1.
Murder
–
A murder is the unlawful killing of another human without justification or valid excuse, especially the unlawful killing of another human being with malice aforethought. This state of mind may, depending upon the jurisdiction, distinguish murder from other forms of unlawful homicide, manslaughter is a killing committed in the absence of malice, brought about by reasonable provocation, or diminished capacity. Involuntary manslaughter, where it is recognized, is a killing that lacks all but the most attenuated guilty intent, in most countries, a person convicted of murder generally faces a long-term prison sentence, possibly a life sentence where permitted. In many common law jurisdictions, a convicted of murder will receive a mandatory life sentence. In jurisdictions where capital punishment exists, the penalty may be imposed for such an act, however. The modern English word murder descends from the Proto-Indo-European mrtró which meant to die, the Middle English mordre is a noun from Anglo-Saxon morðor and Old French murdre. Middle English mordre is a verb from Anglo-Saxon myrdrian and the Middle English noun, the elements of common law murder are, Unlawful killing through criminal act or omission of a human by another human with malice aforethought. Killing – At common law life ended with cardiopulmonary arrest – the total, with advances in medical technology courts have adopted irreversible cessation of all brain function as marking the end of life. Сriminal act or omission – Killing can be committed by an act or an omission. of a human – This element presents the issue of life begins. At common law, a fetus was not a human being, life began when the fetus passed through the vagina and took its first breath. By another human – In early common law, suicide was considered murder, the requirement that the person killed be someone other than the perpetrator excluded suicide from the definition of murder. With malice aforethought – Originally malice aforethought carried its everyday meaning – a deliberate, Murder necessarily required that an appreciable time pass between the formation and execution of the intent to kill. The courts broadened the scope of murder by eliminating the requirement of actual premeditation and deliberation as well as true malice, all that was required for malice aforethought to exist is that the perpetrator act with one of the four states of mind that constitutes malice. The four states of mind recognized as constituting malice are, Under state of mind, intent to kill, thus, if the defendant intentionally uses a deadly weapon or instrument against the victim, such use authorizes a permissive inference of intent to kill. In other words, intent follows the bullet, examples of deadly weapons and instruments include but are not limited to guns, knives, deadly toxins or chemicals or gases and even vehicles when intentionally used to harm one or more victims. In Australian jurisdictions, the risk must amount to a foreseen probability of death. Under state of mind, the doctrine, the felony committed must be an inherently dangerous felony, such as burglary, arson, rape. Importantly, the underlying felony cannot be a lesser included offense such as assault, as with most legal terms, the precise definition of murder varies between jurisdictions and is usually codified in some form of legislation
Murder
–
Murder in the House,
Jakub Schikaneder.
Murder
–
Aaron Alexis holding shotgun during his rampage.
Murder
–
A group of
Thugs strangling a traveller on a highway in India in the early 19th century.
2.
Assassination
–
Assassination is the murder of a prominent person, often a political leader or ruler, usually for political reasons or payment. The word assassin is believed to derive from the word Hashshashin. It referred to a group of Nizari Shia Persians who worked against various Arab, founded by the Persian Hassan-i Sabbah, the Assassins were active in the fortress of Alamut in Iran from the 8th to the 14th centuries, and also controlled the castle of Masyaf in Syria. The group killed members of the Persian, Abbasid, Seljuq, the word for murder in many Romance languages is derived from this same root word. Assassination is one of the oldest tools of power politics and it dates back at least as far as recorded history. The Old Testament story of Judith illustrates how a woman frees the Israelites by tricking and assassinating Holofernes, a warlord of the rival Assyrians, with whom the Israelites were at war. King Joash of Judah was recorded as being assassinated by his own servants, Joab assassinated Absalom, King Davids son, chanakya wrote about assassinations in detail in his political treatise Arthashastra. His student Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Empire, later made use of assassinations against some of his enemies, other famous victims are Philip II of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great, and Roman consul Julius Caesar. Emperors of Rome often met their end in this way, as did many of the Muslim Shia Imams hundreds of years later, the practice was also well known in ancient China, as in Jing Kes failed assassination