified version of Kunrei-shiki. They were used in the 1960s in courses given to U. S. diplomats, the use of her books did not change the U. S. governments hesitation to use Kunrei-shiki. As of 1974, according to the Geographical Survey Institute, Kunrei-shiki was used for topographical maps while Modified Hepburn was used for geological maps, as of 1978, the National Diet Library used Kunrei-shiki. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, in addition The Japan Times, the Japan Travel Bureau, and many other private organizations used Hepburn instead of Kunrei-shiki. The system was promulgated as Japanese Cabinet Order No.3 as of September 21,1937. But since this had been overturned by the SCAP during the Occupation of Japan, Kunrei-shiki has been recognized, along with Nihon-shiki, in ISO3602,1989
25.
ISO 3602
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Kunrei-shiki rōmaji is a Cabinet-ordered, Japanese romanization system, i. e. a system for transcribing the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet. Its name is rendered Kunreisiki using Kunrei-shiki itself, Kunrei-shiki is sometimes known as the Monbushō system in English, because it is taught in the Monbushō-approved elementary school curriculum. The ISO has standardized Kunrei-shiki under ISO3602, Kunrei-shiki is based on the older Nihon-shiki system, modified for modern standard Japanese. For example, the word かなづかい, romanized kanadukai in Nihon-shiki, is pronounced kanazukai in common modern Japanese, Kunrei-shiki competes with the older Hepburn romanization system, which was promoted by the authorities during the occupation of Japan. In the period before World War II there was a conflict between supporters of Hepburn romanization and supporters of Nihon-shiki romanization. In 1930 a board of inquiry under the aegis of the Minister of Education was established to determine the proper romanization system, the Japanese government, by cabinet order, announced on September 21,1937 that a modified form of Nihon-shiki would be officially adopted as Kunrei-shiki. The form at the time differs slightly from the modern day form, originally the system was called the Kokutei system. The Japanese government gradually introduced Kunrei-shiki and it appeared in secondary education, on railway station signboards, on nautical charts, and on the 1,1,000,000 scale International Map of the World. In the period when the government had strong control, from 1937 to 1945. In Japan, some use of Nihon-shiki and Modified Hepburn remained because some individuals supported the use of those systems, some editorials printed in Japanese newspapers advocated for only using Hepburn. Supporters of Hepburn denounced pro-Kunrei-shiki and pro-Nihon-shiki advocates to the SCAP offices, accusing them of being inactive militarists, unger said that the nature of Kunrei-shiki led to pent-up anger among the Hepburn supporters. During the post-war period, several educators and scholars tried to introduce romanized letters as a teaching device, however Kunrei-shiki had associations with Japanese militarism and the U. S. occupying government was reluctant to promote it. On December 9,1954, the Japanese government re-confirmed Kunrei-shiki as its official system, eleanor Jorden, an American linguist, made textbooks that used a modified version of Kunrei-shiki. They were used in the 1960s in courses given to U. S. diplomats, the use of her books did not change the U. S. governments hesitation to use Kunrei-shiki. As of 1974, according to the Geographical Survey Institute, Kunrei-shiki was used for topographical maps while Modified Hepburn was used for geological maps, as of 1978, the National Diet Library used Kunrei-shiki. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, in addition The Japan Times, the Japan Travel Bureau, and many other private organizations used Hepburn instead of Kunrei-shiki. The system was promulgated as Japanese Cabinet Order No.3 as of September 21,1937. But since this had been overturned by the SCAP during the Occupation of Japan, Kunrei-shiki has been recognized, along with Nihon-shiki, in ISO3602,1989
26.
