1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
Kurds
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The Kurds are culturally and linguistically closely related to the Iranian peoples and, as a result, are often themselves classified as an Iranian people. A recent Kurdish diaspora has also developed in Western countries, primarily in Germany, the Kurdish language refers collectively to the related dialects spoken by the Kurds. It is mainly spoken in parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria. Kurdish holds official status in Iraq as a national language alongside Arabic, is recognized in Iran as a regional language, the Kurdish languages belong to the northwestern sub‑group of the Iranian languages, which in turn belongs to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. According to Mackenzie, there are few features that all Kurdish dialects have in common. And the fact that this reflects the sense of ethnic identity and unity of the Kurds. The number of Kurds living in Southwest Asia is estimated at close to 30 million, Kurds comprise anywhere from 18% to 20% of the population in Turkey, possibly as high as 25%,15 to 20% in Iraq, 10% in Iran, and 9% in Syria. Kurds form regional majorities in all four of these countries, viz. in Turkish Kurdistan, the Kurds are the fourth largest ethnic group in West Asia after the Arabs, Persians, and Turks. The total number of Kurds in 1991 was placed at 22.5 million, with 48% of this number living in Turkey, 18% in Iraq, 24% in Iran, and 4% in Syria. Recent emigration accounts for a population of close to 1.5 million in Western countries and this groups population was estimated at close to 0.4 million in 1990. The land of Karda is mentioned on a Sumerian clay-tablet dated to the 3rd millennium B. C. This land was inhabited by the people of Su who dwelt in the regions of Lake Van. Other Sumerian clay-tables referred the people, who lived in the land of Karda, as the Qarduchi and the Qurti. Many Kurds consider themselves descended from the Medes, an ancient Iranian people, the claimed Median descent is reflected in the words of the Kurdish national anthem, We are the children of the Medes and Kai Khosrow. The Kurdish languages form a subgroup of the Northwestern Iranian languages like Median, some researchers consider the independent Kardouchoi as the ancestors of the Kurds. The term Kurd, however, is first encountered in Arabic sources of the seventh century, the Kurds have ethnically diverse origins. During the Sassanid era, in Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan, after initially sustaining a heavy defeat, Ardashir I was successful in subjugating the Kurds. In a letter Ardashir I received from his foe, Ardavan V, the usage of the term Kurd during this time period most likely was a social term, designating Northwestern Iranian nomads, rather than a concrete ethnic group
3.
Iraq
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The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations
4.
Central Intelligence Agency
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As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
5.
Ansar al-Islam
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Ansar al-Islam or Ansar al-Islam fi Kurdistan was a Kurdish Sunni Muslim insurgent group in Iraq and Syria. Its ideology follows an interpretation of the Koran and promotes a return to the example of the first Muslims. Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the became an insurgent group which fought against the American led forces. The group continued to fight the Iraqi Government following the withdrawal of U. S. troops from Iraq, and sent members to Syria to fight the Government following the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War. The group was a designated terrorist organization in the United Nations, Australia, Canada, Israel, the United Kingdom and the United States, however, some small elements within Ansar al-Islam rejected this merger, and continued to function as an independent organization. Ansar al-Islam was formed in September 2001 from a merger of Jund al-Islam, led by Abu Abdullah al-Shafii, Krekar became the leader of the merged Ansar al-Islam, which opposed an agreement made between IMK and the dominant Kurdish group in the area, Patriotic Union of Kurdistan. The group later made an allegiance to al-Qaeda and allegedly received funds from the terror network. Ansar al-Islam initially comprised approximately 300 men, many of them veterans of the Soviet–Afghan War, during its stay in the Biyara region near the Iranian border, there were allegations of logistical support from powerful factions in Iran. The roots of Ansar al-Islam can be traced to the mid-1990s, the group consists of various Islamist factions that splintered from the Islamic Movement of Kurdistan. In 2001, shortly before the 9/11 attacks, leaders of several Kurdish Islamist factions visited the leadership in Afghanistan planning to create a base for al-Qaida in northern Iraq. A document found in Kabul stated the groups objectives, which was to expel those Jews and Christians from Kurdistan and join the way of jihad, rule every piece of land … with the Islamic Sharia rule. This was also confirmed by the Los Angeles Times, based upon interviews with an Ansar prisoner and they received the message from bin Laden that Kurdish Islamic cells should unite. Villagers under Ansar al-Islams control were subjected to harsh sharia laws, musical instruments were destroyed, the only school for girls in the area was destroyed, and all pictures of women removed from merchandise labels. Sufi shrines were desecrated and members of the Kakai were forced to convert to Islam or flee, former prisoners of the group also claim that Ansar al-Islam routinely used torture and severe beatings when interrogating prisoners. Beheading of prisoners had also been reported and it resulted in the deaths of a substantial number of militants and the uncovering of a chemical weapons facility at Sargat. Sargat was the facility of its type discovered in Iraq. S. Ansar al-Sunna became a prominent insurgent group active in the so-called Sunni Triangle, carrying out kidnappings, suicide bombings, in December 2007 the Ansar al-Sunna group formally acknowledged being derived from Ansar al-Islam, and reverted to using that name. Ansar al-Islam remained active after the withdrawal of U. S. troops from Iraq of 2011, Attacks against Iraqi security forces have been claimed by the group, particularly around Mosul and Kirkuk
6.
Black site
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In military terminology, a black site is a location at which an unacknowledged black project is conducted. It can refer to the facilities that are controlled by the CIA, U. S. President George W. Bush acknowledged the existence of secret prisons operated by the CIA during a speech on September 6,2006. A claim that the black sites existed was made by The Washington Post in November 2005, after denying the fact for years, Poland confirmed in 2014 that it has hosted black sites. In January 2012, Polands Prosecutor Generals office initiated investigative proceedings against Zbigniew Siemiątkowski, Siemiątkowski is charged with facilitating the alleged CIA detention operation in Poland, where foreign suspects may have been tortured in the context of the War on Terror. The possible involvement of Leszek Miller, Polands Prime Minister in 2001–04, is also considered, black sites operated by the U. S. government and its surrogates were first officially acknowledged by U. S. President George W. Bush in the fall of 2006. The International Committee of the Red Cross reported details of black site practices to the U. S. government in early 2007, and the contents of that report became public in March 2009. On September 6,2006, Bush publicly admitted the existence of secret prisons, the report was submitted to Bush administration officials. On March 15,2009, Mark Danner provided a report in the New York Review of Books describing and commenting on the contents of the ICRC report, according to Danner, the report was marked confidential and was not previously made public before being made available to him. Danner provided excerpts of interviews with detainees, including Abu Zubaydah, Walid bin Attash, black sites are embroiled in controversy over the legal status of the detainees held there, the legal authority for the operation of the sites, and full disclosure by the governments involved. An important aspect of black site operation is that the status of black site detainees is not clearly defined. In practice, inmates in black sites have no other than those given by the captors. The revelation of such black sites adds to the controversy surrounding US government policy regarding those whom it describes as unlawful enemy combatants, approximately 30 detainees are considered the most dangerous or important terrorism suspects and are held by the CIA at black sites under the most secretive arrangements. A further 100 ghost detainees kidnapped in Europe and rendered to other countries must be counted and this process is called extraordinary rendition. Marty also underlined that European countries probably had knowledge of covert operations. Furthermore, the CIA apparently financially assists and directs the jails in these countries, while the US and host countries have signed the United Nations Convention Against Torture, CIA officers are allowed to use what the agency calls enhanced interrogation techniques. These have been alleged to constitute severe pain or suffering under the UN convention, there is little or no stated legal authority for the operation of black sites by the United States or the other countries believed to be involved. In fact, the specifics of the network of black sites remains controversial, the United Nations has begun to intervene in this aspect of black sites. Polish Prime Minister Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz characterized the accusation as libel, while Romania similarly said there was no evidence, British Prime Minister Tony Blair said that the report added absolutely nothing new whatever to the information we have
7.