of Qin king Ying Zheng in 227 BC. Whilst many assassination were performed by an individual or a small group, the earliest were the sicarii in 6 A. D. who predated the Middle Eastern assassins and Japanese ninjas by centuries. In the Middle Ages, regicide was rare in Western Europe, blinding and strangling in the bathtub were the most commonly used procedures. With the Renaissance, tyrannicide—or assassination for personal or political reasons—became more common again in Western Europe and this account is, however, contentious among historians, it being most commonly asserted that he died of natural causes. The myth of the Curse of King Zvonimir is based on the legend of his assassination, in 1192, Conrad of Montferrat, the de facto King of Jerusalem, was killed by an assassin. The reigns of King Przemysł II of Poland, William the Silent of the Netherlands, in Russia alone, two emperors, Paul I and his grandson Alexander II, were assassinated within 80 years. In the United Kingdom, only one Prime Minister of the United Kingdom has ever been assassinated—Spencer Perceval on May 11,1812. In the United States, within 100 years, four presidents—Abraham Lincoln, James Garfield, William McKinley, there have been at least 20 known attempts on U. S. presidents lives. Huey Long, a Senator, was assassinated in September of 1935, the Polish Home Army conducted a regular campaign of assassinations against top Nazi German officials in occupied Poland. Adolf Hitler, meanwhile, was almost killed by his own officers, indias Father of the Nation, Mohandas K. Gandhi, was shot to death on January 30,1948, by Nathuram Godse
Assassination
–
The word "assassin" was derived from
Hasan-i Sabbah and his
Assassin's Order of Nizari Ismailism.
Assassination
–
Assassination of King
Henry III of France
Assassination
–
Assassination of King
Przemysł II of Poland
Assassination
–
Assassination of President Abraham Lincoln; 1865 depiction. Assassin
John Wilkes Booth on the right.
3.
Cannibalism
–
Cannibalism is the act or practice of humans eating the flesh or internal organs of other human beings. A person who practices cannibalism is called a cannibal, the expression cannibalism has been extended into zoology to mean one individual of a species consuming all or part of another individual of the same species as food, including sexual cannibalism. The Island Carib people of the Lesser Antilles, from whom the word cannibalism derives, some controversy exists over the accuracy of these legends and the prevalence of actual cannibalism in the culture. Cannibalism was practiced in New Guinea and in parts of the Solomon Islands, Fiji was once known as the Cannibal Isles. Cannibalism has been documented around the world, from Fiji to the Amazon Basin to the Congo to Māori New Zealand. Neanderthals are believed to have practiced cannibalism, and Neanderthals may have been eaten by anatomically modern humans, Cannibalism has recently been both practiced and fiercely condemned in several wars, especially in Liberia and Congo. It is still practiced in Papua New Guinea as of 2012 for cultic reasons and in ritual, Cannibalism has been said to test the bounds of cultural relativism as it challenges anthropologists to define what is or is not beyond the pale of acceptable human behavior. Cannibalism has been practiced as a last resort by people suffering from famine. Also, some mentally ill people obsess about eating others and actually do so, such as Jeffrey Dahmer, there is resistance to formally labeling cannibalism as a mental disorder. Cannibalism derives from Caníbales, the Spanish name for the Caribs, a West Indies tribe that formerly practiced cannibalism, from Spanish canibal or caribal, in some societies, especially tribal societies, cannibalism is a cultural norm. Exocannibalism is the consumption of a person from outside the community, both types of cannibalism can also be fueled by the belief that eating a persons flesh or internal organs will endow the cannibal with some of the characteristics of the deceased. In most parts of the world, cannibalism is not a societal norm, the survivors of the shipwrecks of the Essex and Méduse in the 19th century are said to have engaged in cannibalism, as did the members of Franklins lost expedition and the Donner Party. Such cases generally involve necro-cannibalism as opposed to homicidal cannibalism, in English law, the latter is always considered a crime, even in the most trying circumstances. There are numerous examples of murderers consuming their victims, often deriving some degree of satisfaction from the act of cannibalism. Notable examples include Albert Fish, Issei Sagawa and Jeffrey Dahmer, cases of autophagia, or self-cannibalism, have also been reported. A well-known case of cannibalism is that of the Fore tribe in New Guinea. Although the Fores mortuary cannibalism was documented, the practice had ceased before the cause of the disease was recognized. However, some argue that although post-mortem dismemberment was the practice during funeral rites
Cannibalism
–
Cannibalism, Brazil. Engraving by
Theodor de Bry to illustrate
Hans Staden 's account of his captivity in 1557.
