1.
Quebec referendum, 1995
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Voting took place on October 30,1995, and featured the largest voter turnout in Quebecs history. The No option carried by 54,288 votes, Quebec, a province in Canada since its foundation in 1867, has always been the sole majority French-speaking province. Among these was René Lévesque, who would found the Parti Québécois with like-minded groups seeking independence from Canada. After arriving in power in 1976, the PQ government held a referendum in 1980 seeking a mandate to negotiate sovereignty-association with Canada that was decisively defeated. During tense negotiations in November 1981, an agreement was reached between Trudeau and nine of the ten premiers by Trudeau, but not Lévesque, the Constitution Act of 1982 was enacted without the Quebec National Assemblys symbolic approval. Trudeaus successor as Prime Minister, Brian Mulroney, and Quebec Liberal premier Robert Bourassa sought a series of Constitutional amendments designed to address Quebecs concerns. The Accord, after debate in English Canada, fell apart in dramatic fashion in the summer of 1990, prompting outrage in Quebec. Following these events, Bourassa proclaimed that a referendum would occur in 1992 and this prompted a national referendum on the Charlottetown Accord of 1992, a series of amendments that included the proposals of Meech Lake as well as concerns of the broader Canadian federation. The Accord failed in Quebec and English Canada, in the 1993 federal election, as the Liberals returned to power with a majority government under Jean Chrétien, who had been Minister of Justice during the 1980-81 constitutional discussions. The Bloc Québécois won 54 seats with 49. 3% of Quebecs vote, in Quebec, the 1994 provincial election brought the sovereigntist Parti Québécois back to power, led by Jacques Parizeau. The partys platform promised to hold a referendum on sovereignty during his term in office as premier, the PQ won a majority government with 44. 75% of the popular vote. The Commission was boycotted by the Liberal Party of Quebec, the Liberal Party of Canada, the primary issue of debate within the sovereignty movement became on what terms sovereignty would be put before the electorate. Parizeaus stance created opposition in the sovereignty movement, which coalesced around Bloc Québécois leader Lucien Bouchard, a popular and charismatic figure, Bouchard had come close to death from necrotizing fasciitis and lost his left leg. His recovery, and subsequent public appearances on crutches, provided a point for sovereigntists. Bouchard thought a proposal lacking a partnership would doom the project among soft nationalists who worried about the consequences of separation. As polls showed Parizeaus approach as highly unlikely to even exceed 40% support in a referendum, after Parizeau moved the planned referendum date to the fall, Deputy Premier Bernard Landry aroused ire by stating he would not want to be involved in a charge of the light brigade. During the Blocs April conference, after a speech demanding a change in direction, Mario Dumont, leader of the new Action démocratique du Québec, also stated that he would only consider participation in the referendum if a partnership was made part of the question. The final findings of the National Commission, issued April 19, most importantly for Parizeau, the agreement also allowed the government to declare immediate independence if negotiations were not successful or heard after a successful referendum
2.
Canada in the Cold War
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During the Cold War, Canada was one of the western powers playing a central role in the major alliances. It was an ally of the United States, but there were several foreign policy differences between the two countries over the course of the Cold War, subsequent peacekeeping interventions occurred in the Congo, Cyprus, the Sinai, Vietnam, Golan Heights, Lebanon, and Namibia. Canada did not follow the American lead in all Cold War actions, Canada refused to join the Vietnam War and in 1984 the last nuclear weapons based in Canada were removed. Relations were maintained with Cuba and the Canadian government recognized the Peoples Republic of China before the United States, also Canadian military facilities were maintained in Bermuda, France and the United Kingdom. Canadians also assisted in humanitarian efforts, and sending observers for the United Nations to India, there was never any doubt early on as to which side Canada was on in the Cold War due to its location. On the domestic front, the Canadian state at all levels fought vehemently against what it characterized as communist subversion, Canadian and business leaders opposed the advance of the labour movement on the grounds that it was a Bolshevik conspiracy during the interwar period. The peak moments of this effort were the Winnipeg General Strike of 1919, Canada was a founding member of NATO, of which Prime Minister St. Laurent was a chief architect. Canada was one of its most ardent supporters and pushed to have it become an economic, Canada had far less of the anti-Communist hysteria that had afflicted the United States. The United States wished the Canadian government would go further, asking for a purging of trade unions, but Canada saw this as American hysteria, the Communist Party of Canada had not been outlawed since Section 98 was repealed by Prime Minister Mackenzie King in 1935. Despite its comparatively moderate stance towards Communism, the Canadian state continued intensive surveillance of Communists, PROFUNC was a Government of Canada top secret plan to identify and detain Communist sympathizers during the height of the Cold War. Despite having been cleared several years earlier, first by the RCMP in 1950, then again by the Canadian Minister of External Affairs, Pearson, the United States media portrayed Norman as a spy and traitor. The only evidence the United States had was that as a student at Cambridge, the possibility of a security breach was raised again, this time in the House of Commons, with the Munsinger Affair in the 1960s. It was during the Cold War period that Canada began to assert the international clout that went along with the reputation it had built on the stage in World War I. In the Korean War, the moderately sized contingent of soldiers from Canada made noteworthy contributions to the United Nations forces. Of particular note is the Princess Patricias Canadian Light Infantrys contribution to the Battle of Kapyong, Canadas major Cold War contribution to international politics was made in the innovation and implementation of Peacekeeping. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, the idea promoted by Canada in 1945 of a United Nations military force returned to the fore. The Soviets went as far as to say they would be willing to use all types of weapons of destruction on London. Pearsons United Nations Emergency Force - the first peacekeeping force, was deployed to separate the combatants, to defend North America against a possible enemy attack, Canada and the United States began to work very closely together in the 1950s
3.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
4.
Paul Martin
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Paul Edgar Philippe Martin PC CC, also known as Paul Martin Jr. is a Canadian politician who served as the 21st Prime Minister of Canada from December 12,2003, to February 6,2006. Martin served as the Member of Parliament for the riding of LaSalle—Émard in Montreal from his election in the 1988 election to his retirement in 2008 and he served as Minister of Finance from 1993 to 2002. On November 14,2003, Martin succeeded Jean Chrétien as leader of the Liberal Party, after the 2004 election, his Liberal Party retained power, although only as a minority government. Forced by a vote to call the 2006 general election. The Liberals now assumed the role of opposition to a Conservative government. Martin stayed on as party leader until he resigned on March 18 and he was eventually succeeded by Stéphane Dion. Martin sits as an advisor to Canadas Ecofiscal Commission, Martin was born at Hôtel-Dieu of St. Joseph Hospital in Windsor, Ontario. L. Mackenzie King, Louis St. Laurent, Lester B and his mother, Eleanor Nelly Alice, was of Scottish and Irish descent. He has one sister, Mary-Anne Bellamy, who was diagnosed with Crohns disease at a young age and she died on July 20,2011. Martin contracted polio in 1946 at the age of eight and he grew up in Windsor and Ottawa. To give him the opportunity to improve his French, his parents enrolled him in a private French-language middle school, École Garneau in Ottawa. Martin then briefly attended the University of Ottawa before transferring and graduating from St. Michaels College at the University of Toronto with a B. A. in history and philosophy in 1961. Martin was a member of Psi Upsilon fraternity and the U of T Young Liberals during his time at the University of Toronto and he then attended the University of Toronto Faculty of Law, where he received a LL. B. in 1964. He was called to the Ontario bar in 1966, on September 11,1965, Martin married Sheila Ann Cowan, with whom he has three sons, Paul, Jamie and David. In 1969, Power Corporation took a controlling-share in Canada Steamship Lines, on December 2,1970, Paul Martin, the 32-year-old executive assistant to Power Corporation Chief Executive Officer Maurice Strong, was appointed to the CSL board of directors. In 1971 CSL minority shareholders sold outstanding shares to Power Corporation, CSL suffered losses in 1972 when forced to cover unexpected cost overruns in the construction of three 80, 000-ton ocean-going tankers at Davie Shipbuilding. On November 22,1973, Paul Martin was appointed President, in 1974, CSL earnings were further hurt by an eight-week strike on the Great Lakes. In 1976, Power Corporation reversed itself and took over the investment portfolio which had sold to CSL five years earlier
5.
Stephen Harper
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Stephen Joseph Harper PC is a Canadian entrepreneur and retired politician who served as the 22nd Prime Minister of Canada, from February 6,2006 to November 4,2015. He was the first prime minister to come from the modern Conservative Party of Canada, which was formed by a merger of the Progressive Conservative Party, Harper was member of parliament for the riding of Calgary Heritage in Alberta from 2002 to 2016. Earlier, from 1993 to 1997, he was the MP for Calgary West and he was one of the founding members of the Reform Party, but did not seek re-election in the 1997 federal election. Harper instead joined and later led the National Citizens Coalition, a conservative lobbyist group, in 2002, he succeeded Stockwell Day as leader of the Canadian Alliance, the successor to the Reform Party and returned to parliament as Leader of the Opposition. In 2003, he reached an agreement with Progressive Conservative leader Peter MacKay for the merger of their two parties to form the Conservative Party of Canada and he was elected as the partys first leader, in March 2004. Harper stepped down as MP on August 26,2016, the 2006 federal election resulted in a minority government led by the Conservative Party with Harper becoming the 22nd Prime Minister of Canada. By proportion of seats, this was Canadas smallest minority government since Confederation, despite this, it was the longest-serving minority government overall. The 40th Canadian Parliament was dissolved in March,2011, after a vote that deemed the Cabinet to be in contempt of parliament. Harper resigned as party leader on October 19,2015, Harper moved back to Calgary, Alberta, and commuted to Ottawa as an opposition backbench member of parliament. Harper was born and raised in Leaside, Toronto, the first of three sons of Margaret and Joseph Harris Harper, an accountant at Imperial Oil. Harper attended Northlea Public School and, later, John G. Althouse Middle School and Richview Collegiate Institute and he graduated in 1978, and was a member of Richview Collegiates team on Reach for the Top, a television quiz show for Canadian high school students. Harper enrolled at the University of Toronto but dropped out two months. He then moved to Edmonton, Alberta, where he work in the mail room at Imperial Oil. Later, he advanced to work on the computer systems. He took up post-secondary studies again at the University of Calgary and he later returned there to earn a masters degree in economics, completed in 1991. Harper has kept strong links to the University of Calgary, Harper was the first prime minister since Joe Clark without a law degree. Harper became involved in politics as a member of his high schools Young Liberals Club and he later changed his political allegiance because he disagreed with the National Energy Program of Pierre Trudeaus Liberal government. He left the PC Party that same year and he was then recommended by the University of Calgarys economist Bob Mansell to Preston Manning, the founder and leader of the Reform Party of Canada
6.