Jack Goldsmith
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Jack Landman Goldsmith is a Harvard Law School professor who has written extensively in the field of international law, civil procedure, cyber law, and national security law. He has been considered one of the brightest stars in the conservative legal firmament. He was a law professor at the University of Chicago when in 2002 and he wrote a book about his experiences there called The Terror Presidency. Goldsmith, along with Benjamin Wittes and Robert M. Chesney, is a co-founder, Goldsmith attended and graduated from Pine Crest School in 1980. He then matriculated and graduated from Washington & Lee University with a Bachelor of Arts summa cum laude in 1984 and he was a professor at the University of Virginia Law School before going to the University of Chicago Law School. He was working there in 2002 when he first joined the administration of President George W. Bush as a political appointee and it authorized certain enhanced interrogation techniques for use with detained enemy combatants at the Guantanamo Bay detention center and other locations. By September 2002, Jack Goldsmith had been hired to work as an adviser to the General Counsel of the Department of Defense. He had participated in discussions related to treatment and this gave him the base for influencing debates within the Bush administration regarding the conduct of the War on Terror. In April and May 2004, the Abu Ghraib prisoner torture and abuse scandal broke, and in June, Goldsmith considered it to be tendentious, overly broad and legally flawed. He worked to have them changed, in June 2004, Goldsmith withdrew as legally defective the Bybee Memo and the Torture Memos, and advised DOD not to rely on the March 2003 memo. At the same time, he submitted his resignation, several years later he said this was to try to force the administration to accept his withdrawal of the memo. OLC legal opinions written in August 2002 related to the use of enhanced interrogation techniques, or torture. Newsweek reported that the CIA had regarded the Bybee memo as a shield against potential prosecution of officials involved in the program. But, Goldsmith was unable to have his office complete what he intended as the replacement legal opinions before he resigned on June 30,2004 and he said later that he had felt he had lost the confidence of the administration. By December 2004, the replacement counsel at OLC had reaffirmed the previous legal opinions, in March 2004, the OLC concluded the e-mail program was not legal, and then-Acting Attorney General James Comey refused to reauthorize it. He is largely sympathetic to the concerns of the Bush administrations terrorism policies and he believed that fear of another attack drove the administration to its focus on the hard power of prerogative, rather than the soft power of persuasion. In the end, he believed the fear and concentration on hard power were counterproductive, Goldsmith claimed to have resigned in 2004 largely because he felt he had lost the confidence of administration leaders. He notes that the White House Counsel Alberto Gonzales asked him to remain, while Addington, Goldsmith wrote in his book, Nobody had said no to them before
8.
Alberto R. Gonzales
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Alberto R. Gonzales was the 80th United States Attorney General, appointed in February 2005 by President George W. Bush, becoming the highest-ranking Hispanic American in executive government to date. He was the first Hispanic to serve as White House Counsel, Gonzales had also served as Secretary of State of Texas and then as a Texas Supreme Court Justice. Following partisan calls for his removal, Gonzales resigned from the office in the best interests of the department, on August 27,2007, in 2008, Gonzales began a mediation and consulting practice. Additionally, he taught a political course and served as a diversity recruiter at Texas Tech University. He is also counsel at a Nashville-based law firm, Waller Lansden Dortch & Davis and he often writes opinion pieces for national newspapers and appears on national news programs. He was ranked one of Newsmaxs 50 Most Influential Latino Republicans in 2016, Alberto Gonzales was born to a Catholic family in San Antonio, Texas, and raised in Humble, a town outside of Houston. Of Mexican descent, he was the second of eight born to Maria. His father, who died in 1982, was a migrant worker and his mother worked at home raising eight children and had a sixth grade education. Gonzales and his family of ten lived in a small, two-bedroom home built by his father and uncles with no telephone and no hot running water. An honors student at MacArthur High School in unincorporated Harris County, Gonzales enlisted in the United States Air Force in 1973, for a four-year term of enlistment. He served one year at a radar site with 100 other GIs at Fort Yukon, Alaska, located north of the Arctic Circle. Subsequently, he received an appointment to the United States Air Force Academy, Gonzales was on the Deans List every semester and served as President of the Freshman Class Council at the Academy. He was on the Superintendents List and Commandants List for two semesters, prior to beginning his third year at the academy, which would have caused him to incur a further service obligation, he left the Academy and was released from the enlistment contract. He transferred to Rice University in Houston, where he was a resident of Lovett College, Gonzales had dreamed of attending Rice as a boy when he sold soft drinks at Rice University football games. He went on to be selected as the Charles Parkhill Scholar of Political Science and he then earned a Juris Doctor degree from Harvard Law School in 1982. Gonzales has been married twice, he and his first wife, Diane Clemens, divorced in 1985, he and his second wife, the citizens of Texas elected Gonzales to a full six-year term on the Supreme Court in the November 2000 general election with 81% of the vote. In addition to his political and legal career, Gonzales was active in the community and he was a board director of the United Way of the Texas Gulf Coast from 1993 to 1994, and President of Leadership Houston during this same period. In 1994, and a director for the Association for the Advancement of Mexican-Americans from 1991 to 1992
9.
Geneva Conventions
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The Geneva Conventions comprise four treaties, and three additional protocols, that establish the standards of international law for the humanitarian treatment in war. The treaties of 1949 were ratified, in whole or with reservations, the Swiss businessman Henry Dunant went to visit wounded soldiers after the Battle of Solferino in 1859. He was shocked by the lack of facilities, personnel, as a result, he published his book, A Memory of Solferino, in 1862, on the horrors of war. The latter led to the 1864 Geneva Convention, the first codified international treaty that covered the sick, for both of these accomplishments, Henry Dunant became corecipient of the first Nobel Peace Prize in 1901. The ten articles of this first treaty were initially adopted on 22 August 1864 by twelve nations, on 20 October 1868 the first, unsuccessful, attempt to expand the 1864 treaty was undertaken. With the Additional Articles relating to the Condition of the Wounded in War an attempt was undertaken to clarify some rules of the 1864 convention, the Articles were signed but never ratified by all parties. Only the Netherlands and the United States ratified the Articles, the Netherlands later withdrew their ratification. The protection of the victims of warfare would later be realized by the third Hague Convention of 1899. In 1906 thirty-five states attended a conference convened by the Swiss government and it remained into force until 1970 when Costa Rica acceded to the 1949 Geneva Conventions. The 1929 conference yielded two conventions that were signed on July 27th 1929, one, the Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field, was the third version to replace the original convention of 1864. The other was adopted after experiences in World War I had shown the deficiencies in the protection of prisoners of war under the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. The Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War was not to replace these earlier conventions signed at The Hague, the Second Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea replaced the Hague Convention of 1907. It was the first Geneva Convention on the protection of the victims of warfare and mimicked the structure. The Third Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War replaced the 1929 Geneva Convention that dealt with prisoners of war. In addition to these three conventions, the conference added a new elaborate Fourth Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. It was the first Geneva Convention not to deal with combatants, the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions had already contained some provisions on the protection of civilians and occupied territory. Article 154 specifically provides that the Fourth Geneva Convention is supplementary to these provisions in the Hague Conventions, despite the length of these documents, they were found over time to be incomplete. In light of developments, two Protocols were adopted in 1977 that extended the terms of the 1949 Conventions with additional protections
10.