Cannibalism
Cannibalism
–
A cannibal feast on
Tanna, Vanuatu, c. 1885-9
Cannibalism
–
Hansel and Gretel, illustrated by
Arthur Rackham.
4.
Child murder
–
Child murder or child homicide is the homicide of an individual under the age of 18. In 2008, there were 1,494 child homicides in the United States, of those killed,1,035 were male and 453 were female. Child manslaughter can result in a charge in some jurisdictions such as the State of Florida. In 2011, Texas raised this age from six to 10, in most countries, there are very few cases where children are killed by other young children. According to the U. S. Department of Justice statistics for 1996, several murders by children have gained prominent media exposure. One was the killing on 12 February 1993 of the almost three-year-old boy James Bulger by two boys in Bootle, England, UK. He was beaten and stoned before his unconscious body was left on tracks to give the impression that a train had hit him. Also, in 1968 in Newcastle upon Tyne, England there was the trial of 10-year-old Mary Bell and she was convicted of manslaughter due to diminished responsibility in the deaths of toddlers Martin Brown and Brian Howe. She was released in 1980 at the age of 23, in 1998,8 -year-old Madelyn Clifton was killed by 14-year-old Josh Phillips. In 1992, after the shooting of 7-year-old Dantrell Davis as he left the Cabrini–Green public housing project for school. 62 child murders were reported that year, the military use of children refers to children being placed in harms way in military actions, in order to protect a location or provide propaganda. This is sometimes referred to as sacrifice, though not equivalent to the religious variety. It may also refer to the use of children as soldiers or saboteurs. Red Hand Day on 15 February is a commemoration day to draw public attention to the practice of using children as soldiers in wars. Medicine murder is a practice of sacrifice and mutilation associated with traditional medicinal practices. Victims of muti killings are often children, organs and/or body parts are usually taken while child is still alive. An unknown child, whose decapitated torso was found in the River Thames in London in 2002 is believed to have been the victim of a muti killing. 523-531 Edward V of England, November 2,1470 – c.1483 Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York, August 17,1473 – c
Child murder
–
18th century illustration of William York, age 10, murdering Susan Matthew, age 5, on 13 May 1748, from
The Newgate Calendar.
Child murder
–
A child soldier of the
Sudanese People's Liberation Army (2007).
5.
Contract killing
–
Contract killing is a form of murder in which one party hires another party to kill a target individual or group of people. It involves an agreement between two or more parties in which one party agrees to kill the target in exchange for some form of payment. Either party may be a person, group, or an organization, contract killing has been associated with organized crime, government conspiracies and with vendettas. For example, in the United States, the gang Murder, contract killing provides the hiring party with the advantage of not having to commit the actual killing, making it more difficult for law enforcement to connect said party with the murder. In the United States, the United Kingdom, and many other countries, any contract to commit an indictable offense is not enforceable under contract law. Thus, if a hitman takes the money but then fails or refuses to perform, conversely, if the hitman performs the killing as promised but the customer refuses to pay, the hitman cannot sue the customer for monetary damages. Furthermore, both the killer and the person who paid the killer can be found guilty of murder. In some U. S. jurisdictions with capital punishment, a contract killing may be a special circumstance that allows for the contractor as well as the killer to receive the death penalty, criminal code statutes prohibiting solicitation of murder are also intended to curb contract killings. The study also found that the payment for a hit was $15,000 with variation from $5,000 up to $30,000. Contract killings accounted for 2% of murders in Australia during that time period, contract killings also make up a relatively similar percentage of all killings elsewhere. For example, they made up about 5% of all murders in Scotland from 1993 to 2002, Siegel was also the Italian mobs main hitman during Prohibition. Vincent Coll, an Irish-American hitman who worked for Dutch Schultz, li Fuguo, a Tang Dynasty Eunuch killed by a hitman hired by Emperor Tang Daizong. Shiori Ino, a 21-year-old University student killed by hitman Yoshifumi Kubota and he was paid by her ex-boyfriend and his brother, the case gained some notoriety in Japan. Grady Stiles, freak show performer whose family hired a hitman to kill him because of his abusiveness, Harry Greenberg, a Mafia associate of Charles Lucky Luciano, Meyer Lansky, and Siegel. He was killed by Siegel, Whitey Krakower, Albert Tannenbaum, Joe Masseria, was a Mafia boss that was murdered by Siegel, Vito Genovese, and Lepke Buchalter in 1931. Salvatore Maranzano, was a Castellammarese Mafia boss and rival to Masseria in the Castellammarese War and was killed by Siegel, benjamin Siegel, Las Vegas mob boss and Flamingo Hotel owner, killed by unknown assailants in 1947. Nicole Doucet Ryan attempted to hire an undercover Royal Canadian Mounted Police officer to kill her husband, after ruling she could not use the defense of duress, the Supreme Court of Canada ordered she not be retried. Tim Lambesis, former vocalist of metal bands As I Lay Dying, Austrian Death Machine and Pyrithion
Contract killing
–
Mad Dog Coll leaving homicide court surrounded by police officers, 1931
6.