Justin Trudeau
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Justin Pierre James Trudeau PC MP is a Canadian politician. He is the 23rd and current Prime Minister of Canada and leader of the Liberal Party. The second youngest Prime Minister after Joe Clark, he is also, as the eldest son of former Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, born in Ottawa, Trudeau attended Collège Jean-de-Brébeuf and graduated from McGill University in 1994 and the University of British Columbia in 1998. He gained a public profile in October 2000, when he delivered a eulogy at his fathers state funeral. After graduating, he worked as a teacher in Vancouver, British Columbia and he completed one year of an engineering program at Montreals École Polytechnique before quitting in 2003. In 2005 he began a degree in environmental geography at McGill University. He used his profile to advocate for various causes and acted in the 2007 TV miniseries The Great War. Eight years after his fathers death, Trudeau entered politics, in the 2008 federal election, he was elected to represent the riding of Papineau in the House of Commons. In 2009, he was appointed the Liberal Partys critic for youth and multiculturalism, in 2011, he was appointed as critic for secondary education and youth and amateur sport. On Christmas Day, Justin Trudeau was born at 9,27 pm EST at the Ottawa Civic Hospital, like all Canadian hospitals at that time, Ottawa Civic Hospital barred husbands from the delivery room. The hospitals board of directors promptly ended the restriction following Margaret Trudeaus protests and many hospitals in the city. Trudeau is the child in Canadian history to be born to a prime minister in office. Trudeaus younger brothers Alexandre and Michel were the third and fourth, Trudeau is predominantly of Scottish, French Canadian, and English descent. His grandfathers were businessman Charles-Émile Trudeau and Scottish-born James Sinclair, who served as minister of fisheries in the cabinet of prime minister Louis St. Laurent. Trudeaus maternal great-grandfather Thomas Bernard was born in Makassar to an Anglo-Dutch colonial family and immigrated to Penticton, on April 14,1972, Trudeaus father and mother hosted a gala at the National Arts Centre, at which visiting U. S. president Richard M. Earlier that same day U. S. first lady Pat Nixon had come to see him in his nursery to deliver a gift, nixons White House audio tapes later revealed Nixon referred to that visit as wasting three days up there. That trip we needed like a hole in the head and his parents publicly announced their separation on May 27,1977, when Trudeau was five years old, with his father having custody. Eventually his parents came to an amicable joint-custody arrangement and learned to get quite well
7.
History of Canada
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The history of Canada covers the period from the arrival of Paleo-Indians thousands of years ago to the present day. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first European arrivals and have discovered through archaeological investigations. Starting in the late 15th century, French and British expeditions explored, colonized, the colony of New France was established in 1534 and was ceded to the United Kingdom in 1763 after the French defeat in the Seven Years War. The now British Province of Quebec was divided into Upper and Lower Canada in 1791, in 1867, the Province of Canada was joined with two other British colonies of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia through Confederation, forming a self-governing entity named Canada. The new dominion expanded by incorporating parts of British North America, finishing with Newfoundland. Although responsible government had existed in Canada since 1848, Britain continued to set its foreign, with the passing of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, Canada became co-equal with the United Kingdom. After the Constitution was repatriated in 1982, the vestiges of legal dependence on the British parliament were removed. Canada currently consists of ten provinces and three territories and is a democracy and a constitutional monarchy with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state. Since the conclusion of the Second World War, Canadians have supported multilateralism abroad, archeological and Aboriginal genetic evidence indicate that North and South America were the last continents into which humans migrated. During the Wisconsin glaciation,50, 000–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the Bering land bridge, from Siberia into northwest North America. At that point, they were blocked by the Laurentide ice sheet covered most of Canada, confining them to Alaska. The exact dates and routes of the peopling of the Americas are the subject of an ongoing debate, by 16,000 years ago the glacial melt allowed people to move by land south and east out of Beringia, and into Canada. The Queen Charlotte Islands, Old Crow Flats, and Bluefish Caves contain some of the earliest Paleo-Indian archaeological sites in Canada, ice Age hunter-gatherers of this period left lithic flake fluted stone tools and the remains of large butchered mammals. The North American climate stabilized around 8000 BCE, climatic conditions were similar to modern patterns, however, the receding glacial ice sheets still covered large portions of the land, creating lakes of meltwater. Most population groups during the Archaic periods were still highly mobile hunter-gatherers, however, individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally, thus with the passage of time, there is a pattern of increasing regional generalization. The Woodland cultural period dates from about 2000 BCE to 1000 CE and includes the Ontario, Quebec, the introduction of pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the previous Archaic-stage inhabitants. The Laurentian-related people of Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada, the Hopewell tradition is an Aboriginal culture that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE to 500 CE. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell Exchange System connected cultures and societies to the peoples on the Canadian shores of Lake Ontario, Canadian expression of the Hopewellian peoples encompasses the Point Peninsula, Saugeen, and Laurel complexes
8.
Battle of the Plains of Abraham
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The Battle of the Plains of Abraham, also known as the Battle of Quebec, was a pivotal battle in the Seven Years War. The culmination of a siege by the British, the battle lasted about 15 minutes. In the wake of the battle, the French evacuated the city, their military force in Canada. France ceded most of its possessions in eastern North America to Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris, the decisive success of the British forces and the subsequent capture of Quebec City formed part of what became known as the Annus Mirabilis in Great Britain. As the Seven Years War entered its later stages through 1758 and 1759, in 1758 after defeat in July at the Battle of Carillon, the British took Louisbourg in August, causing Atlantic Canada to fall into British hands, and opening the sea route to attack Quebec. Fort Frontenac fell to the British in the month, costing the French supplies for the Ohio Valley campaign. When some of the Indian supporters of the French made peace with the British, French leadership, specifically Governor de Vaudreuil and General Montcalm, were unsettled by the British successes. However, Quebec was still able to protect itself as the British prepared an attack for 1759. James Wolfe expected to lead 12,000 men, but was greeted by only approximately 7,000 regular troops,400 officers, Wolfes troops were supported by a fleet of 49 ships and 140 smaller craft led by Admiral Charles Saunders. In preparation for the approach to Quebec, James Cook surveyed a large portion of the river. Cooks ship was one of the first ships up the river, sounding the channel and guiding the fleet as it moved up, eventually landing Wolfe and his men on the Île dOrléans on 28 June. Despite an air of defeatism among the leadership, the professional French troops, prior to the arrival of the British, a small fleet of supply ships had arrived in Quebec with much needed supplies. Those supplies, along with 500 reinforcements, were likely behind the lengthened siege, in addition, a screen of trees along the Montmorency River made an approach on that route dangerous. On 31 July, the first serious attempt by Wolfes troops to land on the northern shore led to the Battle of Beauport, approximately 3,500 troops, supported by a heavy bombardment, attempted to land, but were caught under fire in the river shallows. Some French officers felt the Montmorency defeat would be the last British attack, Wolfe, I assure you, will make no progress… He contented himself with losing about five hundred of his best soldiers. He predicted another attack would come within days, others in the French camp felt the campaign was over. For the remainder of the summer, Wolfes focus changed, possibly due to frustration with Montcalms tactics and his troops, along with American Rangers, attacked and destroyed small French settlements along the St. Lawrence. An estimated 1,400 stone houses and manors were destroyed, the effort was likely an attempt to force Montcalms army out of its fortifications, but was unsuccessful
9.
Benjamin West
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Benjamin West PRA was an Anglo-American painter of historical scenes around and after the time of the American War of Independence and the Seven Years War. He was the president of the Royal Academy in London. He was offered a knighthood by the British Crown, but declined it and he said that Art is the representation of human beauty, ideally perfect in design, graceful and noble in attitude. West was born in Springfield, Pennsylvania, in a house that is now in the borough of Swarthmore on the campus of Swarthmore College, as the child of an innkeeper. The family later moved to Newtown Square, Pennsylvania, where his father was the proprietor of the Square Tavern, Benjamin West was an autodidact, while excelling at the arts, he had little education and, even when president of the Royal Academy, could scarcely spell. From 1746 to 1759, West worked in Pennsylvania, mostly painting portraits, while West was in Lancaster in 1756, his patron, a gunsmith named William Henry, encouraged him to paint a Death of Socrates based on an engraving in Charles Rollins Ancient History. His resulting composition, which differs from the source, has been called the most ambitious. During this time West met John Wollaston, a painter who had immigrated from London. West was a friend of Benjamin Franklin, whose portrait he painted. Franklin was the godfather of Wests second son, Benjamin, in common with many artists architects and lovers of the fine arts at that time he conducted a Grand Tour. West expanded his repertoire by copying works of Italian painters such as Titian, in Rome he met a number of international neo-classical artists including German-born Anton Rafael Mengs, Scottish Gavin Hamilton, and Austrian Angelica Kauffman. In August 1763, West arrived in England, on what he intended as a visit on his way back to America. In fact, he never returned to America and he stayed for a month at Bath with William Allen, who was also in the country, and visited his half-brother Thomas West at Reading at the urging of his father. In London he was introduced to Richard Wilson and his student Joshua Reynolds and he moved into a house in Bedford Street, Covent Garden. In 1765 he married Elizabeth Shewell, an American to whom he engaged in Philadelphia. All three prelates commissioned work from him, in 1766 West proposed a scheme to decorate St Pauls Cathedral with paintings. It was rejected by the Bishop of London, but his idea of painting an altarpiece for St Stephen Walbrook was accepted, at around this time he also received acclaim for his classical subjects, such as Orestes and Pylades and The Continence of Scipio. Benjamin West was known in England as the American Raphael and his Raphaelesque painting of Archangel Michael Binding the Devil is in the collection of Trinity College, Cambridge
10.
The Death of General Wolfe
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It is an oil on canvas of the Enlightenment period. West made an additional and nearly identical painting of the scene for King George III in 1771. The Death of General Wolfe depicts the Battle of Quebec, also known as the Battle of the Plains of Abraham and this was a pivotal event in the Seven Years War and decided the fate of Frances colonies in North America. The battle was fought between the British Navy and Army and the French Army lasting only fifteen minutes, the British Army was commanded by General Wolfe. Though successful in holding the British line against the French and winning the battle, in death, General Wolfe gained fame as a national hero and became an icon of the Seven Years War and British dominance in late eighteenth century North America. West depicts General Wolfe as a Christ-like figure and this painting has a triangular composition, made by the top of the flag and the positions of the men. It resembles Christian Lamentation scenes, where Christ is held in the embrace of the Virgin Mary, captain Hervey Smythe is pictured holding Wolfes right arm. The depiction of the Indigenous warrior in the painting—kneeling with his chin on his fist, in art, the touching of ones face with ones hand is a sign of deep thought and intelligence. Some consider it an inspired by the noble savage concept. Original items of clothing that were used as a model for portraying the warrior in the painting can be found in the British Museums collection, on the ground in front of Wolfe are his musket, cartridge box, and bayonet. Wolfe went into battle armed as his men were, although his musket was of higher quality and his dress is also of note. He is wearing a red coat, a red waistcoat, red breeches, such dress was rather simple, especially for a commanding officer. Next to Wolfe, in the jacket, is Dr Thomas Hinde. The general later died in the doctors hands, in the background, and to the left of the men surrounding Wolfe, an approaching runner is depicted. In the painting, Fraser wears the Fraser tartan, which was worn by officers in that regiment. All in all four of the fourteen men depicted were actually at the battleground. The clothing West depicted in this scene was controversial at the time. Although the event was relatively recent—only eleven years prior—its subject matter made it an example of the genre of history painting
11.