Donald Rumsfeld
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Donald Henry Don Rumsfeld is an American politician and businessman. Rumsfeld served as the 13th Secretary of Defense from 1975 to 1977 under President Gerald Ford and he is both the youngest and the second oldest person to have served as Secretary of Defense. Additionally, Rumsfeld was a three-term U. S, Congressman from Illinois, Director of the Office of Economic Opportunity, Counsellor to the President, the United States Permanent Representative to NATO, and White House Chief of Staff. Born in Illinois, Rumsfeld attended Princeton University, graduating in 1954 with a degree in political science, after serving in the Navy for three years, he mounted a campaign for Congress in Illinois 13th Congressional District, winning in 1962 at the age of 30. He was a leading co-sponsor of the Freedom of Information Act, called back to Washington in August 1974, Rumsfeld was appointed Chief of Staff by President Ford. Rumsfeld recruited a young one-time staffer of his, Dick Cheney, when Ford lost the 1976 election, Rumsfeld returned to private business life, and was named president and CEO of the pharmaceutical corporation G. D. Searle & Company. He was later named CEO of General Instrument from 1990 to 1993, Rumsfeld was appointed Secretary of Defense for a second time in January 2001 by President George W. Bush. During his tenure he was one of the key responsible for the restructuring of the military in the new 21st century. Rumsfeld was crucial in planning the United States response to the September 11 attacks, Known in media circles for his outspokenness and candor, he gradually lost political support as the wars continued, and he resigned in late 2006. In his retirement years, he published an autobiography Known and Unknown, A Memoir as well as Rumsfelds Rules, Leadership Lessons in Business, Politics, War, and Life. He is involved with the Rumsfeld Foundations Fellowship program, which has advisors at dozens of universities across the United States, Donald Henry Rumsfeld was born on July 9,1932, in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Jeannette Kearsley and George Donald Rumsfeld. His father came from a German-American family that had emigrated in the 1870s, Living in Winnetka, his family attended a Congregational Church. From 1943–1945, Rumsfeld lived in Coronado, California while his father was stationed on a carrier in the Pacific in World War II. He was a ranger at Philmont Scout Ranch in 1949, Rumsfeld attended Baker Demonstration School, and later graduated from New Trier High School. He attended Princeton University on academic and NROTC partial scholarships and he graduated in 1954 with an A. B. in Political Science. During his time at Princeton, he was an amateur wrestler, becoming captain of the varsity wrestling team. His Princeton University senior thesis was titled The Steel Seizure Case of 1952, while at Princeton he was friends with another future Secretary of Defense, Frank Carlucci. Rumsfeld married Joyce P. Pierson on December 27,1954 and they have three children, six grandchildren, and one great grandchild
11.
Director of Central Intelligence
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The DCI then ran the Central Intelligence Group, a predecessor of the CIA. The office of DCI thus predates the establishment of the Central Intelligence Agency, the CIA was created by the National Security Act of 1947, which formally defined the duties of the Director of Central Intelligence. This 1947 Act also created the National Security Council, until April 2005, the DCI was often referred to colloquially as the CIA Director, even though he was head of both the CIA and the broader Intelligence Community. After the September 11,2001, terrorist attacks on the United States and the subsequent investigation by the 9/11 Commission and that movement prompted the passage of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act in December 2004, which split the DCIs duties among two new offices. The Office of the Director of National Intelligence would serve as head of the Intelligence Community, the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency would serve as chief administrator of the CIA. The reorganization took effect on April 21,2005, the 19th and last DCI, Porter J. Goss became the first director of the CIA, while John Negroponte became the first DNI. Status Rear Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter was the first Director of Central Intelligence who served as Director of the Central Intelligence Agency and those operations, however, were initially conducted by other agencies such as the Office of Policy Coordination. During the first years of its existence, other branches of the U. S. Federal government did not exercise very much supervision over the Central Intelligence Agency and those Soviet organizations also had domestic responsibilities. The rapid expansion of the CIA, and a sense of independence under the Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles exacerbated the problem of the U. S. Intelligence Communitys freedom from independent review, after the armed landing of Cuban exiles in the Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba in 1961, President Kennedy discharged and replaced Dulles. His autobiography is more noteworthy for giving insight into the mindset of key people in the field than it is in giving a description of the CIA. President John F. Kennedy exercised greater supervision, and he appointed a Republican with an engineering background. McCone, despite a lack of intelligence agency background, is considered one of the most competent DCIs. The agency stepped up its activity in Southeast Asia under President Lyndon Johnson, McCone resigned from his position of DCI in April 1965, believing himself to have been unappreciated by President Johnson. McCones final policy memorandum to Johnson argued that expansion of the War in Vietnam would arouse national and world discontent over the war, before it defeated the North Vietnamese regime. Raborn, a naval officer who directed the design and development of the entire Polaris ballistic missile submarine system, had a somewhat short. His background included no foreign relations experience, and intelligence experience only concerning naval operations, CIA historians have said Raborn did not take to the DCI job, in their opinion. Raborn resigned as the DCI on June 30,1966, having served for fourteen months
12.
George Tenet
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He played a key role in overseeing the intelligence behind the Iraq War. In February 2008, he became a director at investment bank Allen & Company. George John Tenet was born on January 5,1953, in Flushing, Queens, New York City, New York, the son of Greek immigrants Evangelia and John Tenet. His father, a Greek born in southern Albania, worked in a mine in France before arriving in the United States via Ellis Island just before the Great Depression. His mother was a Greek from Epirus, Greece, who had fled from the communists by stowing away on a British submarine. Tenet was raised in Little Neck, Queens, where as a teenager, he and his older brother Bill worked as busboys in their familys diner, because of his tendency to talk constantly he was known as the mouthpiece. Sol Winder, a friend and later owner of their diner. He was also interested in the news, the host of a current affairs host sent him an autograph in response to Tenets letters. He played basketball and softball for his Greek Orthodox church, where he was also an altar server and he attended Public School 94, where he was president of his sixth grade class, Junior High School 67, and Benjamin N. Cardozo High School. In high school he played soccer and edited the school newspaper, Tenet is married to A. Stephanie Glakas-Tenet. They have one son, John Michael and he then began working for the Senate, first as a legislative assistant and later as legislative director to former Pennsylvania Senator H. John Heinz III from 1982 to 1985. He was a member of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence from 1985 to 1988. Later, Tenet joined President-elect Bill Clintons national security team in November 1992. Clinton appointed Tenet Senior Director for Intelligence Programs at the National Security Council, Tenet was appointed Deputy Director of Central Intelligence in July 1995. After John Deutchs abrupt resignation in December 1996, Tenet served as acting director and this was followed by the reluctant withdrawal of Anthony Lake, after it became apparent to Lake that his nomination had been successfully blocked by Republicans in Congress. Tenet was then officially appointed Director on July 11,1997, in 1999 the Director declined to reveal the overall budget for intelligence operations which was a departure from his release the previous two years. This led to criticism from government transparency advocates, Tenet embarked on a mission to regenerate the CIA, which had fallen on hard times since the end of the Cold War. The number of agents recruited each year had fallen to an all-time low, Tenet appealed to the original mission of the agency, which had been to prevent another Pearl Harbor
13.
Jamie McIntyre
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Jamie McIntyre is a former Senior Pentagon correspondent for CNN. He held this position from 1992 to 2008, before joining CNN he was host and senior writer for WUSA-TV in Washington D. C. McIntyre was inside the Pentagon when a plane crashed into it during the September 11,2001 terrorist attacks and he is a 1971 graduate of T. C. Williams High School in Alexandria, VA and he received a bachelors degree in broadcasting from the University of Florida, and in 2002 he was honored as a distinguished alumnus. In July 2009, McIntyre joined the team at Military. com where he blogged at Jamie McIntyres Line of Departure, Military. coms Media. Currently, McIntyre anchors the newscasts heard at the bottom of each hour during NPRs All Things Considered
14.