Nihon-shiki romanization
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Nihon-shiki or Nippon-shiki Rōmaji is a romanization system for transliterating the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet. In discussion about romaji, it is abbreviated as Nihon-shiki or Nippon-shiki, among the major romanization systems for Japanese, Nippon-shiki is the most regular, and has a one-to-one relation to the kana writing systems. In practice, Nippon-shiki has been supplanted by Hepburn romanization. It was invented by physicist Aikitsu Tanakadate in 1885, with the intention to replace the Hepburn system of romanization, Nippon-shiki was followed by Kunrei-shiki, which was adopted in 1937 after a political debate over whether Nihon-shiki or Hepburn-shiki should be used by the Japanese government. For example, the word かなづかい, rendered kanadukai in Nippon-shiki, is pronounced as kanazukai in modern Japanese, Nippon-shiki is considered the most regular of the romanization systems for the Japanese language, because it maintains a strict one kana, two letters form. Nippon-shiki has been established by the International Organization for Standardization in the ISO3602 strict form, the JSL system, which is intended for use instructing foreign students of Japanese, is also based on Nippon-shiki. Note, Letters in red are obsolete in modern Japanese, when he へ is used as a particle it is written he not e. When ha は is used as a particle it is written ha not wa, when wo を is used as a particle it is written wo not o. Long vowels are indicated by a circumflex, for long o is written ô, unlike Hepburn. Syllabic n ん is written as n before consonants but as n before vowels, geminate consonants are marked by doubling the consonant following the sokuon, っ, without exception. List of ISO romanizations Gottlieb, Nanette, journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Published online on November 30,2009, kent, Allen, Harold Lancour, and Jay Elwood Daily. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science Volume 21, nihongo Daihakubutsukan, author, Kida, Junichirō, publisher, Just System ISBN 4-88309-046-9, chapter 6
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ISO 3602 Strict
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Nihon-shiki or Nippon-shiki Rōmaji is a romanization system for transliterating the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet. In discussion about romaji, it is abbreviated as Nihon-shiki or Nippon-shiki, among the major romanization systems for Japanese, Nippon-shiki is the most regular, and has a one-to-one relation to the kana writing systems. In practice, Nippon-shiki has been supplanted by Hepburn romanization. It was invented by physicist Aikitsu Tanakadate in 1885, with the intention to replace the Hepburn system of romanization, Nippon-shiki was followed by Kunrei-shiki, which was adopted in 1937 after a political debate over whether Nihon-shiki or Hepburn-shiki should be used by the Japanese government. For example, the word かなづかい, rendered kanadukai in Nippon-shiki, is pronounced as kanazukai in modern Japanese, Nippon-shiki is considered the most regular of the romanization systems for the Japanese language, because it maintains a strict one kana, two letters form. Nippon-shiki has been established by the International Organization for Standardization in the ISO3602 strict form, the JSL system, which is intended for use instructing foreign students of Japanese, is also based on Nippon-shiki. Note, Letters in red are obsolete in modern Japanese, when he へ is used as a particle it is written he not e. When ha は is used as a particle it is written ha not wa, when wo を is used as a particle it is written wo not o. Long vowels are indicated by a circumflex, for long o is written ô, unlike Hepburn. Syllabic n ん is written as n before consonants but as n before vowels, geminate consonants are marked by doubling the consonant following the sokuon, っ, without exception. List of ISO romanizations Gottlieb, Nanette, journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Published online on November 30,2009, kent, Allen, Harold Lancour, and Jay Elwood Daily. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science Volume 21, nihongo Daihakubutsukan, author, Kida, Junichirō, publisher, Just System ISBN 4-88309-046-9, chapter 6
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JSL romanization
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JSL is a romanization system for transcribing the Japanese language into the Latin script. It was devised by Eleanor Jorden for her 1987 book Japanese, the system is based on Kunrei-shiki romanization. It is designed for teaching spoken Japanese, and so, it follows Japanese phonemes fairly closely, JSL differs from Hepburn particularly in that it uses doubled vowels, rather than macrons, to represent the long vowels /oː/ and /ɯː/. Tokyo and Osaka, for instance, would be written and in JSL, there is a close tie between Japanese pronunciation and JSL, where one consistent symbol is given for each Japanese phoneme. This means that it does depart from Japanese orthography somewhat, as おう is romanized as when it indicates a long /oː/, similarly, is reserved for the pronunciation only, whereas other romanization systems follow the hiragana orthography, therefore making it impossible to tell whether or are represented. It also distinguishes between, which is used only a /ɡ/ sound is possible, and, which is used when a velar nasal sound is also possible. The particles は and へ are romanized and, in accordance with their pronunciation, however, like Kunrei-shiki and Nihon-shiki, JSL does not distinguish between allophones in Japanese which are close to different phonemes in English. JSL indicates the pitch accent of each mora, a vowel with an acute accent denotes the first high-pitch mora, a grave accent marks the last high-pitch mora, and a circumflex marks the only high-pitch mora in a word. In this system 日本 Japan would be written and 二本 two as, 端です Its the edge would be (standing for /hasi desu/, the Yale romanization of Cantonese and Yale romanization of Korean were developed at Yale in the 1960s and 70s. Jorden, Eleanor Harz with Noda, Mari, new Haven and London, Yale University Press
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Japanese language