Indigenous peoples in Canada
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Aboriginal peoples in Canada, are the indigenous peoples within the boundaries of present-day Canada. They comprise the First Nations, Inuit and Métis, although Indian is a term still commonly used in legal documents, the descriptors Indian and Eskimo have somewhat fallen into disuse in Canada and are pejorative. Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are some of the earliest known sites of habitation in Canada. The Paleo-Indian Clovis, Plano and Pre-Dorset cultures pre-date current indigenous peoples of the Americas, projectile point tools, spears, pottery, bangles, chisels and scrapers mark archaeological sites, thus distinguishing cultural periods, traditions and lithic reduction styles. The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal culture included permanent settlements, agriculture, civic and ceremonial architecture, complex societal hierarchies, the Métis culture of mixed blood originated in the mid-17th century when First Nation and Inuit people married Europeans. The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during early period. Various laws, treaties, and legislation have been enacted between European immigrants and First Nations across Canada, Aboriginal Right to Self-Government provides opportunity to manage historical, cultural, political, health care and economic control aspects within first peoples communities. National Aboriginal Day recognizes the cultures and contributions of Aboriginal peoples to the history of Canada, First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples of all backgrounds have become prominent figures and have served as role models in the Aboriginal community and help to shape the Canadian cultural identity. The terms First Peoples and First Nations are both used to refer to peoples of Canada. The terms First Peoples or Aboriginal peoples in Canada are normally broader terms than First Nations, as they include Inuit, Métis, First Nations has come into general use for the indigenous peoples of North America in Canada, and their descendants, who are neither Inuit nor Métis. On reserves, First Nations is being supplanted by members of various nations referring to themselves by their group or ethnical identity, in conversation this would be I am Haida, or we are Kwantlens, in recognition of their First Nations ethnicities. In this Act, Aboriginal peoples of Canada includes the Indian, Inuit, Indian remains in place as the legal term used in the Canadian Constitution. Its usage outside such situations can be considered offensive, Aboriginal peoples is more commonly used to describe all indigenous peoples of Canada. It also refers to self-identification of Aboriginal people who live within Canada claiming rights of sovereignty or Aboriginal title to lands, the term Eskimo has pejorative connotations in Canada and Greenland. Indigenous peoples in those areas have replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit, the Yupik of Alaska and Siberia do not consider themselves Inuit, and ethnographers agree they are a distinct people. They prefer the terminology Yupik, Yupiit, or Eskimo, the Yupik languages are linguistically distinct from the Inuit languages. Linguistic groups of Arctic people have no universal replacement term for Eskimo, inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people across the area inhabited by the Inuit. Besides these ethnic descriptors, Aboriginal peoples are divided into legal categories based on their relationship with the Crown
12.
New France
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The territory was divided into five colonies, each with its own administration, Canada, Hudsons Bay, Acadia, Newfoundland, and Louisiana. Acadia had a history, with the Great Upheaval, remembered on July 28 each year since 2003. The descendants are dispersed in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, in Maine and Louisiana in the United States, with populations in Chéticamp, Nova Scotia. In the sixteenth century, the lands were used primarily to draw from the wealth of natural resources, in the seventeenth century, successful settlements began in Acadia, and in Quebec by the efforts of Champlain. By 1765, the population of the new Province of Quebec reached approximately 70,000 settlers. In 1763 France had ceded the rest of New France, except the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, to Great Britain and Spain at the Treaty of Paris, in 1800, Spain returned its portion of Louisiana to France under the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. However, French leader Napoleon Bonaparte in turn sold it to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, New France eventually became part of the United States and Canada, with the only vestige remaining under French rule being the tiny islands Saint Pierre and Miquelon. In the United States, the legacy of New France includes numerous placenames as well as pockets of French-speaking communities. In Canada, institutional bilingualism and strong Francophone identities are arguably the most enduring legacy of New France, the Conquest is viewed differently among Francophone Canadians, and between Anglophone and Francophone Canadians. Around 1523, the Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano convinced King Francis I, late that year, Verrazzano set sail in Dieppe, crossing the Atlantic on a small caravel with 50 men. After exploring the coast of the present-day Carolinas early the year, he headed north along the coast. The first European to discover the site of present-day New York, he named it Nouvelle-Angoulême in honour of the king, verrazzanos voyage convinced the king to seek to establish a colony in the newly discovered land. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, in 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of King Francis I. It was the first province of New France, however, initial French attempts at settling the region met with failure. French fishing fleets continued to sail to the Atlantic coast and into the St. Lawrence River, French merchants soon realized the St. Lawrence region was full of valuable fur-bearing animals, especially the beaver, which were becoming rare in Europe. Eventually, the French crown decided to colonize the territory to secure, another early French attempt at settlement in North America took place in 1564 at Fort Caroline, now Jacksonville, Florida. Intended as a haven for Huguenots, Caroline was founded under the leadership of René Goulaine de Laudonnière and it was sacked by the Spanish led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés who then established the settlement of St. Augustine on 20 September 1565. Acadia and Canada were inhabited by indigenous nomadic Algonquian peoples and sedentary Iroquoian peoples and these lands were full of unexploited and valuable natural riches, which attracted all of Europe
13.
Canada under British rule
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Canada first came under British rule with the Treaty of Paris which ceded New France, of which Canada was a part, to the British Empire. Gradually, other territories, colonies, and provinces that were part of British North America would be added to Canada. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 enlarged the colony of Canada under the name of the Province of Quebec, with the Act of Union 1840 Upper and Lower Canada were joined to become the United Province of Canada. A number of other British colonies, such as Newfoundland and British Columbia, in North America, the Seven Years War officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on February 10,1763. As part of the treaty, France ceded all North American lands to Britain, except Louisiana, the Quebec Act became one of the Intolerable Acts that infuriated the thirteen British colonies in what would become the United States of America. In Acadia, the British had expelled French-speaking populations in 1755 from Acadia to Louisiana, creating the Cajun population, in the former French territory of Acadia, the British were confronted by a relatively large and well-established Catholic Mikmaq and Wabanaki Confederacy. The British Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710, much earlier than in what would become the rest of modern-day Canada, the Mikmaq never ceded land to either France or England. The first immigration of Protestants happened in the province with the founding of Halifax, the establishment of Halifax sparked Father Le Loutres War, which, in turn, led to the British expelling the Acadians from the region during the French and Indian War. As they later captured Cape Breton Island and Prince Edward Island, the few Acadians who managed to return to the area have created the contemporary Acadian society. Once the land was emptied, other settlements were formed by New England Planters, in 1775, American revolutionaries attempted to push their insurrection into Quebec. The habitants were divided, in areas, there was significant support. The Patriots laid siege to Fort Saint-Jean, capturing it and Montreal in November 1775 and they then marched on Quebec City, where an attempt to take the city on December 31,1775, failed. Following an ineffectual siege, the arrival of British troops in May 1776 sent the Patriots into retreat back toward Montreal, an attempt against British troops at Trois-Rivières failed, and the Patriots were driven from the province in June. Leaving with the army were about 250 Québécois in two regiments, James Livingstons 1st Canadian Regiment, and Moses Hazens 2nd Canadian Regiment. Quebeckers living in the forts of the Great Lakes region also massively sided with the Patriots and were instrumental in the taking of the fort by the Patriots. The only major event of their resistance was the Battle of Fort Cumberland, when Eddy and a force of Massachusetts Patriots, Acadians. The siege was broken and Eddys forces were scattered when British reinforcements arrived, Eddy and Allan continued to make trouble on the frontier between what are now Maine and New Brunswick from a base in Machias for several years. The Maritime provinces were affected by privateering, and raids on settlements by privateers in violation of their letters of marque
14.
Post-Confederation era
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Post-Confederation Canada is the history of a new nation from its formation to the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Canada had a population of 3.5 million, residing in the expanse from Cape Breton to just beyond the Great Lakes. One in three Canadians was French, and about 100,000 were aboriginal and it was a rural country composed of small farms. With a population of 115,000, Montreal was the largest city, followed by Toronto, pigs roamed the muddy streets of Ottawa, the small new national capital. Besides subsistence agriculture, the economy was based on exports of lumber, fish and grain, factories were small, except for those making farm implements. Economic growth of total GNP averaged only 2.4 percent per year,1870 to 1896, then surged to 6.2 percent, part of that increase was due to population growth. The rate of growth of GNP per capita was 1. 3%,1870 to 1896, then surged to 2.6 percent, 1897-1913. The growth rate was respectable, but lower than that of the United States, politically, the Father of Confederation, John A. Macdonald and his Conservative Party dominated national politics until his death. The Liberals under Wilfrid Laurier were in power 1896 to 1911, Francophones had a distinct and traditionalistic culture, led by the landholders and the priests. The Anglophones took pride in their Britishness and in their refusal to be swallowed up by the United States, baseball and lacrosse were favorite sports. There were only two libraries in the entire new country, half the adults in Quebec could not read. Hard drinking in all ranks was the norm, in fact, politically, the new nation was defined by its practicality, realism, and stoicism, it had little interest in theory or aesthetics. Much more important was loyalty to family, church, political party, historians later emphasized the iconic phrase Peace, Order and Good Government as founding constitutional principles, but at the time it was rarely quoted. On the eve of the war in 1914, the national population had reached 8.1 million. Most of the growth had taken place in the new provinces, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta. The great national achievement was the building of railways that opened the prairies to settlement. The rich new farmlands made Canada a major exporter of wheat, issues of nationalism versus loyalty to the British Crown continued. So too did increasingly bitter disputes on issues, especially the role of the French language outside Québec
15.
Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years
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During the World wars and Interwar Years Canada experienced economic gain, more freedom for women and new technological advancements. On June 28,1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated, at the time, Canadians were more concerned with events within their own country than European affairs, specifically in the Balkans where crises and wars had been brutal perennials for generations. Canada was facing its worst depression since the 1890s, Canadians hoped the Great Powers of Europe could keep the peace as they had done many times before in earlier disputes of the century. On July 29,1914, Britain warned its colonies to take precautions in case of war, most recent wars had begun with surprise attacks such as the Russo-Japanese War. Soldiers and Canadas few sailors manned Halifax fortifications and brought guns to command the St. Lawrence river, on August 2 armed militia mounted guard on bridges, canals, tunnels and railway stations in preparation. Canada got the news and Hughes was ecstatic, Britain was at war with Germany, Canada was then automatically at war, as she did not yet have control over her foreign policy — not that there were many dissenters. The war was popular even among French Canadians, including Henri Bourassa. Liberal leader Wilfrid Laurier created a party truce for as long as Canada was in danger and had those dissenters in the liberal caucus hold their tongues, in no way was Canada prepared for this scale of war. Its economy could not support it for more than a few months before being hit hard by its cost, no one expected it to last longer than a few months though, many claiming it would be over by Christmas. Mass recruiting for the war began on August 6 with hundreds of telegrams notifying Militia colonel to begin recruiting men between the ages of 18 and 45. Hordes of British immigrants and the unemployed answered the call, ontario, hard hit by the depression, accounted for third of the recruits, while two thirds of the recruits were British born. Few recruits came from the Maritimes and just over 1,000 were French, the cities of Toronto, Winnipeg and Montreal sent enough men each for two battalions. By September 4 there were 32,000 men and 8,000 horses in camp, there was an immediate demand for equipment, uniforms and weapons. The Ross Rifle Company worked overtime as did the textile mills, with a force of 32,000 equipped and ready, it soon became apparent that Embarkation from the docks would be a nightmare. Extra ships had to be chartered to carry the additional men, battalions were marched on to ships only to be marched back off when they didnt fit. Units ignored orders and schedules and crowded the docks not wishing to wait. When it was all done, the last of 30 ships had cleared the harbour, leaving 863 horses,4,512 tons of baggage, vehicles and ammunition behind, the first Canadian casualties of the war occurred before these troops arrived in Europe. Sir Christopher Cradocks squadron was sunk at the Battle of Coronel off the coast of Chile, by the time that the First Contingent reached England on October 14 it became apparent the war would not be over by Christmas
16.
Outline of Canada
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The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Canada, Canada /ˈkænədə/ is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west. The lands have been inhabited for millennia by various groups of aboriginal peoples, beginning in the late 15th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled the Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years War, in 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. Canada is a federation that is governed as a parliamentary democracy and it is a bilingual and multicultural country, with both English and French as official languages at the federal level. ca International rankings of Canada Canada is. Unlike the provinces, the territories of Canada have no inherent jurisdiction, note, Canada did not acquire any new land to create Yukon, Alberta, Saskatchewan, or Nunavut. UN Human Development Program, Country Fact Sheet, Canada, Statistics — Country Sheet, Canada Canada travel guide from Wikivoyage Canada from The Canadian Encyclopedia
17.