Crime of passion
–
Examples include an aggressive pub-goer who assaults another guest following an argument, or a spouse who discovers their partner has engaged in adultery and attacks or kills them and their lover. In the United States, claims of crimes of passion have been associated with the defenses of temporary insanity or provocation. This defense was first used by U. S, congressman Daniel Sickles of New York in 1859 after he had killed his wifes lover, Philip Barton Key. It was used as a defense in cases during the 1940s and 1950s. In some countries, notably France, crime passionnel was a defense to murder charges. During the 19th century, some cases resulted in a custodial sentence for the murderer of two years. After the Napoleonic code was updated in the 1970s, paternal authority over the members of the family was ended, in recent decades, feminists and womens rights organizations have worked to change laws and social norms which tolerate crimes of passion against women. Some human rights advocates say that the crimes of passion in Latin America are treated leniently, ACT and Northern Territory have amended the laws to exclude non-violent homosexual sexual advances, in 2004 and 2006, respectively. In 2014, the New South Wales law on provocation was amended to provide that the conduct of the deceased must also have constituted a serious indictable offense. Killing of wives due to adultery has been treated very leniently in Brazil. In 1991 Brazil’s Supreme Court explicitly rejected the defense as having no basis in Brazilian law. Crimes of passion are often associated with France, where, before 1975, the Napoleonic Code was extremely influential over the world, historian Robert Holtman regards it as one of the few documents that have influenced the whole world. It was abolished only in 1975, on November 7,1975, Law no. 617/75 Article 17 repealed the 1810 French Penal Code Article 324, in Luxembourg, article 413 which provided mitigating circumstances for murder, assault and injury of an adulterous spouse was repealed in 2003. The 1810 penal code, Article 324, passed by Napoleon was copied by Middle Eastern Arab countries and it inspired Jordans Article 340 and Article 98. As with other countries in Mediterranean Europe, Italy has a tradition of treating crimes of passion with leniency. Indeed, until 1981, the law read, Art, the same sentence shall apply to whom, in the above circumstances, causes the death of the person involved in illegitimate carnal relations with his spouse, daughter, or sister. Killing due to adultery traditionally fell under the provocation defense and this decision has received heavy criticism from academics
Crime of passion
–
A
triangular love scene of Paolo and
Francesca da Rimini in
The Divine Comedy (
Dante Alighieri), depicted by
Ingres.
7.