CNN
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The Cable News Network is an American basic cable and satellite television news channel owned by the Turner Broadcasting System division of Time Warner. It was founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner as a 24-hour cable news channel, upon its launch, CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage, and was the first all-news television channel in the United States. While the news channel has numerous affiliates, CNN primarily broadcasts from the Time Warner Center in New York City and its headquarters at the CNN Center in Atlanta is only used for weekend programming. CNN is sometimes referred to as CNN/U. S. to distinguish the American channel from its sister network. As of August 2010, CNN is available in over 100 million U. S. households, broadcast coverage of the U. S. channel extends to over 890,000 American hotel rooms, as well as carriage on cable and satellite providers throughout Canada. Globally, CNN programming airs through CNN International, which can be seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories, as of February 2015, CNN is available to about 96,289,000 cable, satellite, and telco television households in the United States. The Cable News Network was launched at 5,00 p. m. Eastern Time on June 1,1980, after an introduction by Ted Turner, the husband and wife team of David Walker and Lois Hart anchored the channels first newscast. Burt Reinhardt, the vice president of CNN at its launch, hired most of the channels first 200 employees, including the networks first news anchor. Since its debut, CNN has expanded its reach to a number of cable and satellite providers, several websites. The company has 36 bureaus, more than 900 affiliated local stations, the channels success made a bona-fide mogul of founder Ted Turner and set the stage for conglomerate Time Warners eventual acquisition of the Turner Broadcasting System in 1996. A companion channel, CNN2, was launched on January 1,1982, on January 28,1986, CNN carried the only live television coverage of the launch and subsequent break-up of Space Shuttle Challenger, which killed all seven crew members on board. On October 14,1987, Jessica McClure, an 18-month-old toddler, fell down a well in Midland, CNN quickly reported on the story, and the event helped make its name. This was before correspondents reported live from the capital while American bombs were falling. Before Saddam Hussein held a press conference with a few of the hundreds of Americans he was holding hostage. Before the nation watched, riveted but powerless, as Los Angeles was looted and burned, before O. J. Simpson took a slow ride in a white Bronco, and before everyone close to his case had an agent and a book contract. This was uncharted territory just a time ago. The moment when bombing began was announced on CNN by Bernard Shaw on January 16,1991, as follows, lets describe to our viewers what were seeing. The skies over Baghdad have been illuminated, were seeing bright flashes going off all over the sky
15.
Jane Mayer
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Jane Meredith Mayer is an American investigative journalist who has been a staff writer for The New Yorker since 1995. In recent years, she has written for publication on money in politics, government prosecution of whistleblowers. Mayer was born in New York City and her mother, Meredith, is a painter, former president of the Manhattan Graphics Center, and a print-maker. Her father, William Mayer, is a composer and her paternal great-great-grandfather was Emanuel Lehman, one of the founders of Lehman Brothers, and her maternal grandparents were Mary Fleming and the historian Allan Nevins. In several books about the Rockefeller family, Allan Nevins, held Rockefeller, Mayer was graduated in 1973 from Fieldston. While in high school, she spent a year studying as a student at the Bedales School in England. A1977 graduate of Yale University, she was a stringer for Time magazine. She continued her studies at Oxford University, Mayer began her journalistic career in Vermont, writing for two small weekly papers, The Weathersfield Weekly and The Black River Tribune, before moving to the daily Rutland Herald. After moving to Washington, D. C. as a reporter for the now-defunct Washington Star. She worked for it for 12 years, during which time she was the first woman to be named the newspapers White House correspondent, and subsequently, senior writer and she was nominated twice by the Journal for the Pulitzer Prize for Feature Writing. Mayer also contributes to the New York Review of Books, The Washington Post, The Los Angeles Times, Strange Justice was adapted as a Showtime television movie of the same name, starring Delroy Lindo, Mandy Patinkin, and Regina Taylor. Strange Justice was a finalist for the 1994 National Book Award for Nonfiction, Time magazine said of Strange Justice, Its portrait of Thomas as an id suffering in the role of a Republican superego is more detailed and convincing than anything that has appeared so far. Of Landslide, New York Times Washington correspondent Steven V. Roberts said, This is clearly a book, full of rich anecdote. I am impressed with the amount of information collected here. The book was a finalist for the National Book Awards, the Times subsequently named The Dark Side one of its ten most notable books of the year. The administration ignored the warning and insisted that all were enemy combatants, Mayer said of her book, I see myself more as a reporter than as an advocate. Mayer covered the Obama administrations prosecution of whistleblowers with an article about former National Security Agency official Thomas Drake, despite Obamas campaign promises of transparency, Mayer wrote, his administration has pursued leak prosecutions with a surprising relentlessness. She won the Polk Award for the article, and the judges said her article helped expose prosecutorial excess, in 2009, Mayer covered the Obama administrations use of drones
16.
CBS News
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CBS News is the news division of American television and radio service CBS. The president of CBS News is David Rhodes, CBS News broadcasts include the CBS Evening News, CBS This Morning, news magazine programs CBS Sunday Morning,60 Minutes and 48 Hours, and Sunday morning political affairs program Face the Nation. CBS operates a 24-hour news network called CBSN, the first live anchored 24-hour streaming news network that is exclusively online, in December 1930 CBS chief William S. Paley hired journalist Paul W. White away from United Press as CBSs news editor. Paley put the networks news operation at the same level as entertainment. Along with other networks, CBS chafed at the breaking news embargo imposed upon radio by the wire services, CBS disregarded an embargo when it broke the story of the Lindbergh kidnapping in 1932, using live on-the-air reporting. Radio networks scooped print outlets with news of the 1932 presidential election, in March 1933 White was named vice president and general manager in charge of news at CBS. As the first head of CBS News, he began to build an organization that established a legendary reputation. In 1935 White hired Edward R. Murrow, and sent him to London in 1937 to run CBS Radios European operation, White led a staff that would come to include Charles Collingwood, William L. Shirer, Eric Sevareid, John Charles Daly, Joseph C. Harsch Cecil Brown, Elmer Davis, Quincy Howe, H. V. Kaltenborn, CBS was getting its ducks in a row for the biggest news story in history, World War II, wrote radio historian John Dunning. Upon becoming commercial station WCBW in 1941, the pioneer CBS television station in New York City broadcast two daily news programs, at 2,30 and 7,30 p. m. weekdays, anchored by Richard Hubbell. Most of the newscasts featured Hubbell reading a script with only occasional cutaways to a map or still photograph, when Pearl Harbor was bombed on December 7,1941, WCBW, took to the air at 8,45 p. m. with an extensive special report. The national emergency even broke down the wall between CBS radio and television. The WCBW special report that night lasted less than 90 minutes, but that special broadcast pushed the limits of live television in 1941 and opened up new possibilities for future broadcasts. Additional newscasts were scheduled in the days of the war. In May 1944, as the war began to turn in favor of the Allies, WCBW reopened the studios and the newscasts returned, briefly anchored by Ned Calmer, and then by Everett Holles. After the war, expanded news programs appeared on the WCBW schedule – whose call letters were changed to WCBS-TV in 1946 – first anchored by Milo Boulton, and later by Douglas Edwards. On May 3,1948, Edwards began anchoring CBS Television News and it aired every weeknight at 7,30 p. m. and was the first regularly scheduled, network television news program featuring an anchor. NBCs offering at the time, NBC Television Newsreel, was simply film footage with voice narration, the broadcast was renamed the CBS Evening News when Walter Cronkite replaced Edwards in 1962
17.
The Guardian
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The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
18.