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Japanese is an East Asian language spoken by about 125 million speakers, primarily in Japan, where it is the national language. It is a member of the Japonic language family, whose relation to language groups, particularly to Korean. Little is known of the prehistory, or when it first appeared in Japan. Chinese documents from the 3rd century recorded a few Japanese words, during the Heian period, Chinese had considerable influence on the vocabulary and phonology of Old Japanese. Late Middle Japanese saw changes in features that brought it closer to the modern language, the standard dialect moved from the Kansai region to the Edo region in the Early Modern Japanese period. Following the end in 1853 of Japans self-imposed isolation, the flow of loanwords from European languages increased significantly, English loanwords in particular have become frequent, and Japanese words from English roots have proliferated. Japanese is an agglutinative, mora-timed language with simple phonotactics, a vowel system, phonemic vowel and consonant length. Word order is normally subject–object–verb with particles marking the grammatical function of words, sentence-final particles are used to add emotional or emphatic impact, or make questions. Nouns have no number or gender, and there are no articles. Verbs are conjugated, primarily for tense and voice, but not person, Japanese equivalents of adjectives are also conjugated. Japanese has a system of honorifics with verb forms and vocabulary to indicate the relative status of the speaker, the listener. Japanese has no relationship with Chinese, but it makes extensive use of Chinese characters, or kanji, in its writing system. Along with kanji, the Japanese writing system uses two syllabic scripts, hiragana and katakana. Latin script is used in a fashion, such as for imported acronyms. Very little is known about the Japanese of this period, Old Japanese is the oldest attested stage of the Japanese language. Through the spread of Buddhism, the Chinese writing system was imported to Japan, the earliest texts found in Japan are written in Classical Chinese, but they may have been meant to be read as Japanese by the kanbun method. Some of these Chinese texts show the influences of Japanese grammar, in these hybrid texts, Chinese characters are also occasionally used phonetically to represent Japanese particles. The earliest text, the Kojiki, dates to the early 8th century, the end of Old Japanese coincides with the end of the Nara period in 794
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Latin script
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Latin script is used as the standard method of writing in most Western and Central European languages, as well as in many languages in other parts of the world. Latin script is the basis for the largest number of alphabets of any writing system and is the most widely adopted writing system in the world, Latin script is also the basis of the International Phonetic Alphabet. The 26 most widespread letters are the contained in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The script is either called Roman script or Latin script, in reference to its origin in ancient Rome, in the context of transliteration, the term romanization or romanisation is often found. Unicode uses the term Latin as does the International Organization for Standardization, the numeral system is called the Roman numeral system, and the collection of the elements, Roman numerals. The numbers 1,2,3. are Latin/Roman script numbers for the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, the Latin alphabet spread, along with Latin, from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The Latin script also came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages, the speakers of East Slavic languages generally adopted Cyrillic along with Orthodox Christianity. The Serbian language uses both scripts, with Cyrillic predominating in official communication and Latin elsewhere, as determined by the Law on Official Use of the Language and Alphabet. As late as 1500, the Latin script was limited primarily to the languages spoken in Western, Northern, the Orthodox Christian Slavs of Eastern and Southeastern Europe mostly used Cyrillic, and the Greek alphabet was in use by Greek-speakers around the eastern Mediterranean. The Arabic script was widespread within Islam, both among Arabs and non-Arab nations like the Iranians, Indonesians, Malays, and Turkic peoples, most of the rest of Asia used a variety of Brahmic alphabets or the Chinese script. It is used for many Austronesian languages, including the languages of the Philippines, Latin letters served as the basis for the forms of the Cherokee syllabary developed by Sequoyah, however, the sound values are completely different. In the late 19th century, the Romanians returned to the Latin alphabet, under French rule and Portuguese missionary influence, a Latin alphabet was devised for the Vietnamese language, which had previously used Chinese characters. In 1928, as part of Mustafa Kemal Atatürks reforms, the new Republic of Turkey adopted a Latin alphabet for the Turkish language, kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Iranian-speaking Tajikistan, and the breakaway region of Transnistria kept the Cyrillic alphabet, chiefly due to their close ties with Russia. In the 1930s and 1940s, the majority of Kurds replaced the Arabic script with two Latin alphabets, although the only official Kurdish government uses an Arabic alphabet for public documents, the Latin Kurdish alphabet remains widely used throughout the region by the majority of Kurdish-speakers. In 2015, the Kazakh government announced that the Latin alphabet would replace Cyrillic as the system for the Kazakh language by 2025. In the course of its use, the Latin alphabet was adapted for use in new languages, sometimes representing phonemes not found in languages that were written with the Roman characters. These new forms are given a place in the alphabet by defining an alphabetical order or collation sequence, a digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the written letters in sequence. Examples are ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ng⟩, ⟨rh⟩, ⟨sh⟩ in English, a trigraph is made up of three letters, like the German ⟨sch⟩, the Breton ⟨c’h⟩ or the Milanese ⟨oeu⟩
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Velar nasal
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The velar nasal is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. It is the sound of ng in English sing, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ŋ⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is N. Both the IPA symbol and the sound are commonly called eng or engma, while almost all languages have /m/ and /n/, /ŋ/ is rarer. Only half of the 469 languages surveyed in Anderson had a nasal phoneme, as a further curiosity. In many languages that do not have the velar nasal as a phoneme, an example of a language that lacks a phonemic or allophonic velar nasal is Russian, in which /n/ is pronounced as laminal denti-alveolar even before velar consonants. It also makes it more difficult to allow air to escape through the nose. Features of the nasal, Its manner of articulation is occlusive. Because the consonant is nasal, the blocked airflow is redirected through the nose. Its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the soft palate and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the nose. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
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French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
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Pronunciation
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Pronunciation is the way a word or a language is spoken, or the manner in which someone utters a word. If one is said to have correct pronunciation, then it refers to both within a particular dialect, syllables are counted as units of sound that they use in their language. The branch of linguistics which studies these units of sound is phonetics, phones which play the same role are grouped together into classes called phonemes, the study of these is phonemics or phonematics or phonology. Phones as components of articulation are usually described using the International Phonetic Alphabet