Culture of Canada
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The culture of Canada is a term that embodies the artistic, culinary, literary, humour, musical, political and social elements that are representative of Canada and Canadians. Throughout Canadas history, its culture has influenced by European culture and traditions, especially British and French. Over time, elements of the cultures of Canadas immigrant populations have incorporated into mainstream Canadian culture. The population has also influenced by American culture because of a shared language, proximity. Canada is often characterized as being progressive, diverse. Canadas federal government has often described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration. Canadas culture draws from its range of constituent nationalities. Canadians identify with the institutions of health care, military peacekeeping, the National park system. The Canadian government has influenced culture with programs, laws and institutions and it has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian content in many media using bodies like the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission. For tens of thousands of years, Canada was inhabited by Aboriginal peoples from a variety of different cultures, although not without conflict and bloodshed, early European interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations in what is now Canada were arguably peaceful. Combined with late economic development in many regions, this comparably nonbelligerent early history allowed Aboriginal Canadians to have an influence on the national culture. Over the course of three centuries, countless North American Indigenous words, inventions, concepts, and games have become an part of Canadian language. Many places in Canada, both features and human habitations, use indigenous names. The name Canada itself derives from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word meaning village or settlement, the name of Canadas capital city Ottawa comes from the Algonquin language term adawe meaning to trade. The French originally settled New France along the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of French Canadian culture. The British conquest of New France during the century brought 70,000 Francophones under British rule, creating a need for compromise. The migration of 40,000 to 50,000 United Empire Loyalists from the Thirteen Colonies during the American Revolution brought American colonial influences, following the War of 1812 a large wave of Irish, Scottish and English settlers arrived in Upper Canada and Lower Canada. As a result of the First and Second World Wars, the Government of Canada became more assertive, Canada until the 1940s saw itself in terms of English and French cultural, linguistic and political identities, and to some extent aboriginal
18.
Constitutional history of Canada
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The constitutional history of Canada begins with the 1763 Treaty of Paris, in which France ceded most of New France to Great Britain. Canada was the colony along the St Lawrence River, part of present-day Ontario and its government underwent many structural changes over the following century. In 1867 Canada became the name of the new federal Dominion extending ultimately from the Atlantic to the Pacific, Canada obtained legislative autonomy from the United Kingdom in 1931, and had its constitution patriated in 1982. Canadas constitution includes the amalgam of constitutional law spanning this history, on February 10,1763, France ceded most of New France to Great Britain. The 1763 Treaty of Paris confirmed the cession of Canada, including all its dependencies, Acadia, a year before, France had secretly signed a treaty ceding Louisiana to Spain to avoid losing it to the British. At the time of the signing, the French colony of Canada was already under the control of the British army since the capitulation of the government of New France in 1760. The policy of Great Britain regarding its newly acquired colonies of America was revealed in a Royal Proclamation, the proclamation renamed Canada The Province of Quebec, redefined its borders and established a British-appointed colonial government. Although not an act of Parliament, the proclamation expressed the will of the British Crown to govern its new possessions, the proclamation was thus considered constitution of Quebec until the passing of the Quebec Act, by which the colony was granted a legislature. The application of British laws such as the penal Laws caused numerous administrative problems, the requirements of the Test Act also effectively excluded Catholics from administrative positions in the British Empire. When James Murray was commissioned as general and governor in chief of the Province of Quebec, a four-year military rule ended. He believed that, over time, the Canadians would recognize the superiority of British civilization and willingly adopt its language, its religion and he officially recommended to retain French civil law and to dispense the Canadians from taking the Oath of Supremacy. Nevertheless, Murray followed his instructions and British institutions began to be established, on September 17,1764, the Courts of the Kings Bench and Common Pleas were constituted. Tensions quickly developed between the British merchants or old subjects, newly established in the colony, and Governor Murray and they were very dissatisfied with the state of the country and demanded that British institutions be created immediately. They demanded that common law be enforced to protect their business interests, Murray did not think very highly of these tradesmen. In a letter to the British Lords of Trade, he referred to them as licentious fanatics who would not be satisfied, the conciliatory approach of Murray in dealing with the demands of the Canadians was not well received by the merchants. In May 1764, they petitioned the king for Murrays removal, the merchants succeeded in having him recalled to London. He was vindicated, but did not return to the Province of Quebec, in 1768, he was replaced by Sir Guy Carleton, who would contribute to the drafting of the 1774 Quebec Act. On October 29,1764,94 Canadian subjects submitted a petition demanding that the orders of the king be available in French, in May 1774 the British merchants trading in Quebec responded by submitting their case to the king
19.
Economic history of Canada
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Canadian historians until the 1980s tended to focus on economic history, including labour history. In part this is because Canada has had far fewer political or military conflicts than other societies and this was especially true in the first half of the twentieth century when economic history was overwhelmingly dominant. Many of the most prominent English Canadian historians from this period were economic historians, such as Harold Innis, Donald Creighton, scholars of Canadian history were heirs to the traditions that developed in Europe and the United States, but frameworks that worked well elsewhere often failed in Canada. The heavily Marxist influenced economic history that dominates Europe has little relevance to most of Canadian history, a focus on class, urban areas, and industry fails to address Canadas rural and resource based economy. Similarly, the monetarist school that is dominant in the United States also has been difficult to transfer north of the border, the study of economic history in Canada became highly focused on economic geography, and for many years the dominant school of thought has been the staples thesis. This school of thought bases the study of the Canadian economy on the study of natural resources and this approach has since also become used outside of Canada in Australia and in many developing nations. Before the arrival of Europeans, the First Nations of what would become Canada had a large, furs, tools, decorative items, and other goods were often transported thousands of kilometres, mostly by canoe throughout the many rivers and lakes of the region. The earliest European settlements in Canada were the fisheries of the East Coast, boats from France, Portugal, Spain, and Great Britain would traverse the Atlantic, fish for a summer and then return laden with fish. The trade was dominated by fishers from southern Europe. In Catholic countries, demand for fish was much greater and it was from the northern nations of Britain and France that the first settlers came, however. Spain, Portugal and the south of France had abundant supplies of salt because in the warm climates it was a matter to evaporate seawater. They would thus bring barrels of salt with them to the grounds, salt the fish aboard ship. In the colder and wetter climate of the British Isles and northern France, to preserve the fish, they were dried by hanging them on large fish racks on the coast of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. These drying stations were active for months of the year, and this economic idea sought to derive the maximum material benefit from the colony, for the homeland, with a minimum of imperial investment in the colony itself. It was in turn replaced by La Compagnie des Cent-Associés created in 1627, by the King of France, Louis XIII and these were the first corporations to operate in what is now Canada. Harold Innis, based in the department at the University of Toronto. They argued that the Canadian Economy was primarily based on exports of a series of staples—fish, fur, timber, wheat—that shipped to Britain, the thesis explains Canadian economic development as a lateral, east-west conception of trade. Innis argued that Canada developed as it did because of the nature of its staple commodities, raw materials, such as fish, fur, lumber, agricultural products and this trading link cemented Canadas cultural links to Britain
20.
Former colonies and territories in Canada
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A number of states and polities formerly claimed colonies and territories in Canada prior to the evolution of the current provinces and territories under the federal system. The colonization of Canada by Europeans began in the 10th century, France relinquished nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years War to the British Empire. Britains imperial government over a century later then ceded the land to Canadian control in 1867 after confederation, since then, Canadas external borders have changed several times, and had grown from four initial provinces to ten provinces and three territories by 1999. The Mikmaq in todays Maritimes were governed as seven districts with their own district chiefs. To the west around the Great Lakes Council of Three Fires was formed in 796 CE according to oral history, the five tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy, was united in 1142 CE according to their oral traditions. There was also the four or possibly five tribes of the Huron Confederacy, the Iron Confederacy of present-day Alberta and Saskatchewan consisted of numerous bands of mixed Plains Cree, Assiniboine, and Saulteaux people. The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and peoples of the Northwest Plateau developed highly structured cultures from relatively dense populations, some cultures in this region were very similar and share certain elements, such as the importance of fishing to their communities. Vinland – Markland – Helluland are the given to three lands possibly in Canada, discovered by Norsemen as described in the Eiríks saga rauða. LAnse aux Meadows – settlement Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas the Portuguese Crown claimed it had rights in the Atlantic waters visited by explorer John Cabot in 1497 and 1498. In 1498 to 1500, the Portuguese mariner João Fernandes Lavrador visited the north Atlantic coast, in 1501 and 1502 Miguel and Gaspar Corte-Real explored present day Newfoundland claiming the land in the name of Portuguese Empire. The extent and nature of Portuguese activity on the Canadian mainland during the 16th century remains unclear, in 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of Francis I of France. In 1600, a trading post was established at Tadoussac, but only five of the sixteen settlers survived the winter, in 1604, the first year round permanent settlement was founded by Samuel de Champlain at Île-Saint-Croix on Baie Française which was moved to Port-Royal in 1605. In 1608, Samuel de Champlain founded the city of Quebec with 28 men of whom 20 died from lack of food, the Kingdom of Great Britain acquired the French colony of Acadia in 1713 and then Canada, New France. British America – – List of Hudsons Bay Company trading posts St and this was in response to intelligence that the Russians had begun to explore the Pacific Coast of North America, which the Spanish considered part of New Spain. Santa Cruz de Nuca and Fort San Miguel at Nootka Sound – The first colony in British Columbia, in 1799, Tsar Paul I proclaimed Russian title and established the Russian American Companys trade monopoly and rule in the North Pacific through the creation of Russian America. The stated southward limit of Russian claims was 51 degrees north latitude, though no Russian settlements were established in what is now British Columbia, Russian trade and scientific expeditions frequented the North Coast. Canada became a semi-independent federated grouping of provinces and a dominion after the Constitution Act of 1867, originally three provinces of British North America, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and the Province of Canada united to form the new nation. Full independence came with the Statute of Westminster in 1931 and the Canada Act in 1982, since 1867, Canadas external borders have changed several times, and had grown from four initial provinces to ten provinces and three territories by 1999
21.
History of immigration to Canada
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The history of immigration to Canada extends back thousands of years. Anthropologists continue to argue over various possible models of migration to modern-day Canada, the Inuit are believed to have arrived entirely separately from other indigenous peoples around 1200 CE. Indigenous peoples contributed significantly to the culture and economy of the early European colonies, statistics Canada has tabulated the effect of immigration on population growth in Canada from 1851 to 2001. On average, censuses are taken every 10 years, which is how Canadian censuses were first incremented between 1871 and 1901, beginning in 1901, the Dominion Government changed its policy so that census-taking occurred every 5 years subsequently. This was to document the effects of the campaign initiated by Clifford Sifton. In 2006, Canada received 236,756 immigrants. The top ten sending countries, by state of origin, were Peoples Republic of China, India, Philippines, Pakistan, United States, United Kingdom, Iran, South Korea, Colombia 5,382, and Sri Lanka. The top ten source countries were followed closely by France, and Morocco, with Romania, Russia, in 1828, during the Great Migration of Canada, Britain passed the first legislative recognition that it was responsible for the safety and well-being of immigrants leaving the British Isles. It was called An Act to Regulate the Carrying of Passengers in Merchant Vessels, the 1828 Act is now recognized as the foundation of British colonial emigration legislation. Canadian citizenship was created under the Immigration Act,1910. All other British subjects required permission to land, after the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, the monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution. Because of this, Canadians—and others living in countries that became known as Commonwealth realms—were known as subjects of the Crown, however, in legal documents, the term British subject continued to be used. Canada was the nation in the then British Commonwealth to establish its own nationality law in 1946. This took effect on January 1,1947, a British subject at that time was anyone from the UK or its colonies, or a Commonwealth country. Acquisition and loss of British subject status before 1947 was determined by United Kingdom law, on February 15,1977, Canada removed restrictions on dual citizenship. Many of the provisions to acquire or lose Canadian citizenship that existed under the 1946 legislation were repealed, Canadian citizens are in general no longer subject to involuntary loss of citizenship, barring revocation on the grounds of immigration fraud. There are a number of reports of contact made before Columbus between the first peoples and those from other continents. The presence of Basque cod fishermen and whalers, just a few years after Columbus, has also cited, with at least nine fishing outposts having been established on Labrador
22.