U.S. News & World Report
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U. S. News & World Report is an American media company that publishes news, opinion, consumer advice, rankings, and analysis. Founded as a magazine in 1933, U. S. News transitioned to primarily web-based publishing in 2010. The rankings are popular in North America but have drawn criticism from colleges, administrations, and students for their dubious, disparate. The ranking system by U. S. News is usually contrasted with the Washington Monthly, United States News was founded in 1933 by David Lawrence, who also started World Report in 1946. The two magazines covered national and international news separately, but Lawrence merged them into U. S. News & World Report in 1948 and subsequently sold the magazine to his employees. Historically, the magazine tended to be more conservative than its two primary competitors, Time and Newsweek, and focused more on economic, health. It also eschewed sports, entertainment, and celebrity news, important milestones in the early history of the magazine include the introduction of the Washington Whispers column in 1934 and the News You Can Use column in 1952. In 1958, the magazines circulation passed one million and reached two million by 1973. Since 1983, it has become known primarily for its influential ranking and annual reports of colleges and graduate schools, spanning across most fields and its print edition was consistently included in national bestseller lists, augmented by online subscriptions. Additional rankings published by U. S. News & World Report include hospitals, in October 1984, publisher and real estate developer Mortimer B. Zuckerman purchased U. S. News & World Report. Zuckerman is also the owner of the New York Daily News, in 1993, U. S. News & World Report entered the digital world by providing content to CompuServe and in 1995, the website usnews. com was launched. In 2001, the won the National Magazine Award for General Excellence Online. In 2007, U. S. News & World Report published its first list of the nations best high schools and its ranking methodology includes state test scores and the success of poor and minority students on these exams, and schools performance in Advanced Placement exams. Starting in June 2008, the magazine reduced its frequency in three steps. It switched in June 2008 from weekly to biweekly, in November 2008 it decreased to monthly. In November 2010, it was reported that U. S, moving forward, the publication expressed its plans to focus mainly on research and the provision of relevant information to students pursuing higher education. Its rankings and university guide books are available in print at the majority of bookstores and magazine vendors in the United States, selling millions of copies on an annual basis. In June 2008, citing the overall magazine circulation and advertising, U. S. News & World Report announced that it would become a biweekly publication
19.
The Washington Post
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The Washington Post is an American daily newspaper. It is the most widely circulated newspaper published in Washington, D. C. and was founded on December 6,1877 and its current slogan is Democracy Dies in Darkness. Located in the city of the United States, the newspaper has a particular emphasis on national politics. Daily editions are printed for the District of Columbia, Maryland, the newspaper is published as a broadsheet, with photographs printed both in color and in black and white. The newspaper has won 47 Pulitzer Prizes and this includes six separate Pulitzers awarded in 2008, the second-highest number ever awarded to a single newspaper in one year, second only to The New York Times seven awards in 2002. Post journalists have also received 18 Nieman Fellowships and 368 White House News Photographers Association awards, in years since, its investigations have led to increased review of the Walter Reed Army Medical Center. In 2013, its owners, the Graham family, sold the newspaper to billionaire entrepreneur. The newspaper is owned by Nash Holdings LLC, a holding company Bezos created for the acquisition, the Washington Post is generally regarded as one of the leading daily American newspapers, along with The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal. The Post has distinguished itself through its reporting on the workings of the White House, Congress. It is one of the two daily broadsheets published in Washington D. C. the other being its smaller rival The Washington Times, unlike The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post does not print an edition for distribution away from the East Coast. In 2009, the newspaper ceased publication of its National Weekly Edition, the majority of its newsprint readership is in District of Columbia and its suburbs in Maryland and Northern Virginia. The Sunday Style section differs slightly from the weekday Style section, it is in a tabloid format, and it houses the reader-written humor contest The Style Invitational. Additional weekly sections appear on weekdays, Health & Science on Tuesday, Food on Wednesday, Local Living on Thursday, the latter two are in a tabloid format. In November 2009, it announced the closure of its U. S. regional bureaus—Chicago, Los Angeles and New York—as part of a focus on. political stories. The newspaper has bureaus in Maryland and Virginia. While its circulation has been slipping, it has one of the highest market-penetration rates of any metropolitan news daily, for many decades, the Post had its main office at 1150 15th Street NW. This real estate remained with Graham Holdings when the newspaper was sold to Jeff Bezos Nash Holdings in 2013, Graham Holdings sold 1150 15th Street for US$159 million in November 2013. The Washington Post continued to lease space at 1150 L Street NW, in May 2014, The Washington Post leased the west tower of One Franklin Square, a high-rise building at 1301 K Street NW in Washington, D. C
20.
Extrajudicial detention
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Administrative detention is arrest and detention of individuals by the state without trial, usually for security reasons. A large number of countries, both democratic and undemocratic, resort to administrative detention as a means to combat terrorism, to illegal immigration. Unlike criminal incarceration imposed upon conviction following a trial, administrative detention is a forward-looking mechanism and it is meant to be preventive in nature rather than punitive. The practice has been criticized by human rights organizations as a breach of civil, Administrative detentions are defined in the law of many of the worlds states. Proponents of administrative detention maintain that criminal laws reliance on defendant rights and it is also claimed that the conditions under which some suspected terrorists are captured, especially in combat zones, make it impossible to prove criminal cases using normal evidentiary rules. The Laws of War are also seen by the proponents as inadequate and these laws allow the capture of enemy fighters, and also allow holding them for the duration of hostilities without trial. However, these laws grew out of the need to regulate combat between professional armies accountable to a state, who were engaged in combat of possibly lengthy. Opponents of administrative detention challenge the above assumptions and they point to the historical record of prosecutors who were able to obtain convictions against terrorists on the basis of existing laws. Opponents maintain that in essence, administrative detention is a form of collective punishment, since it does not require proof of individual guilt, it attributes to all members of a group the actions of a few. Immigration detention is controversial because it presents a clash between traditional notions of liberty and the territorial sovereignty of states. In many non-democratic countries, administrative detention is used by the regime to suppress dissent. In Asia in particular, administrative detention was first introduced by the British and French colonial authorities prior to, in many cases, they were and codified as emergency measures or internal security acts. Vietnam is an example where administrative detention was used by the French colonial authorities in the 1930s. Post-independence, the now-ruling Communist authorities have employed very similar means to detain those suspected of counter-revolutionary offenses. Some of these prisoners, such as Aung San Suu Kyi in Myanmar, have become known worldwide due to the detention. The legal basis for this system is found in Australias Migration Act 1958, any member of the Brazilian Armed Forces may be imprisoned if found to be repeatedly in violation of the Military Disciplinary Regulations by his or her superiors. Each military branch has issued a list of transgressions in their Disciplinary Regulations, the harshest punishment of this kind, in the Brazilian Army, is a 30-day imprisonment penalty. Notwithstanding, members of the Brazilian Armed Forces under administrative detention may be granted a habeas corpus by the system to deliver them from imprisonment
21.