Feticide
–
Feticide is an act that causes the death of a fetus. The suffix -icide is added in place of fetus last syllable and it derives back to occido, a Latin term meaning to fell or to kill. Other examples include homicide, genocide, infanticide, matricide, in the U. S. most crimes of violence are covered by state law, not federal law. Thirty-eight states currently recognize the child or fetus as a homicide victim. These laws do not apply to legally induced abortions, federal and state courts have consistently held that these laws do not contradict the U. S. Supreme Courts rulings on abortion. The law defines child in utero as a member of the species Homo sapiens, at any stage of development, who is carried in the womb. For example, California treats the killing of a fetus as homicide, some other states do not consider the killing of a fetus to be homicide until the fetus has reached quickening or viability. Unlawful abortion may be considered feticide, Fetal homicide laws, as well as ordinary murder statutes, are increasingly used to prosecute pregnant women accused of intentionally or recklessly causing miscarriages or stillbirths. Widely publicized cases include that of Rennie Gibbs, Bei Bei Shuai, Gibbs was charged with murder in Mississippi in 2006 for having a stillborn daughter while addicted to cocaine. Gibbs is the first woman in Mississippi to be charged with murder relating to the loss of her unborn baby, the judge in that case ruled that the charges be dismissed. In 2011 Shuai was charged by Indiana authorities with murder and feticide after her suicide attempt resulted in the death of the child she was pregnant with. Shuais case was the first in the history of Indiana in which a woman was prosecuted for murder for a suicide attempt while pregnant, in 2013 Shuai pleaded guilty to a misdemeanor charge of criminal recklessness and was released, having been sentenced to time served. In 2015 Purvi Patel became the first woman in the United States to be charged, convicted, in English law, child destruction is the crime of killing a fetus capable of being born alive, before it has a separate existence. The Crimes Act 1958 defined capable of being alive as 28 weeks gestation. The 1990 Amendment to the Abortion Act 1967 means a medical practitioner cannot be guilty of the crime, the charge of child destruction is rare. A woman who had an abortion while 7½ months pregnant was given a suspended sentence of 12 months in 2007. In medical use, the word feticide is used simply to mean causing the death of the fetus, usually prior to some form of abortion. The Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists recommends feticide be performed before medical abortion after 21 weeks and 6 days of gestation to ensure there is no risk of a live birth
Feticide
–
Homicide or murder.
8.
Honor killing
–
The mere perception that a woman has behaved in a way that dishonors her family is sufficient to trigger an attack on her life. Although rarely, men can also be the victims of honor killings by members of the family of a woman with whom they are perceived to have an inappropriate relationship, the loose term honor killing applies to killing of both men and women in cultures that practice it. Some women who bridge social divides, publicly engage other communities, the distinctive nature of honor killings is the collective nature of the crime – many members of an extended family plan the act together, sometimes through a formal family council. Another significant feature is the connection of honor killings to the control of behavior, in particular in regard to sexuality/marriage. Another key aspect is the importance of the reputation of the family in the community, another characteristic of honor killings is that the perpetrators often dont face negative stigma within their communities, because their behavior is seen as justified. The incidence of honor killings is very difficult to determine and estimates vary widely, in most countries data on honor killings is not collected systematically, and many of these killings are reported by the families as suicides or accidents and registered as such. Although honor killings are often associated with the Asian continent, especially the Middle East and South Asia, in 2000, the United Nations estimated that 5,000 women were victims of honor killings each year. According to BBC, Womens advocacy groups, however, suspect that more than 20,000 women are killed each year. Murder is not the form of honor crime, other crimes such as acid attacks, abduction, mutilations, beatings occur. Methods of killing include stoning, stabbing, beating, burning, beheading, hanging, throat slashing, lethal acid attacks, shooting and strangulation. The murders are sometimes performed in public to warn the other individuals within the community of possible consequences of engaging in what is seen as illicit behavior. Often, minor girls and boys are selected by the family to act as the killers, so that the killer may benefit of the most favorable legal outcome. Boys and sometimes women in the family are often asked to control and monitor the behavior of their sisters or other females in the family legal, 2) preventive. First of all, legal measures refer to a modification of the criminal laws to guarantee equal legal protection of females. On top of that, Amnesty insisted the government to assure legal access for the victims of crime in the name of honor, when it comes to preventive measures, Amnesty underlined the critical need to promote public awareness through the means of media, education, and public announcements. Finally, protective measures include ensuring an environment for activists, lawyers. Also, Amnesty argued for the expansion of victim support services such as shelters, kremlin-appointed Chechen President Ramzan Kadyrov said that honor killings were perpetrated on those who deserved to die. He said that those who are killed have loose morals and are shot by relatives in honor killings
Honor killing
–
Map of India showing the States and Union Territories of the country. In 2010, the
Supreme Court of India issued notice in regard to honor killings to the states of
Punjab,
Haryana,
Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan,
Jharkhand,
Himachal Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh.
9.