Military history of Canada
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For thousands of years, the area that would become Canada was the site of sporadic intertribal conflicts among Aboriginal peoples. In 1763, after the final colonial war—the Seven Years War—the British emerged victorious and the French civilians, the Americans launched invasions in 1775 and 1812. On both occasions, the Americans were rebuffed by Canadian forces, however, this threat would remain well into the 19th century, after Confederation, and amid much controversy, a full-fledged Canadian military was created. Canada, however, remained a British dominion, and Canadian forces joined their British counterparts in the Second Boer War and the First World War. While independence followed the Statute of Westminster, Canadas links to Britain remained strong, and the British once again had the support of Canadians during the Second World War. Since then, Canada has been committed to multilateralism and has gone to war within large multinational coalitions such as in the Korean War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, and the Afghan war. Canada has also played an important role in United Nations peacekeeping operations worldwide and has committed more troops than any other country. The causes of aboriginal warfare tended to be over tribal independence, resources, before European colonization, aboriginal warfare tended to be formal and ritualistic, and entailed relatively few casualties. Warfare was also common among indigenous peoples of the Subarctic with sufficient population density, inuit groups of the northern Arctic extremes generally did not engage in direct warfare, primarily because of their small populations, relying instead on traditional law to resolve conflicts. Those captured in fights were not always killed, tribes often adopted captives to replace warriors lost during raids and battles, slavery was hereditary, the slaves being prisoners of war and their descendants. Slave-owning tribes of the societies, such as the Tlingit and Haida. Among indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, about a quarter of the population were slaves, according to Norse sagas, the skraelings of Vinland responded so ferociously that the newcomers eventually withdrew and gave up their plans to settle the area. Prior to French settlements in the St. Lawrence River valley, the Iroquois League was established prior to major European contact. Most archaeologists and anthropologists believe that the League was formed sometime between 1450 and 1600, existing aboriginal alliances would become important to the colonial powers in the struggle for North American hegemony during the 17th and 18th centuries. By the end of the 17th century, First Nations from the woodlands, eastern subarctic. The adoption of firearms significantly increased the number of fatalities, the bloodshed during conflicts was also dramatically increased by the uneven distribution of firearms and horses among competing aboriginal groups. Two years after the French founded Port Royal in 1605, the English began their first settlement, at Jamestown, Virginia, by 1706, the French population was around 16,000 and grew slowly due to a multitude of factors. This lack of immigration resulted in New France having one-tenth of the British population of the Thirteen Colonies by the mid 1700s, La Salles explorations had given France a claim to the Mississippi River valley, where fur trappers and a few colonists set up scattered settlements
23.
History of monarchy in Canada
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The history of monarchy in Canada stretches from pre-colonial times through to the present day. Through both these lineages, the present Canadian monarchy can trace back to the Anglo-Saxon period and ultimately to the kings of the Angles. Kings and queens reigning over Canada have included the monarchs of France, those of the United Kingdom, throughout the 18th century, via war and treaties, the Canadian colonies of France were ceded to King George III. The colonies were confederated by Queen Victoria in 1867 to form the Dominion of Canada, Canada later became a fully independent country through the Constitution Act of 1982 proclaimed by Elizabeth II, the Queen of Canada. The French monarch also moved quickly and it was in 1602 that Aymar de Chaste was appointed as Viceroy of Canada to represent King Henry IV, the Acadians refused, and were subsequently deported from the area in what became known as the Great Upheaval. This was regarded by American colonists as one of the Intolerable Acts that together led to the outbreak of the American Revolution. This conflict led some 46,000 people loyal to the Crown—dubbed United Empire Loyalists—to flee north from the United States, continuing today, Ontario residents descended from these original refugees retain the post-nominals UE, standing for United Empire. This makes me much doubt their remaining long dependent, Prince William arrived in Canada in July 1786, when he stated of the country, and more specifically, St. Johns, truly deplorable. A most dreadful, inhospitable and barren country, though, he changed his opinion after meeting the local women. He also became, in 1787, the first member of the Royal Family to visit Quebec, the Prince lived at Quebec City, where he oversaw the establishment of the Holy Trinity Anglican Cathedral, a project of personal interest to his father, the King. In 1792, when the first elections for the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada took place, Prince Edward was said to have climbed up to where he could be heard and addressed the crowd, stating, Part then in peace. I urge you to unanimity and accord, let me hear no more of the odious distinctions of English and French. You are all His Britannic Majestys beloved Canadian subjects and it was reportedly the first time the word Canadian, which had previously been reserved only for Francophones, was used in a manner that included all colonialists. Almost twenty years later, Prince Edwards only legitimate daughter, Victoria, was born on 24 May 1819, at Kensington Palace. However, Edward died shortly thereafter, leaving Victoria as heir to the throne until, upon the death of William IV, at the 1864 Charlottetown Conference, the deligates agreed unanimously that the new federation should be a constitutional monarchy. By the mid-1860s, neither the nor the location of the capital of the hypothetical new union had been settled. The proposal, however, caused worries in the Foreign and Colonial Office in London that such a title would provoke the republican United States, the new constitution vested in the Queen responsibility for peace, order, and good government, as DArcy McGee had desired. In practice, though, the Second Reform Act,1867, in the same year, Ruperts Land was ceded to the Crown in Right of Canada from the Hudsons Bay Company, pulling it into the jurisdiction of the Northwest Territories
24.
National Historic Sites of Canada
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Parks Canada, a federal agency, manages the National Historic Sites program. As of 2016, there are 976 National Historic Sites,171 of which are administered by Parks Canada, the sites are located across all ten provinces and three territories, with two sites located in France. There are related federal designations for National Historic Persons and National Historic Events, Sites, Events, and Persons are each typically marked by a federal plaque, but the markers do not indicate which designation a subject has been given. The Rideau Canal is a National Historic Site, while the Welland Canal is a National Historic Event, emerging Canadian nationalist sentiment in the late 19th century and early 20th century led to an increased interest in preserving Canadas historic sites. There were galvanizing precedents in other countries, in the United Kingdom, the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty was created in 1894 to protect that countrys historic and natural heritage. Domestically, Lord Dufferin, the Governor General from 1872 to 1878, initiated some of the earliest, high-profile efforts to preserve Canadas historic sites. He was instrumental in stopping the demolition of the fortifications of Quebec City, at the same time, the federal government was looking for ways to extend the National Park system to Eastern Canada. In 1914, the Parks Branch undertook a survey of sites in Canada. Fort Howe in Saint John, New Brunswick was designated a historic park in 1914. The fort was not a site of significant national historic importance, Fort Anne in Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia was also designated in 1917. At the same time, the Department of Militia and Defence was anxious to transfer old forts, harkin, the first Commissioner of Dominion Parks, to develop a departmental heritage policy. On Harkins recommendation, the government created the Advisory Board for Historic Site Preservation in 1919 in order to advise the Minister on a new program of National Historic Sites. Brigadier General Ernest Alexander Cruikshank, an authority on the War of 1812 and the history of Ontario, was chosen as the Boards first chairman. Due to a lack of resources, the HSMBC limited itself to recommending sites for designation, of the 285 National Historic Sites designated by 1943,105 represented military history,52 represented the fur trade and exploration, and 43 represented famous individuals. There was also a strong bias in favour of commemorating sites in Ontario over other parts of the country, at one point, some members of the HSMBC concluded that there were no sites at all in Prince Edward Island worthy of designation. Lawrence, and in Niagara, promoting a loyalist doctrine of unity with Britain. Proposals to designate sites related to the immigration of Jews, Blacks and Ukrainians to Canada were rejected, such was the view of Canadian history by the Board in the first half of the 20th century. As time passed and the system grew, the scope of the program, by the 1930s, the focus of the heritage movement in Canada had shifted from commemoration to preservation and development
25.
Population of Canada
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The historical growth of Canadas population is complex and has been influenced in many different ways, such as indigenous populations, expansion of territory, and human migration. Being a new country, Canada has been predisposed to be a very open society with regards to immigration. Canadians comprise about 0. 5% of the total population. The 2016 Canadian census counted a population of 35,151,728. Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, despite the fact that Canadas population density is low, many regions in the south such as Southern Ontario, have population densities higher than several European countries. The large size of Canadas north which is not arable, and thus cannot support large human populations, therefore, the population density of the habitable land in Canada can be modest to high depending on the region. Scholars vary on the size of the aboriginal population in what is now Canada prior to colonization and on the effects of European contact. During the late 15th century is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million, with a figure of 500,000 currently accepted by Canadas Royal Commission on Aboriginal Health. Although not without conflict, European Canadians early interactions with First Nations, roland G Robertson suggests that during the late 1630s, smallpox killed over half of the Wyandot, who controlled most of the early North American fur trade in the area of New France. In 1871 there was an enumeration of the population within the limits of Canada at the time. According to the 2011 Canadian Census, Aboriginal peoples numbered at 1,400,685, the European population grew slowly under French rule, thus remained relatively low as growth was largely achieved through natural births, rather than by immigration. Most of the French were farmers, and the rate of natural increase among the settlers themselves was very high, the women had about 30 per cent more children than comparable women who remained in France. Yves Landry says, Canadians had a diet for their time. The 1666 census of New France was the first census conducted in North America and it was organized by Jean Talon, the first Intendant of New France, between 1665 and 1666. According to Talons census there were 3,215 people in New France, the census showed a great difference in the number of men at 2,034 versus 1,181 women. By the early 1700s the New France settlers were established along the Saint Lawrence River. Mainly due to increase and modest immigration from Northwest France the population of New France increased to 55,000 according to the last French census of 1754. This was an increase from 42,701 in 1730, during the late 18th and early 19th century Canada under British rule experienced strong population growth
26.