Salt Pit
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The Salt Pit is the codename of an isolated clandestine CIA black site prison and interrogation center in Afghanistan. Another codename of the site is Cobalt. It is located north of Kabul and was the location of a brick factory prior to the Afghanistan War, the CIA adapted it for extrajudicial detention. In the winter of 2005, the Salt Pit became known to the public because of two incidents. In 2011 the Miami Herald indicated that the Salt Pit and the prison were the same location. Although the initial plan called for the Afghan government to operate the site, ultimately the prison housed, at one point or another, nearly half of the 119 detainees identified by the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture. The prison was dark at all times, with curtains and painted exterior windows, the prisoners were kept in total darkness and isolation, with only a bucket for human waste and without sufficient heat in winter months. Nude prisoners were kept in an area, and walked around as a form of humiliation. The detainees were hosed down while shackled naked, and placed in cold cells and they were subject to sleep deprivation, shackled to bars with their hands above their heads. Four of 20 cells of the prison had bars across the cell to allow this, one senior interrogator said that his team found a detainee who had been chained in a standing position for 17 days, as far as we could determine. Multiple uses of sleep deprivation, prolonged standing, nudity and rough treatment were never reported, there are almost no detailed records of the detentions and interrogations during the earliest days of the sites existence. Throughout interviews conducted in 2003 with the CIA Office of Inspector General, top CIA leadership, both the Director of Central Intelligence George Tenet and CIA General Counsel Scott Muller have said they were not very familiar with the detention site. In August 2003, Muller said he believed that the site was merely a holding facility, the Inspector General review also found that there were no guidelines for enhanced interrogation techniques at the site and that some interrogators were left to their own devices with prisoners. Rahman was captured in Islamabad on October 29,2002, on the morning of 20 November 2002, he was found dead in his cell. A post-mortem examination determined that he had frozen to death, the Washington Post described the CIA camp commandant as newly minted, on his first assignment. ABC News called the CIA camp commandant a young, untrained junior officer, the Washington Posts sources noted that the CIA camp commandant had subsequently been promoted. The commandant was later identified as Matthew Zirbel, the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture revealed that no CIA employees were disciplined as a result of his death. Rahman was buried in a grave, and his friends
22.
Diego Garcia
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Diego Garcia is an atoll just south of the equator in the central Indian Ocean, and the largest of 60 small islands comprising the Chagos Archipelago. It was settled by the French in the 1790s and was transferred to British rule after the Napoleonic Wars and it was one of the Dependencies of the British Colony of Mauritius until it was detached for inclusion in the newly created British Indian Ocean Territory in 1965. Between 1968 and 1973, the population was removed by the United Kingdom through intimidation of locals. Many were deported to Mauritius and Seychelles, following which the United States built a naval and military base on Diego Garcia. As of March 2015, Diego Garcia is the inhabited island of the BIOT. The atoll is located 3,535 km east of Tanzanias coast,1,796 km south-southwest of the tip of India and 4,723 km west-northwest of the west coast of Australia. According to Southern Maldivian oral tradition, traders and fishermen were occasionally lost at sea, eventually, they were rescued and brought back home. However, the different atolls of the Chagos have no names in the Maldivian oral tradition. Nothing is known of pre-European contact history of Diego Garcia, speculations include visits during the Austronesian diaspora around 700 AD, as some say the old Maldivian name for the islands originated from Malagasy. Arabs, who reached Lakshadweep and Maldives around 900 AD, may have visited the Chagos, another Portuguese expedition with a Spanish explorer of Andalusian origin, Diego García de Moguer, rediscovered the island in 1544 and named it after himself. Garcia de Moguer died the year on the return trip to Portugal in the Indian Ocean. The misnomer Diego could have been made unwittingly by the British ever since and it is assumed that the island was named after one of its first two discoverers—the one by the name of Garcia, the other with name Diego. Also, a cacography of the saying Deo Gracias is eligible for the attribution of the atoll, the Sebastian Cabot map shows a number of islands to the south which may be the Mascarene Islands. The first map which identifies and names Los Chagos is that of Pierre Desceliers, an island called Don Garcia appears on the Theatrum Orbis Terrarum of Abraham Ortelius, together with Dos Compagnos, slightly to the north. It may be the case that Don Garcia was named after Garcia de Noronha, the island is also labelled Don Garcia on Mercators Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae Descriptio ad Usum Navigatium Emendate. However, on the Vera Totius Expeditionis Nauticae Description of Jodocus Hondius, Don Garcia mysteriously changes its name to I. de Dio Gratia, while the I. de Chagues appears close by. The first map to delineate the island under its present name, Diego Garcia, is the World Map of Edward Wright, possibly as a result of misreading Dio as Diego, and Gratia as Garcia. The Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis Geographica of Hendrik Hondius II repeats Wrights use of the name, which is then proliferated on all subsequent Dutch maps of the period, Diego Garcia and the rest of the Chagos islands were uninhabited until the late 18th century
23.
Temara interrogation centre
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Also known as Temara secret detention center is an extrajudicial detainment and secret prison facility of Morocco located within a forested area about 15 kilometres from Rabat, Morocco. The first known detainee was Mohammed Mossadegh Benkhadra, in 1985 and spent 8 years in extrajudicial detainment, more recently, Zakaria Moumni claimed to have been tortured there when he was arrested in 2010. The US officials told the AP that the prison was run by Moroccans but largely financed by the CIA, members of the DST are not considered to be part of the judicial police and as such should not arrest and hold suspects. Frequently reported methods of torture include beatings, the suspension of the body in contorted positions, other reported methods include rape by the forced insertion of objects such as bottles into the anus, sleep deprivation, cigarette burns, and the application of live electrodes to the body. Several non-government organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have denounced reports of torture at the facility, Human rights in Morocco State terrorism Police state Dictatorship Ali Bourequat Mohamed Oufkir Malika Oufkir Politics of Morocco History of Morocco
24.
Olsztyn-Mazury Airport
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Olsztyn-Mazury Airport or Port lotniczy Olsztyn-Mazury is an international passenger airport in the North-East of Poland, branded as the gateway to the Masurian Lake District. It is located near the village Szymany, some 10 km from the centre of the city of Szczytno in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, the airport was earlier known as Szymany Airport or Szczytno-Szymany Airport. It originally served as air base for the Germans during the World War 2, after it lost its military importance with the end of the Cold War, it served as passenger airport for a few years at the turn of the millennium. Flights were sporadic and passenger numbers very low, so it ceased again around 2003. Later on, the Szymany Airport received international attention after it was discovered the airfield was used by the CIA in conjunction with a black site prison nearby in 2003. From 2014 to 2015, the airport was rebuilt with high EU subsidies as part of the Regional Operational Programme Warmia and its runway was extended and overhauled, a new terminal, railway link and further facilities were erected. In January 2016, the airport opened for scheduled flights, the airport ostensibly serves Olsztyn, the capital of Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship. It is an international airport with old toponymic name Szczytno-Szymany. After years of no passenger operations, it resumed service on January 20,2016 with a flight to Berlin. The airport has an extended and resurfaced runway that is 2500 meters long and 60 meters wide, a new ILS system. Its toponymic Szczytno–Szymany reflects largely obscure localities, the airport management has rebranded the airport to as Olsztyn-Mazury”, that would better encapsulate the whole region of Mazury and its lakes, which is more well known. The airport is situated 59 kilometres to the south of Olsztyn, there are also other larger towns in the 60 kilometres distance of this airport, such as Mława, Ciechanów, Ostrołęka. This airport has in its catchment area a population of 2.7 million people in both voivodeships, in order to provide easy access, a new rail link to the airport was furnished, using a rail branch. A journey time to the centre of Olsztyn is 50 minutes, in the future, a rail link to Białystok through Ostrołęka, and another to Ełk could be organised by putting railcars on unused rail lines. The first passenger airport in Olsztyn Area was Olsztyn-Dajtki airport that served flights to Bydgoszcz, Warszawa, Gdańsk, the airfield in Szymany originates from 1933. Back then it was located in Germany, just kilometres away from the Polish border, being hidden, within the woods, the airfield should be used as temporary facility during the war. So it did 1939 during the invasion in Poland, in 1945, the small airfield was in the hands of the Soviet army. As they were not interested in the facility, they left it in autumn 1945, now located in Poland, the Polish army acquired it
25.
Camp Eggers
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Camp Eggers was a United States military base in Kabul, Afghanistan located near the US Embassy and the Afghan Presidential Palace. The camp was named after Captain Daniel W. Camp Eggers closed in 2014 as a part of the withdrawal of U. S. troops from Afghanistan, Camp Eggers was home to the Combined Forces Command - Afghanistan and the Combined Security Transition Command - Afghanistan. It was used by all U. S. military branches, lt. Gen David Barno, first Commander of Combined Forces Command-Afghanistan Camp Eggers from Globalsecurity. org
26.