Human sacrifice
–
Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more human beings, usually as an offering to a deity, as part of a ritual. Human sacrifice has been practiced in various cultures throughout history, closely related practices found in some tribal societies are cannibalism and headhunting. By the Iron Age, with the developments in religion, human sacrifice was becoming less common throughout the Old World. In the New World, however, human sacrifice continued to be widespread to varying degrees until the European colonization of the Americas, in modern times, even the practice of animal sacrifice has virtually disappeared from all major religions, and human sacrifice has become extremely rare. Most religions condemn the practice, and modern secular laws treat it as murder, in a society which condemns human sacrifice, the term ritual murder is used. Human sacrifice is distinguished from infanticide, infanticide is deliberately causing the death of an unwanted infant or young child, but without a ritualistic or religious purpose. The idea of sacrifice has its roots in deep prehistory. From its historical occurrences it seems mostly associated with neolithic or nomadic cultures, Human sacrifice has been practiced on a number of different occasions and in many different cultures. The various rationales behind human sacrifice are the same that motivate religious sacrifice in general, Human sacrifice is intended to bring good fortune and to pacify the gods, for example in the context of the dedication of a completed building like a temple or bridge. There is a Chinese legend that there are thousands of people entombed in the Great Wall of China, for the re-consecration of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, the Aztecs reported that they killed about 80,400 prisoners over the course of four days. According to Ross Hassig, author of Aztec Warfare, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed in the ceremony, Human sacrifice can also have the intention of winning the gods favour in warfare. In Homeric legend, Iphigeneia was to be sacrificed by her father Agamemnon to appease Artemis so she would allow the Greeks to wage the Trojan War. According to the Bible, Jephthah vowed to devote to God the first creature to come out of his house to him if he won the battle against the Ammonites. His daughter was the first to come out and meet him, in some notions of an afterlife, the deceased will benefit from victims killed at his funeral. Mongols, Scythians, early Egyptians and various Mesoamerican chiefs could take most of their household, including servants and concubines, with them to the next world. This is sometimes called a sacrifice, as the leaders retainers would be sacrificed along with their master. Another purpose is divination from the parts of the victim. According to Strabo, Celts stabbed a victim with a sword, headhunting is the practice of taking the head of a killed adversary, for ceremonial or magical purposes, or for reasons of prestige
Human sacrifice
–
The
Ashanti yam festival, early 19th century
Human sacrifice
–
This page from the
Codex Tovar depicts a scene of
gladiatorial sacrificial rite, celebrated on the festival of Tlacaxipehualiztli.
Human sacrifice
–
Hawaiian sacrifice, from
Jacques Arago 's account of
Freycinet 's travels around the world from 1817 to 1820.
Human sacrifice
–
The sacrifice of
Polyxena by the triumphant Greeks,
Trojan War, c. 570-550 BCE
10.
Child sacrifice
–
Child sacrifice is the ritualistic killing of children in order to please, propitiate or force a god or supernatural beings in order to achieve a desired result. As such, it is a form of human sacrifice, the practice has received considerable opposition throughout history, and it has often become a target for those engaged in criticism of religion. Child sacrifice is thought to be an extension of the idea that, the more important the object of sacrifice. Archeologists have found remains of 42 children and it is alleged that these remains were sacrificed to Tlaloc in the offerings of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan by the Aztecs of pre-Columbian Mexico. Human sacrifice was an activity in Tenochtitlan and children were not exempt. They, in particular, were offered to Tláloc, the god of rain, bernardino de Sahagún, a religious man left writings that describe such sacrifices, compiled from the first hand accounts of natives who had lived in Tenochtitlan in the times before it fell. Hernán Cortés himself also mentioned child sacrifices in his letters to King Carlos I of Spain, the Inca culture sacrificed children in a ritual called qhapaq hucha. Their frozen corpses have been discovered in the South American mountaintops, the first of these corpses, a female child who had died from a blow to the skull, was discovered in 1995 by Johan Reinhard. In Maya culture, people believed that supernatural beings had power over their lives, the sacrifices were essentially to satisfy the supernatural beings. This was done through kex, which is an exchange or substitution of something, through k’ex infants would substitute more powerful humans. It was thought that supernatural beings would consume the souls of more powerful humans, infants are believed to be good offerings because they have a close connection to the spirit world through liminality. It is also known that infant sacrifices occurred at certain times, Child sacrifice was preferred when there was a time of crisis and transitional times such as famine and drought. There is archaeological evidence of infant sacrifice in tombs where the infant has been buried in urns or ceramic vessels, there have also been depictions of child sacrifice in art. Some art includes pottery and steles as well as references to infant sacrifice in mythology, the Moche of northern Peru practiced mass sacrifices of men and boys. Until colonial times children sacrifice persisted secretly in Laguna de Urao and it were described by the chronicler Juan de Castellanos, who cited that feasts and human sacrifices were done in honour of Icaque, an Andean prehispanic goddess. References in the Tanakh point to an awareness of human sacrifice in the history of ancient Near Eastern practice, the king of Moab gives his firstborn son and heir as a whole burnt offering. In the book of the prophet Micah, the question is asked, Shall I give my firstborn for my sin, and responded to in the phrase, He has shown all you people what is good. And what does Yahweh require of you, to act justly and to love mercy and to walk humbly with your God
Child sacrifice
–
1499, the
Aztecs performing child sacrifice to appease the angry gods who had flooded
Tenochtitlan
11.