Territorial evolution of Canada
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The Dominion of Canada was formed on July 1,1867, when the British colonies of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were merged to form a single Dominion within the British Empire. Canada continued to expand across North America as other British colonies joined with or were ceded to Canada, eventually growing from four provinces to ten provinces, politically, Canada gained increasing independence in the 20th century, eventually becoming a fully sovereign state in 1982. The Northwest Territories have been made up of districts, but one of these. Because of this status, it is handled separately from the NWT on this list. After 1905 it no longer had any special status, and it was dissolved in 1999 when Nunavut was created. The maps used on this page, for simplicity, use the version of the borders of Labrador. For much of its history, Canada claimed Labrador extended only along the coast and it is Newfoundlands claim that is used. Matthews, Geoffrey J. Historical atlas of Canada, Volume 1, maps, 1667-1999 - Library and Archives Canada Territorial Evolution, 1670-2001 - Historical Atlas of Canada
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History of Canadian women
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The history of Canadian women covers half the population, but until recent years only comprised a tiny fraction of the historiography. In the 1660s the French government sent about 850 young women called Kings Daughters and they quickly found husbands among the predominantly male settlers, as well as a new life for themselves. They came mostly from families in the Paris area, Normandy. A handful were ex-prostitutes, but only one is known to have practiced that trade in Canada, as farm wives with very good nutrition and high birth rates they played a major role in establishing family life and enabling rapid demographic growth. They had about 30% more children than comparable women who remained in France, landry says, Canadians had an exceptional diet for their time. This was due to the abundance of meat, fish, and pure water, the good food conservation conditions during the winter. Besides household duties, some women participated in the fur trade and they worked at home alongside their husbands or fathers as merchants, clerks and provisioners. Some were widowed, and took over their husbands roles, a handful were active entrepreneurs in their own right. The elite young women were trained in intelligent philanthropy and civic responsibility and they seldom connected with the reform impulses of the middle class women, and for and were paternalistic in their views of the needs of working-class women. Outside the home, Canadian women had few domains which they controlled, an important exception came with Roman Catholic nuns, especially in Québec. Stimulated by the influence in France of The popular religiosity of the Counter Reformation, in the next three centuries women opened dozens of independent religious orders, funded in part by dowries provided by the parents of young nuns. The orders specialized in works, including hospitals, orphanages, homes for unwed mothers. In the first half of the century, about 2-3% of Québecs young women became nuns, there were 6600 in 1901. In Québec in 1917,32 different teaching orders operated 586 boarding schools for girls, at that time there was no public education for girls in Québec beyond elementary school. Hospitals were another specially, the first of which was founded in 1701, in 1936, the nuns of Québec operated 150 institutions, with 30,000 beds to care for the long-term sick, the homeless, and orphans. On a smaller scale, Catholic orders of nuns operated similar institutions in other provinces, the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s combined declericalization with the dramatic reforms of Vatican II. There was a change in the role of nuns. Many left the convent while very few young women entered, the Provincial government took over the nuns traditional role as provider of many of Quebecs educational and social services
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Provinces and territories of Canada
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Canadas geography is divided into administrative divisions known as provinces and territories that are responsible for delivery of sub-national governance. Over its history, Canadas international borders have changed several times, the ten provinces are Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Saskatchewan. Several of the provinces were former British colonies, Quebec was originally a French colony, the three territories are Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon, which govern the rest of the area of the former British North America. Together, the provinces and territories make up the worlds second-largest country by area, the powers flowing from the Constitution Act are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively. In modern Canadian constitutional theory, the provinces are considered to be co-sovereign divisions, the territories are not sovereign, but simply part of the federal realm, and have a commissioner who represents the federal government. Notes, There are three territories in Canada, unlike the provinces, the territories of Canada have no inherent sovereignty and have only those powers delegated to them by the federal government. They include all of mainland Canada north of latitude 60° north and west of Hudson Bay, the following table lists the territories in order of precedence. Prior to Confederation, Ontario and Quebec were united as the Province of Canada, over the following years, Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island were added as provinces. The Hudsons Bay Company controlled large swathes of western Canada referred to as Ruperts Land and the North-Western Territory until 1870, subsequently, the area was re-organized into the province of Manitoba and the Northwest Territories. The remaining Arctic islands were transferred by Britain to Canada in 1880,1898 saw the Yukon Territory, later renamed simply as Yukon, carved from the parts of the Northwest Territories surrounding the Klondike gold fields. On September 1,1905, a portion of the Northwest Territories south of the 60th parallel north became the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. In 1912, the boundaries of Quebec, Ontario and Manitoba were expanded northward, Manitobas to the 60° parallel, Ontarios to Hudson Bay, in 1907, Newfoundland acquired dominion status. In the middle of the Great Depression in Canada with Newfoundland facing a period of economic crisis. In 2001, it was officially renamed Newfoundland and Labrador, in 1903, the Alaska Panhandle Dispute fixed British Columbias northwestern boundary. This was one of two provinces in Canadian history to have its size reduced. In 1999, Nunavut was created from the portion of the Northwest Territories. Yukon lies in the portion of The North, while Nunavut is in the east. All three territories combined are the most sparsely populated region in Canada, covering 3,921,739 km2 in land area and they are often referred to as a single region, The North, for organisational and economic purposes
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History of Alberta
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What is today the province of Alberta, Canada has a history and prehistory stretching back thousands of years. Recorded or written history begins with the arrival of Europeans, the rich soil was ideal for growing wheat, and the coming of the railroads in the late 19th century led a to large-scale migration of farmers from Eastern Canada, the United States, and Europe. Wheat remains important, but the farms are larger and the rural population much smaller. Alberta has urbanized and its base has expanded from the export of wheat. The ancestors of todays First Nations in Alberta arrived in the area at least 8,000 years BC, more northerly tribes, like the Woodland Cree and the Chipewyan also hunted, trapped, and fished for other types of game in the aspen parkland and boreal forest regions. Later, the mixture of native peoples with French fur traders created a new cultural group. The Métis established themselves to the east of Alberta, but after being displaced by white settlement, following the arrival of outside European observers it is possible to reconstruct a rough narrative history of the nations of what later became Alberta. Using later-recorded oral histories as well as archaeological and linguistic evidence, in both cases the evidentiary base is thin, however. It is believed that at least some parts of the Great Plains were depopulated by a period of the drought during the Medieval Warm Period. The area was repopulated once the drought subsided, by peoples from a number of language families. The Numic languages are from the Uto-Aztecan language family and came to the Plains from the southwest, algonquian speakers are originally from the northeast. The Siouxan peoples speak a family of different from both of the above, and are from southeast. There are also small offshoots of the Na-Dene languages from the far northwest found on the Plains, the smallest unit of organization for both Plains and Subarctic people was what the European-Canadian explorers called a lodge. A lodge was a family or other close-knit group who slept together in the same teepee or other dwelling. Lodges travelled together in groups which anthropologists call bands, in the case of the Blackfoot during the historic era this would include 10 to 30 lodges, or roughly 80 to 240 persons. The band was the unit of organization on the Plains for both hunting and warfare. Bands were loose associations that could be formed and dissolved depending on circumstances, which gave their member lodges much freedom, but also less certainty. Therefore, people would also be bound to others in variety of other groups, such as common descent, common language and religion
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History of British Columbia
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British Columbia is the western most province of Canada. Originally politically constituted as a pair of British colonies, British Columbia joined the Canadian Confederation on July 20,1871, perhaps the most influential historian of British Columbia has been Margaret Ormsby. In British Columbia, A History she presented a model that has been adopted by numerous historians. Chad Reimer says, in many aspects, it still has not been surpassed, Human history in what has come to be known as British Columbia dates back thousands of years. Archaeology has identified dates in British Columbia as early as 13,500 years ago, BC is divided by anthropological theory into three cultural areas - the Northwest Coast, The Plateau and the North. First Nations in each area developed customs and approaches to living that fit the resources in the region, through much of British Columbia salmon are available and formed a substantial part of the diet where available. The term pre-contact is used to describe the period prior to contact between First Nations and European explorers. The precise time of contact varied according to circumstance but took place on the coast between the 1770s and 1800, in places in the Interior it occurred later. There was frequent contact between bands and voyages across the Strait of Georgia and the Strait of Juan de Fuca were common, the abundance of natural resources, such as salmon and cedar, enabled the development of a complex hierarchical society within coastal communities. With so much food being available, the peoples of the regions could focus their time on other pursuits such as art, politics. The first visitors to present-day British Columbia were Spanish sailors and other European sailors who sailed for the Spanish crown, there is not much evidence to suggest that European traders and explorers regularly came to present-day British Columbia in the 17th century. The arrival of Europeans began to intensify in the mid-18th century, Hernández reached 55° north latitude, becoming the first European to sight the Queen Charlotte Islands and Vancouver Island. He traded with the natives near Estevan Point, although apparently without landing, the expedition was forced to return to Nueva Galicia, due to the lack of provisions. Since Pérez Hernándezs first expedition failed to achieve its objective, the Spanish organized an expedition in 1775 with the same goal. This expedition was commanded by Bruno de Heceta on board the Santiago, piloted by Pérez Hernández, during this expedition, the Spanish made sure to land several times and formally claim the lands for the Spanish Crown, while verifying the absence of Russian settlements along the coast. In the following years, several other Spanish expeditions would set sail from Nueva Galicia bound for the Pacific Northwest, upon trading his goods for sea otter pelts, his crew in turn traded them for an enormous profit in Macau on their way back to Britain. This led to an influx of traders to the British Columbian coast, in 1788, John Meares, an English navigator and explorer, sailed from China and explored Nootka Sound and the neighbouring coasts. He bought some land from a chief named Maquinna and built a trading post there
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History of Manitoba
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Manitoba is one of Canadas 10 provinces, and the easternmost of the Prairie Provinces. Fur traders first arrived in what is now Manitoba during the late 17th century and it was officially recognized by the Federal Government in 1870 as separate from the Northwest Territories, and became the first province created from the Territories. The economy was based on farming, centering on grains, cattle. The economy is now diversified due to urbanization, eventually there were aboriginal settlements of Ojibwa, Cree, Dene, Sioux, Mandan, and Assiniboine peoples, along with other tribes that entered the area to trade. There were many land trails made as a part of a native trading network on both land and water. The Whiteshell Provincial Park region along the Winnipeg River has many old petroforms and may have been a trading centre, in Northern Manitoba there are areas that were mined for quartz to make arrow heads. For thousands of years there have been living in this region. Ongoing research will be needed to uncover more artifacts for a more detailed understanding of past peoples and cultures in the Province. Henry Hudson, in 1611, was one of the first Europeans to sail into what is now known as Hudson Bay, the first European to reach what is now northern Manitoba was Sir Thomas Button in 1612, who named the Nelson River. Button was a member of the Company of the Merchants Discoverers of the North-West Passage, henry Kelsey was the first European to travel from Hudson Bay to the prairies, reporting the bison and grizzly bears that he saw. Kelsey went as far as present day Saskatchewan, the Hudsons Bay Company traded with native fur traders that canoed far and wide along the many rivers of present-day Manitoba. Ruperts Land was the name given to the area, which is the heart of the Hudson Bay watershed. Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, Sieur de La Vérendrye, visited the Red River Valley in the 1730s as part of opening the area for French exploration and exploitation, as French explorers entered the area, a Montreal-based company, the North West Company, began trading with the Métis. This watershed was named Ruperts Land, after Prince Rupert, who helped to subsidize the Hudsons Bay Company, york Factory was founded in 1684 after the original fort of the Hudsons Bay Company, Fort Nelson, was destroyed by rival French traders. Fur trading forts were built by both the North West Company and the Hudsons Bay Company along the rivers and lakes. There are a few sources for the name Manitoba. The more likely is that it comes from Cree or Ojibwe and it may also be from the Assiniboine for Lake of the Prairie. Most rivers and water in Manitoba eventually flow north, not south or east as is commonly assumed, and empty into Hudson Bay