Gul Rahman
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Gul Rahman was a suspected Afghan militant who was a victim of torture. He died in a secret CIA prison, or black site, located in northern Kabul, Afghanistan and he had been captured October 29,2002. His name was kept secret by the United States for more than seven years although his death was announced, in 2010 the Associated Press reported that before his death he was left half-stripped and chained against a concrete wall on a night when the temperature was close to freezing. The United States government did not notify his family of his death, Gul Rahman was captured and arrested on 29 October 2002 during a joint operation by U. S. agents and Pakistani security forces against Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin. He was reportedly arrested with the physician Ghairat Baheer, the son-in-law of the warlord Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, Rahman had traveled from Peshawar to Islamabad, Pakistan for a medical checkup when he was arrested at the home of Ghairat Baheer, and subsequently flown by the CIA to Afghanistan. U. S. Rahman was also subjected to 48 hours of sleep deprivation, auditory overload, total darkness, isolation, a cold shower and rough treatment. Gul Rahman reportedly died on 20 November 2002 after being stripped naked from the waist down and shackled to a cement wall in the Salt Pit. This technique of shacking is known as short-chaining, the detainee is shackled in a short chain position, which prevents prisoners from standing upright. A CIA pathologist reported that Rahman likely froze to death and his death prompted an internal CIA review and the development of improved guidance. No one was charged in his death. According to Guls brother, Habib Rahman, Gul Rahman was involved in a 1994 rescue of Hamid Karzai, Karzai had been imprisoned by the government forces, and Rahman was working for the insurgent leader Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. Hekmatyars forces fired rockets at the building while Rahman entered and freed Karzai, Rahman took him to a safe house in Kabul. On December 9,2014 the Senate Intelligence Committees report on CIA torture was published, according to that report he had been subjected to total darkness, sensory overload, sleep deprivation, cold shower, rough treatment, short shackling and finally froze to death. The report said he was the only known to have died in CIA custody. The ACLU case is the first lawsuit brought against significant individuals identified in the Senate report since it was published. Salt Pit Death, Gul Rahman, CIA Prisoner, Died Of Hypothermia In Secret Afghanistan Prison, Huffington Post Author of Torture Memos Admits Some Techniques Were Not Approved By DOJ, Truth-Out
27.
Jamil el Banna
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Jamil el-Banna is a Jordanian of Palestinian origin with refugee status in the United Kingdom who had been living in northwest London. He was abducted in November 2002 by the CIA from Gambia while on a trip and suffered extraordinary rendition to Bagram. He was transferred to military custody at Guantanamo Bay detainment camp in March 2003, following his release and return to the United Kingdom, Jamil el-Banna was arrested and questioned when arriving in London, on charges by a Spanish court. Spain dropped its charges in March 2008, the Department of Defense reports that el-Banna was born on May 28,1952, in Jericho, Turkey. His wife is quoted as saying that Jamil was born in Jericho, West Bank, Jamil el-Banna was born in Jericho, West Bank in 1952, after the nation of Israel was established. Soon after his birth, his family moved into Jordan, where they were housed at a camp near Amman. Jamil dropped out of school at age 10, and fell into petty crime, in 1994, he made his way to the United Kingdom, where he successfully applied for refugee status. Later he worked for a brother, who was setting up an edible oil factory in Gambia. Jamil and Bisher al-Rawi flew to Gambia to meet a shipment of parts to be used to set up an edible oil factory. At first the two men were under a kind of house arrest. They were not formally charged with any crimes under Gambian law and they were told that they would be released when their machinery had been checked to make sure it was not something that could be used for terrorism. They were not detained in a Gambian jail, but rather in a CIA snatch team safe house and they were guarded by Gambians and interrogated by American agents. In late December 2002, the CIA decided to transport them from Gambia, the black team that arrived to escort them wore black uniforms, and their faces were covered by black balaklavas. They cut the clothes from the bodies and bound them for transportation. The two men were illegally rendered to Bagram Air Base in Afghanistan, where Jamil el-Banna was imprisoned underground in total darkness for weeks, once in the main portion of the airbase prison, he met Moazzam Begg, a British citizen whose bookshop he had visited in England. Nicknamed Kenny Rogers, el-Banna once entertained American guards by singing half a verse of Coward of the County, in March 2003, Jamil and Bisher al-Rawi were transferred to United States military custody at Guantanamo Bay detention camp. They were protesting the detention without charges, and abuses and mistreatment, smith said that Jamil told him that one of the reasons for the second hunger strike was that guards were still searching through the prisoners copies of the Quran by hand. A December 2005 article in The Times repeated Jamils claim that his American interrogators told him that MI5 had colluded in his extraordinary rendition, the lawyers of Guantanamo Bay detainees have to hand in all their notes to the authorities, which consider them classified
28.
Binyam Mohamed
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He was arrested in Pakistan and transported first to Morocco under the US illegal extraordinary rendition program, where he claimed to have been interrogated under torture. After some time, Mohamed was transferred to military custody at Guantanamo Bay detention camp, Mohameds military Personal Representative at the time of his Combatant Status Review Tribunal reported that he had admitted that he had trained in the Al-Qaeda terrorist training camp, Al Farouq. Mohamed has since said that the evidence against him was obtained using torture, the US dropped its charges against him, and eventually released him. He arrived in the United Kingdom on 23 February 2009, together with other detainees, he took legal action against the UK government for collusion by MI5 and MI6 in his torture by the United States. In February 2010, the UK Court of Appeal ruled that he had subjected to cruel, inhuman. In which the British Intelligence services had been complicit, the UK government awarded him £1 million compensation in settlement in 2011. Born in Ethiopia, Mohamed immigrated to Canada in 1995, where he sought political asylum and he lived there for seven years with leave to remain while his application was resolved. He was seeking Permanent Resident status, in June 2001, Mohamed travelled to Afghanistan, for reasons which are in dispute. He and his supporters said that he had gone to conquer his drug problems and he admitted to military training, but said that it was to fight with the Muslim resistance in Chechnya against the Russians, which was not illegal. Mohamed said that he had made false statements while being tortured in Pakistani jails, on 10 April 2002, Mohamed was arrested at Pakistans Karachi airport by Pakistani authorities as a suspected terrorist, while attempting to return to the UK under a false passport. Mohamed contends that he was subjected to Extraordinary rendition by the United States, while he was held in Morocco, he said that interrogators tortured him by repeatedly using scalpels or razor blades to cut his penis and chest. On 19 September 2004, Mohamed was taken by U. S. military authorities from Bagram airbase in Afghanistan to their Guantánamo Bay detention camp at their Navy base in Cuba and he says that he was routinely humiliated and abused and constantly lied to there. In February 2005 he was placed in Camp V, the harsh super-maximum facility where, reports suggest and he was told that he would be required to testify against other detainees. The hunger strike started in July 2005, and resumed in August 2005 because the detainees believed the US authorities failed to keep promises to meet their demands. From a written statement by Mohamed dated 11 August 2005, The administration promised that if we gave them 10 days and they said this had been approved by Donald Rumsfeld himself in Washington DC. As a result of these promises, we agreed to end the strike on July 28, hisham from Tunisia was savagely beaten in his interrogation and they publicly desecrated the Quran. Saad from Kuwait was ERFd for refusing to go to interrogation because the female interrogator had sexually humiliated him for 5 hours _ Therefore, on 7 November 2005, Mohamed was charged by a military commission at Guantanamo with conspiracy. The complaint alleges that Mohamed was trained in Kabul to build dirty bombs, at the start of his military commission, Mohamed chose to represent himself
29.