Infanticide
–
Infanticide is the intentional killing of infants. Parental infanticide researchers have found that mothers are far more likely than fathers to be the perpetrator for neonaticide, in many past societies, certain forms of infanticide were considered permissible. In some countries, female infanticide is more common than the killing of male offspring, in China for example, the sex gap between males and females aged 0–19 year old was estimated to be 25 million in 2010 by the United Nations Population Fund. In English law infanticide is established as an offence by the Infanticide Acts. Defined as the killing of a child under 12 months of age by their mother, the practice of infanticide has taken many forms over time. Child sacrifice to supernatural figures or forces, such as that believed to have practiced in ancient Carthage. Rather than being an exception, then, it has been the rule, a frequent method of infanticide in ancient Europe and Asia was simply to abandon the infant, leaving it to die by exposure. Many Neolithic groups routinely resorted to infanticide in order to control their numbers so that their lands could support them. Joseph Birdsell believed that infanticide rates in prehistoric times were between 15% and 50% of the number of births, while Laila Williamson estimated a lower rate ranging from 15% to 20%. Both anthropologists believed that high rates of infanticide persisted until the development of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution. Comparative anthropologists have calculated that 50% of female newborn babies were killed by their parents during the Paleolithic era, decapitated skeletons of hominid children have been found with evidence of cannibalism. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence of child sacrifice at several locations. Some of the best attested examples are the diverse rites which were part of the practices in Mesoamerica. Three thousand bones of children, with evidence of sacrificial rituals, have been found in Sardinia. Pelasgians offered a sacrifice of every tenth child during difficult times, syrians sacrificed children to Jupiter and Juno. Many remains of children have found in Gezer excavations with signs of sacrifice. Child skeletons with the marks of sacrifice have been also in Egypt dating 950-720 BCE. In Carthage sacrifice in the ancient world reached its infamous zenith, besides the Carthaginians, other Phoenicians, and the Canaanites, Moabites and Sepharvites offered their first-born as a sacrifice to their gods
Infanticide
–
Infanticidio by Mexican artist
Antonio García Vega.
Infanticide
–
Medea killing her sons, by
Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix (1862).
Infanticide
–
Femme Russe
abondonnant ses enfants à des loups. Charles Michel Geoffroy, 1845.
Infanticide
–
Infanticide occurs in other animals, such as in
Hanuman Langurs.
12.