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History of New Brunswick
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New Brunswick, is one of the three Maritime provinces in Canada, and the only officially bilingual province in the country. The history of New Brunswick can be viewed according to four periods, pre-European contact, French colonization, British colonization and finally, the aboriginal nations of New Brunswick include the Mikmaq, Maliseet/Wolastoqiyuk and Passamaquoddy. The Mikmaq territories are mostly in the east of the province, the Maliseets are located in the northwest and the Passamaquoddy tribe is situated in the southwest, around Passamaquoddy Bay. Amerindians have occupied New Brunswick since about 6000-8000 BCE, Wolastoqiyik is the name for the people and their language, Maliseet is the name by which the Mikmaq described the Wolastoqiyik to early Europeans. g. of -ians or -ites. Wolastoqiyik therefore means simply People of the Beautiful River, in their own language, the Wolastoq River is the Saint John River. When they had finished travelling downstream in the spring, they congregated in larger groups near the ocean, in the autumn, after the harvest, they travelled back upstream, taking provisions, and spreading out in smaller groups into the larger countryside to hunt game during the winter. The Passamaquoddy are a First Nations people who live in northeastern North America, primarily in Maine, the Passamaquoddy lacked a written history before the arrival of Europeans but do have an extensive oral tradition. They maintained a semi-nomadic existence in the woods and mountains of the coastal regions along the Bay of Fundy and Gulf of Maine and along the St. Croix River. The name Passamaquoddy is an anglicization of the Passama word peskotomuhkati, the form of Peskotomuhkat. Peskotomuhkat literally means pollock-spearer, reflecting the importance of this fish and their method of fishing was spear-fishing rather than angling. The Passamaquoddy also live in Charlotte County, New Brunswick, some Passamaquoddy continue to seek the return of territory now located in St. Andrews, New Brunswick which they claim as Qonasqamkuk, a Passamaquoddy ancestral capital and burial ground. The Mikmaq are a First Nations people, indigenous to the Maritime Provinces, míkmaw is the singular form of Míkmaq. In 1616 Father Biard believed the Mikmaq population to be in excess of 3,000, however, he remarked that, because of European diseases, including smallpox, there had been large population losses in the previous century. At the time of contact with the French they were expanding from their Maritime base westward along the Gaspé Peninsula /St, Lawrence River at the expense of Iroquioian Mohawk tribes, hence the Mikmaq name for this peninsula, Gespedeg. Later on the Mikmaq also settled Newfoundland as the unrelated Beothuk tribe became extinct, wild walnut shells found at lAnse aux Meadows suggest that the Vikings did indeed explore further along the Atlantic Coast. Butternut trees do not now grow in Newfoundland, but recent studies suggest that due to environmental changes butternuts may have grown in Newfoundland around the year 1000-1001 AD. 36 out of the 87 members of the party died of scurvy by winters end, gradually, other French settlements were destroyed and seigneuries were founded. These were located along the Saint John River, the upper Bay of Fundy, the whole region of New Brunswick were at that time proclaimed to be part of the royal French colony of Acadia
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History of Newfoundland and Labrador
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The first brief European contact with Newfoundland and Labrador came about 1000 AD when the Vikings briefly settled in LAnse aux Meadows. Around 1500 AD, European explorers and fishermen from England, Portugal, France, fishing expeditions came seasonally, the first small permanent settlements appeared around 1630 AD. Catholic-Protestant religious tensions were high but mellowed after 1860, the British colony voted against joining Canada in 1869 and became an independent dominion in the early 20th century. Fishing was always the dominant industry, but the collapsed in the Great Depression of the 1930s. Prosperity and self-confidence returned during the Second World War, and after intense debate the people voted to join Canada in 1949, poverty and emigration have remained significant themes in Newfoundland history, despite efforts to modernize after 1949. Most efforts failed, and the collapse of the cod fishing industry was a terrific blow in the 1990s. The oil boom in the 00s has revived the economy, human habitation in Newfoundland and Labrador can be traced back about 9000 years to the people of the Maritime Archaic Tradition. They were gradually displaced by people of the Dorset Culture the Lnu, or Mikmaq and finally by the Innu and Inuit in Labrador, the first European contact with North America was that of the medieval Norse sailing from Greenland. For several years after 1000 AD they lived in a village on the tip of the Great Northern Peninsula, remnants and artifacts of the occupation can still be seen at LAnse aux Meadows, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The island was inhabited by the Beothuks and later the Mikmaq, from the late 15th Century, European explorers like John Cabot, João Fernandes Lavrador, Gaspar Corte-Real, Jacques Cartier and others began exploration. John Cabot, commissioned by King Henry VII of England, landed on the North East coast of North America in 1497, the exact location of his landing is unknown but the 500th anniversary of his landing was commemorated in Bonavista, Newfoundland. The 1497 voyage has generated debate among historians, with various points in Newfoundland. Fishing vessels with Basque, English, Portuguese, French and Spanish crews started to make seasonal expeditions, Basque vessels had been fishing cod shoals off Newfoundlands coasts since the beginning of the 16th century, and their crews used the natural harbour at Placentia. French fishers also began to use the area, a settlement was founded at Placentia at some point during the early 16th Century. From 1616, English Proprietary Governors were also appointed, to establish settlements on the island. John Guy was governor of the first settlement at Cupers Cove, other settlements were Bristols Hope, Renews, New Cambriol, South Falkland and Avalon which became a province in 1623. The first governor given jurisdiction over all of Newfoundland was Sir David Kirke in 1638, explorers soon realized that the waters around Newfoundland had the best fishing in the North Atlantic. By 1620,300 fishing boats worked the Grand Bank, employing some 10,000 sailors and they dried and salted the cod on the coast and sold it to Spain and Portugal
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History of the Northwest Territories
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When Europeans settlers began to divide the continent, the Northwest Territories included much of the sparsely populated regions of what is now western Canada. Over time, the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba were formed out of the territories, in 1898, the Yukon territory became a separate entity and in 1999 Nunavut was formed from the eastern section. Long before the Europeans arrived, Inuit and First Nations peoples inhabited the area which became the Northwest Territories. Native Inuit included the Mackenzie, Copper, Caribou and Central nations, there were also many nations when the Europeans first arrived, among them the Yellow-Knife, Chipewyan, Sekani, Beaver, Nahanni, Dogrib and Slavey. Martin Frobishers expeditions in the 1570s were the first recorded visits to the Northwest Territories by a European, in 1610, Henry Hudson, while looking for the Northwest Passage, landed briefly on the western shore of the bay that bears his name. His discovery opened the interior of the continent to further exploration, other early explorers include Luke Foxe, John Davis, Robert Bylot, Thomas Button, George Weymouth, Thomas James and William Baffin. In 1670, King Charles II granted a charter to the Governor and Company of Adventurers of England Trading into Hudsons Bay and it included the Hudsons Bay watershed. By the 1700s, European trade in the Northwest Territories was dominated by two fur-trading companies, the Hudsons Bay Company, based in London, England, and the North West Company based in Montréal. Fur trade explorer Peter Pond lead the way through the Methye Portage into the vast territory of the Northwest where the rivers flowed North rather than East. In 1771, Samuel Hearne was the first European to reach the shore of the Arctic Ocean by a route via the Coppermine River. Further west and eighteen years later, in 1789, Alexander Mackenzie reached the Arctic Ocean, the river he navigated to get there now bears his name. York Factory served as the Hudsons Bay Companys headquarters, the HBC depended on the furs coming to York Factory. The North West Company competed with the HBC by traveling throughout the territory obtaining furs as they did so, some of these trader explorers kept journals and had them published. Public interest developed as a result, as the Europeans increased their presence, they involved the First Nations as guides and suppliers of furs. They brought to York Factory the furs of the western tribes, the Cree, Chipewyan, Beaver and Yellowknives obtained firearms. With this new advantage, they dominated their Athapaskan neighbors, i. e. the Slavey, Sekani, in the early 1800s, perhaps 1810, the Northwest Company established a post at Tulita at the junction of the Mackenzie and Great Bear Rivers. Sir John Franklin used the fort as a base for his expeditions, the site changed several times but the community of Tulita is located on the original site today. Franklins Coppermine Expedition of 1819–1822 had as its goal the exploration of the northern coast of Canada, the British expedition was organised by the Royal Navy as part of its attempt to discover and map the Northwest Passage
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History of Nova Scotia
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For military history, see Military history of Nova Scotia Nova Scotia is a Canadian province located in Canadas Maritimes. The region was occupied by Mikmaq. During the first 150 years of European settlement, the colony was made up of Catholic Acadians. This time period involved six wars in which the Mikmaq along with the French, during Father Le Loutres War, the capital was moved from Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia to the newly established Halifax, Nova Scotia. The warfare ended with the Burying the Hatchet Ceremony, after the colonial wars, New England Planters and Foreign Protestants settled Nova Scotia. After the American Revolution, the colony was settled by Loyalists, during the nineteenth century, Nova Scotia became self-governing in 1848 and joined the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The colonial history of Nova Scotia includes the present-day Canadian Maritime provinces and northern Maine, in 1763 Cape Breton Island and St. Johns Island became part of Nova Scotia. In 1769, St. Johns Island became a separate colony, Nova Scotia included present-day New Brunswick until that province was established in 1784. The oldest evidence of humans in Nova Scotia indicates the Paleo-Indians were the first, natives are believed to have been present in the area between 11,000 and 5,000 years ago. The Mikmaq are a First Nations people, indigenous to the Maritime Provinces, míkmaw is the singular form of Míkmaq. In 1616 Father Biard believed the Mikmaq population to be in excess of 3,000, however, he remarked that, because of European diseases, including smallpox and alcoholism, there had been large population losses in the previous century. At the time of contact with the French they were expanding from their Maritime base westward along the Gaspé Peninsula /St, Lawrence River at the expense of Iroquioian Mohawk tribes, hence the Mikmaq name for this peninsula, Gespedeg. They were amenable to limited French settlement in their midst, with the complete loss by France during the Seven Years War of its North American territories, the Mi’kmaq lost their primary ally. The Mi’kmaq continued to suffer a collapse and with the influx of Planters in the 1760s and Loyalists in the 1780s. Later on the Mikmaq also settled Newfoundland as the unrelated Beothuk tribe became extinct, giovanni Cabotos voyage received financial backing by Italian banking houses in London and the Bardi family banking firm of Florence. With financing secure and patent issued by Henry VII to Caboto, upon landing on 24 June 1497, Caboto raised the Venetian and Papal banners, claiming the land for the King of England and recognising the religious authority of the Roman Catholic Church. After this landing, Cabot spent some weeks discovering the coast, Cabotos expedition is believed to be the first by Europeans to mainland North America since the Vikings five hundred years before. Historian Alwyn Ruddock who worked on Caboto and his era for 35 years suggested Fr, Nova Scotia was further explored by the Portuguese explorer João Álvares Fagundes as he searched south of his fishing settlements in Newfoundland
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History of Ontario