Enhanced interrogation techniques
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Armed Forces at black sites around the world, including Bagram, Guantanamo Bay, and Abu Ghraib, authorized by officials of the George W. Bush administration. Several detainees endured medically-unnecessary rectal rehydration, rectal fluid resuscitation, in addition to brutalizing detainees, there were threats to their families such as threats to harm children, and threats to sexually abuse or to cut the throat of detainees mothers. The CIA admits to waterboarding three people implicated in the September 11 attacks, Abu Zubaydah, Khalid Shaikh Mohammed, and Mohammed al-Qahtani. A Senate Intelligence Committee found photos of a surrounded by buckets of water at the Salt Pit prison. Former guards and inmates at Guantánamo have said that deaths which the US military called suicides at the time, were in fact homicides under torture, no murder charges have been brought for these or for acknowledged torture related homicides at Abu Ghraib and at Bagram. Debates arose over whether enhanced interrogation violated U. S. anti-torture statutes or international laws such as the UN Convention against Torture. The United Nations special rapporteur on torture, Juan Mendez stated that waterboarding is torture—immoral and illegal, in 2009 both President Barack Obama and Attorney General Eric Holder said that certain of the techniques are torture, and repudiated their use. In July 2014, the European Court of Human Rights formally ruled that enhanced interrogation is torture, and ordered Poland to pay restitution to men tortured at a CIA black site there. In December 2014, the U. S. Senate made public around 10% of the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture, a report about the CIAs use of torture during the George W. Bush administration. Almost immediately after the 9/11 attacks, Bush administration officials conferring by video link from bunkers decided to treat the attacks as acts of war, the question arose, were captured prisoners to be treated as prisoners of war. On September 17,2001, President Bush signed a still-classified directive giving the CIA the power secretly to imprison and interrogate detainees. By putting them outside the law, the President was asserting the power to do anything he or his commanders wanted at any time, in total darkness, regardless of the consequences. They were subjected to beatings, electric shocks, exposure to cold, suspension from the ceiling by their arms. An unknown number died as a result, in late 2001 and early 2002 interrogation under torture at secret sites was still ad hoc, not yet organized as a bureaucratic program, nor sanctioned under Justice Department legal cover. As early as November 2001 the CIA general counsel began considering the legality of torture, Torture was necessary to prevent imminent, significant, physical harm to persons, where there is no other available means to prevent the harm. Later that April Dr. Jose Rodriguez, head of the CIAs clandestine service, the CIA sought immunity from prosecution, sometimes known as a get out of jail free card. Condoleezza Rice recalled being told that U. S. military personnel were subjected in training to certain physical and psychological interrogation techniques, during the discussions, John Ashcroft is reported to have said, Why are we talking about this in the White House. History will not judge this kindly, after the Justice Department completed what are now known as the Torture Memos, Condoleezza Rice told the CIA that the techniques were approved in July 2002
30.
Extraordinary rendition
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Extraordinary rendition, also called irregular rendition, or forced rendition, is the government-sponsored abduction and extrajudicial transfer of a person from one country to another. President Bill Clinton authorized extraordinary rendition to nations known to practice torture, the United Nations considers one nation abducting the citizens of another a crime against humanity. By 2004, critics alleged that torture was used against subjects with the knowledge or acquiescence of the United States, in addition, some former detainees claimed to have been transferred to other countries for interrogation under torture, such as the Australian citizen Mamdouh Habib. In December 2005 Condoleezza Rice stated that, the United States has not transported anyone, where appropriate, the United States seeks assurances that transferred persons will not be tortured. From 2001 to 2005 CIA officers captured an estimated 150 people, under the Bush administration, rendered persons were reported to have undergone torture by the receiving countries. The revelations about the US program prompted several official investigations in Europe into alleged secret detentions, while the Obama administration has distanced itself from some of the harshest counter-terrorism techniques, it has also said that at least some forms of renditions will continue. As of 2011, the administration allowed rendition only to a country with jurisdiction over that individual, Rendition, in law, is a transfer of persons from one jurisdiction to another, and the act of handing over, both after legal proceedings and according to law. Extraordinary rendition, however, is a rendition which is extralegal, in practice, the term is widely used to describe such practices, particularly the initial apprehension. This latter usage extends to the transfer of suspected terrorists by the US to countries known to torture prisoners or to employ harsh interrogation techniques that may rise to the level of torture. The Bush administration freely admitted to practice, stating, among other provisions. Torture can still occur, however, despite these provisions, in these instances, the initial captor allows the possibility of torture by releasing the prisoner into the custody of nations that practice torture. The next distinction of degree is that of intent, where much of the search for evidence continues and it has been alleged that some of those detainees have been tortured with the knowledge, acquiescence or even participation of US agencies. A transfer of anyone to anywhere for the purpose of torture would be a violation of US law, New York attorney Marc D. Falkoff stated that such evidence, i. e. transfer for the purposes of torture, was an operational practice. The US was trying to get them within reach of United States government representatives for transport to. In September 1987, during the Reagan administration, the United States executed an extraordinary rendition, code named Goldenrod, the Reagan administration did not undertake this kidnapping lightly. In 1984 and 1986, during a wave of terrorist attacks, Congress passed laws making air piracy, ronald Reagan added teeth to these laws by signing a secret covert-action directive in 1986 that authorized the CIA to kidnap, anywhere abroad, foreigners wanted for terrorism. A new word entered the dictionary of U. S. foreign relations, the American Civil Liberties Union alleges that extraordinary rendition was developed during the Clinton administration. CIA officials in the mid-1990s were trying to track down and dismantle militant Islamic organizations in the Middle East, particularly Al Qaeda
31.
Waterboarding
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Adverse physical consequences can manifest themselves months after the event, while psychological effects can last for years. In the most common method of waterboarding, the face is covered with cloth or some other thin material. Torturers pour water onto the face over the passages, causing an almost immediate gag reflex. The term water board torture appeared in press reports as early as 1976, the CIA confirmed having waterboarded three Al-Qaeda suspects, Abu Zubaydah, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, and Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri, in 2002 and 2003. These legal opinions argued for a definition of torture under US law. The first three were addressed to the CIA, which took them as authority to use the enhanced interrogation techniques on detainees classified as enemy combatants. The legal opinions were withdrawn by Jack Goldsmith of the OLC in June 2004, US government officials at various times said they did not believe waterboarding to be a form of torture. In 2006, the Bush administration banned torture including waterboarding on detainees, in January 2009, U. S. President Barack Obama issued a similar ban on the use of waterboarding and other forms of torture in interrogations of detainees. In April 2009, the U. S. Department of Defense refused to say whether waterboarding is still used for training US military personnel in resistance to interrogation. The report concluded that the CIAs use of enhanced interrogation techniques was not effective for acquiring intelligence or gaining cooperation from detainees, there was no evidence that information obtained from the detainees through EIT was not or could not have been obtained through conventional interrogation methods. In 2015, various Republican presidential candidates indicated their willingness to bring back waterboarding as an interrogation technique, donald Trump stated he believed in the effectiveness of the technique. Trump also stated that it is a form of torture. Ben Carson had not ruled out approving its use, nor did Jeb Bush, carly Fiorina endorsed its use, as did Rick Perry and Rick Santorum. Interrogators used graduated levels of force, including a known as water boarding, in which a prisoner is strapped down, forcibly pushed under water. U. S. Dershowitz later told the New York Times columnist William Safire that, techniques using forcible drowning to extract information had hitherto been referred to as water torture, water treatment, water cure or simply torture. Professor Darius Rejali of Reed College, author of Torture and Democracy, there is a special vocabulary for torture. When people use tortures that are old, they rename them and they invent slightly new words to mask the similarities. This creates an inside club, especially important in work where secrecy matters, Waterboarding is clearly a jailhouse joke