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The History of Ontario covers the period from the arrival of Paleo-Indians thousands of years ago to the present day. Before the arrival of Europeans, the region was inhabited both by Algonquian and Iroquoian tribes, a French explorer Étienne Brûlé explored part of the area in 1610–12. Permanent French settlement was hampered by their hostilities with the Iroquois five leagues, the British established trading posts on Hudson Bay in the late 17th century and began a struggle for domination of Ontario. The 1763 Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years War by awarding nearly all of Frances North American possessions to Britain, the region was annexed to Quebec in 1774. The first European settlements were in 1782–1784 when 5,000 American loyalists entered what is now Ontario following the American Revolution, from 1783 to 1796, Britain granted them 200 acres of land and other items with which to rebuild their lives. John Graves Simcoe was appointed Upper Canadas first Lieutenant-Governor in 1793, American troops in the War of 1812 invaded Upper Canada across the Niagara River and the Detroit River but were defeated and pushed back by British forces, local militia and Native American forces. The Americans gained control of Lake Erie at the Battle of Lake Erie, the British had to flee on foot, and the American William Henry Harrison caught up and decisively defeated them at the Battle of the Thames. The Americans also killed Tecumseh, leader of the anti-American First Nations military force, during the Battle of York Americans occupied the Town of York in 1813. After losing their general Zebulon Pike and having a time holding the town. After the War of 1812, relative stability allowed for increasing numbers of immigrants to arrive from Britain and this deliberate immigration shift was encouraged by the colonial leaders. However, many arriving newcomers from Europe found frontier life difficult, population growth far exceeded emigration in the decades that would follow. Canal projects and a new network of plank roads spurred greater trade within the colony and with the United States, Ontarios numerous waterways aided travel and transportation into the interior and supplied water power for development. Canals were capital-intensive infrastructure projects that facilitated trade, the Oswego Canal, built in New York 1825–1829, was a vital commercial link in the Great Lakes–Atlantic seaway. It linked into Ontarios Welland Canal in 1829, the newly fashioned Oswego–Welland line offered an alternative route to the St. Lawrence River and Europe, as opposed to the Erie Canal which terminated in New York City. Opponents called it the Family Compact, but its members avoided the term, in the religious sphere, a key leader was John Strachan, the Anglican bishop of Toronto. Strachan was opposed by Methodist leader Egerton Ryerson, the Family Compact consisted of English gentry who arrived before 1800, and the sons of United Empire Loyalists, who were exiles who fled the American revolution. The term family was metaphorical, for they generally were not related by blood or marriage, there were no elections and the leadership controlled appointments, so local officials were generally allies of the leaders. The Family Compact looked for the model to Britain, where landed aristocrats held power
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History of Prince Edward Island
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Prince Edward Island is a Canadian province consisting of an island of the same name. It joined the Canadian Confederation on July 1,1873, Prince Edward Island was first inhabited by the Mikmaq people. They named the island Epekwitk, meaning cradle on the waves and they believed that the island was formed by the Great Spirit placing some dark red clay which was shaped as a crescent on the pink Waters. As part of the French colony of Acadia, and, after 1713, the French colony of Île Royale, the Island began to be settled in 1720. The settlers lived primarily at Port-la-Joye and Havre Saint-Pierre, at Port-la-Joye there was an administrative unit and a garrison, detached from Louisbourg, where sat the government for both Ile Royale and Ile Saint-Jean. While new settlements were established along the Rivier-du-Nord-Est and at but Havre Saint-Pierre remained the largest population throughout the French occupation of the Island, after the Siege of Louisbourg during King Georges War, the New Englanders also captured Île Saint-Jean. An English detachment landed at Port-la-Joye, under the command of Joseph de Pont Duvivier, the French had a garrison of 20 French troops at Port-la-Joye. The troops fled and New Englanders burned the capital to the ground, Duvivier and the twenty men retreated up the Northeast River, pursued by the New Englanders until the French troops received reinforcements from the Acadian militia and the Mikmaq. The French troops and their allies were able to drive the New Englanders to their boats, nine New Englanders killed, wounded, the New Englanders took six Acadian hostages, who would be executed if the Acadians or Mikmaq rebelled against New England control. The New England troops left for Louisbourg, Duvivier and his 20 troops left for Quebec. After the fall of Louisbourg, the resident French population of Ile Royal were deported to France, the Acadians of Ile Saint-Jean lived under the threat of deportation for the remainder of the war. The New Englanders had a force of two war ships and 200 soldiers stationed at Port-la-Joye, to regain Acadia, Ramezay was sent from Quebec to the region. Upon arriving at Chignecto, he sent Boishebert to Ile Saint-Jean on a reconnaissance to assess the size of the New England force, after Boishebert returned, Ramezay sent Joseph-Michel Legardeur de Croisille et de Montesson along with over 500 men,200 of whom were Mikmaq, to Port-la-Joie. In July 1746, the battle happened near York River, Montesson and his troops killed forty New Englanders and captured the rest. Montesson was commended for having distinguished himself in his first independent command, during Father Le Loutres War, at the beginning of the Acadian Exodus from mainland Nova Scotia, many Acadians migrated to the Island. The population increased dramatically from 735 to approximately three thousand, New settlements began at Pointe-Prime, Bedec, and other places. The British Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710, over the next forty-five years the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. During this time period Acadians participated in militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the French Fortress of Louisbourg
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History of Quebec
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Quebec has played a special role in French history, the modern province occupies much of the land where French settlers founded the colony of Canada in the 17th and 18th centuries. The population is predominantly French-speaking and Roman Catholic, with a large Anglophone minority, the political alienation of the Francophones from the Anglophones has been a persistent theme since the late 19th century. Tensions were especially high during the First World War, historically, British merchants and financiers controlled the economy, and dominated Montreal. The Catholic Church, in cooperation with the landowners, led a highly traditional social structure in rural. Much of that changed during the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, Quebecs separatists, calling for an independent nation, gained strength, but were narrowly defeated in two referenda. Quebec imposed increasingly stringent laws favouring the French language, many Anglophones left, aboriginal settlements were located across the area of present-day Quebec before the arrival of Europeans. In the northernmost areas of the province, Inuit communities can be found, other aboriginal communities belong to the following First Nations, The aboriginal cultures of present-day Quebec are diverse, with their own languages, way of life, economies, and religious beliefs. Before contact with Europeans, they did not have a written language, today around three-quarters of Quebecs aboriginal populations lives in small communities scattered throughout the rural areas of the province, with some living on reserves. Jacques Cartier sailed into the St. Lawrence River in 1534 and established a colony near present-day Quebec City at the site of Stadacona. Linguists and archaeologists have determined these people were distinct from the Iroquoian nations encountered by later French and Europeans and their language was Laurentian, one of the Iroquoian family. By the late 16th century, they had disappeared from the St. Lawrence Valley, existing archaeological evidence attests to a human presence on the current territory of Quebec sometime around 10,000 BC. Paleo-American populations preceded the arrival of the Algonquian and Iroquois people in southern Quebec about 10,000 years ago, the Paleoindian period was followed by the Archaic, a time when major changes occurred in the landscape and the settlement of the territory of Quebec. With the end of glaciation, the territory increased in size. Migrations became rarer and moving around became a seasonal activity necessary for hunting, fishing or gathering, the nomadic populations of the Archaic period were better established and were very familiar with the resources of their territories. They adapted to their surroundings and experienced a degree of population growth, aboriginal peoples used a greater variety of local material, developed new techniques, such as polishing stone, and devised increasingly specialized tools, such as knives, awls, fish hooks, and nets. Agriculture appeared experimentally toward the 8th century and it was only in the 14th century that it was fully mastered in the Saint Lawrence River valley. The Iroquoians cultivated corn, marrow, sunflowers, and beans, in 1508, only 16 years after the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, Thomas Auber, who was likely part of a fishing trip near Newfoundland, brought back a few Amerindians to France. This indicates that in the early 16th century, French navigators ventured in the gulf of the St. Lawrence, along with the Basques and the Spaniards who did the same
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History of Saskatchewan
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History of Saskatchewan encompasses the study of past human events and activities of the province of Saskatchewan, the middle of Canadas three prairie provinces. They evolved into the history of the first nations people who kept their history alive in oral tradition, the First Nation bands that were a part of this area were the Chipewyan, Cree, Saulteaux, Assiniboine, Atsina and Sioux. Henry Kelsey, was the first European to visit this area, other European explorers also soon arrived followed by fur traders such as The Governor and Company of Adventurers of England trading into Hudsons Bay and North West Company. The political boundaries of this area have changed several times evolving through Ruperts Land, Provisional Districts of the North West Territories, Saskatchewan has been a province of Canada since 1905. The history of this plains area actually began 2, 000–2,100 million years ago there were two continents separated by an ocean. The Churchill Continent which would be Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and the Superior Continent which would comprise Manitoba,1,830 –1,800 million years ago these two land masses collided. The Northern shield area and western Rockies formed higher land from the collision, the lower lands of todays parkland were covered by a shallow sea even in the Palaeozoic Era. It was not until the Cretaceous Period 144 –66 million years ago that the sea began to drain. Here we begin to find the paleontological artifacts of various dinosaur species, the ice age of the Quaternary Period totally again re-shaped and re-shifted the landscape of Saskatchewan, occurring 2 million years ago. Following these geological changes to area, and the formation of the continent of North America as we know it. For more information on the early pre-history of the province of Saskatchewan see also Saskatchewan Archaeological Society, for more information on the earliest inhabitants of this early area, see Chipewyan, Cree, Algonkian, Assiniboine and Atsina. The prehistoric archaeology studies the findings and further classifies them according to followed by the ancient peoples. Their early archaeological history is documented around 1615, samuel Hearne was one of the first early explorers to make contact with the Dene. Algonkian or Woodland Cree lived above the treeline, whereas plains Cree lived in the parkland area. Prairie buffalo hunters pre-dominated in southern Saskatchewan and were mainly of the first nation Siouan or Assiniboine, Atsina or Dakota were living on the outskirts of the area now known as Saskatchewan. In 1774, Cumberland House, the companys first trading post, was erected, travelling inland were the French Canadian Voyageurs of the North West Company arriving from Eastern Canada. European fur traders, American fur traders set up forts and trading posts, First Nations people helped the early visitor adapt to the land, and supplied furs in exchange for goods. The richest resource for this area appeared to be the fur trade industry, Fort Garry, Manitoba was declared the very first capital of the North-West Territories
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History of Yukon
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Yukon is one of Canadas three territories in the countrys extreme northwest. Its history of habitation dates back to the Ice Age. In the 18th century, Russian explorers began trade with the First Nations people along the Alaskan coast, the famous Klondike Gold Rush began after gold was discovered near Dawson City in 1896. As a result of the influx of people looking for gold, it was made a territory in 1898. The second major event in the Yukons history is the construction of the Alaska Highway during the Second World War, eventually Whitehorse became the largest city in the Yukon, and then the capital in 1953. Disputed evidence of the oldest remains of human inhabitation in North America have been found in the Yukon. A large number of apparently human-modified animal bones were discovered in the Old Crow area in the northern Yukon that have dated to 25. The central and northern Yukon were not glaciated, as they were part of Beringia, at about 800, a large volcanic eruption in Mount Churchill near the Alaska border blanketed the southern Yukon with ash. That layer of ash can still be seen along the Klondike Highway, Yukon First Nations stories speak of all the animals and fish dying as a result. After that, the hunting technology saw the replacement of atlatls with bows and arrows, estimates of population of Yukon at the beginning of the XIX century strongly differ. Historians earlier assumed that there lived 8000 people in the territory, from 7000 to 8000 people, other estimates show that by 1830th year the number of indigenous people made 4700 people. The main part of the territory of modern Yukon was occupied by various Athabaskan tribes, in the north, in basins of Peel River and Porcupine River there lived Kutchin or as they call themselves Gwitchin Indians. On middle reach of Yukon River, on border with Alaska there lived Hän - relative Indians to them, northern Tutchone occupied the most part of the central Yukon, in basins of the Pelly River and the Stewart River, and Southern Tutchone - southwest of Yukon. In the southeast, in a basin of Liard River there lived Kaska Indians, in the south, near lakes in upper courses of Yukon there lived relative to them Tagish. In the southwest, in riverheads of the White River there lived Upper Tanana, besides Athabaskan, on the Arctic coast of modern Yukon, including Herschel Island, there lived Inuit. And in the south, down the Teslin River there lived continental Tlingit whose language together with Athabaskan languages is included into Na-Dene language family, covered with snow Mount Saint Elias in the extreme southwest of Yukon was unsettled. European incursions into what became the Yukon started in the first half of the 19th century with the fur trade. Hudsons Bay Company explorers and traders from Mackenzie River trading posts used two different routes to enter Yukon and created trading posts along the way
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Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