Lynching
–
Lynching is an extrajudicial punishment by an informal group. It is most often used to characterise informal public executions by a mob in order to punish an alleged transgressor, or to intimidate a group. It is a form of informal group social control such as charivari, skimmington, riding the rail, and tarring and feathering. Lynchings have been frequent in times of social and economic tension. However, it has resulted from long-held prejudices and practices of discrimination that have conditioned societies to accept this type of violence as normal practices of popular justice. Indeed, instances of it can be found in societies long antedating European settlement of North America, the legal and cultural antecedents of American lynching were carried across the Atlantic by migrants from the British Isles to colonial North America. Collective violence was an aspect of the early modern Anglo-American legal landscape. In the United States, during the decades before the Civil War, assertive free-Blacks, Latinos in the South West, Violence rose even more at the end of the 19th century, after southern white Democrats regained their political power in the South in the 1870s. Nearly 3,500 African Americans and 1,300 whites were lynched in the United States between 1882 and 1968, mostly from 1882 to 1920, the origins of the word lynch are obscure, but it likely originated during the American revolution. The verb comes from the phrase Lynch Law, a term for a punishment without trial, two Americans during this era are generally credited for the phrase, Charles Lynch and William Lynch, who both lived in Virginia in the 1780s. Charles Lynch has the claim, as he was known to have used the term in 1782. There is no evidence that death was imposed as a punishment by either of the two men, in 1782, Charles Lynch wrote that his assistant had administered Lynchs law to Tories for Dealing with negroes, &c. In the United States, the origin of the terms lynching, Charles Lynch was a Virginia planter and American Revolutionary who headed a county court in Virginia which incarcerated Loyalist supporters of the British for up to one year during the war. While he lacked proper jurisdiction, he claimed this right by arguing wartime necessity, subsequently, he prevailed upon his friends in the Congress of the Confederation to pass a law which specifically exonerated him and his associates from wrongdoing. He was concerned that he might face legal action from one or more of those so incarcerated, Lynch was not accused of racist bias, and indeed acquitted blacks accused of murder on three separate occasions, as dictated by the facts brought before him. He was accused, however, of ethnic prejudice in his abuse of Welsh miners, William Lynch from Virginia claimed that the phrase was first used for a 1780 compact signed by him and his neighbors in Pittsylvania County. While Edgar Allan Poe claimed that he found this document, this was likely a hoax, however, linguistic evidence is strongly against it, and the story was likely invented in the 19th century. Racist extremism with an eye to viciousness and public spectacle was frequently evident, in the South, members of the abolitionist movement or other people opposing slavery were usually targets of lynch mob violence before the Civil War
Lynching
–
A
black American man killed by hanging in a lynching in 1925.
Lynching
–
The lynching of
Laura Nelson in
Okemah, Oklahoma on May 25, 1911; she was lynched together with her son.
Lynching
–
One of the largest mass lynchings in American history involved the lynching of eleven
Italian immigrants in
New Orleans in 1891.
Lynching
–
Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith, lynched in
Marion, Indiana on August 7, 1930
13.
Mass murder
–
Mass murder is the act of murdering a number of people, typically simultaneously or over a relatively short period of time and in close geographic proximity. The FBI defines mass murder as murdering four or more persons during an event with no cooling-off period between the murders, a mass murder typically occurs in a single location where one or more people kill several others. Many acts of mass murder end with the perpetrator dying by suicide or suicide by cop, a mass murder may be committed by individuals or organizations whereas a spree killing is committed by one or two individuals. Mass murder is the hypernym of genocide, which requires additional criteria, some of these mass murders have been found to be genocides and others to be crimes against humanity, but often such crimes have led to few or no convictions of any type. The concept of state-sponsored mass murder covers a range of potential killings and it is defined as the intentional and indiscriminate murder of a large number of people by government agents. Examples are shooting of unarmed protesters, lobbing of grenades into prison cells, actions in which the state caused the death of large numbers of people, which political scientist R. J. Many terrorist groups in recent times have used the tactic of killing many victims to fulfill their political aims, certain cults, especially religious cults, have committed a number of mass killings and mass murder-suicides. Mass murderers may fall into any of a number of categories, including killers of family, of coworkers, of students, a notable motivation for mass murder is revenge, but other motivations are possible, including the need for attention or fame. Average response time by law enforcement to a shooting is typically much longer than the time the shooter is engaged in killing. In many instances, immediate action by victims, bystanders, or law enforcement officers has saved lives, commentators have pointed out that there are a wide variety of ways that homicides with more than several victims might be classified. Such incidents can be, and have been even in recent decades, classified many different ways including as a shooting, as a school shooting, as mass murder. As a crime involving a rifle, as a case of a mentally ill person committing acts of violence. How such rarely occurring incidents of homicide are classified tends to change significantly with time and it was understood that the key feature of cases was a high body count. Place, Did the killings occur in a location, or in a variety of places. Method, How were the victims killed, in the late decades of the 20th century and early years of the 2000s, the most popular classifications moved to include method, time and place. Crimes against humanity List of mass murderers List of rampage killers Mass grave Massacre School shooting Suicide attack Terrorism War crime What makes a Mass Killer. Mass Murder, A Small Persons Way to Immortality Mass shootings interactive map Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence The real causes of mass murder by James Alan Fox
Mass murder
–
Twenty-six republicans were assassinated by fascists that belonged to
Franco's Nationalists at the beginning of the
Spanish Civil War, between August and September of 1936. This mass grave is placed at the small town named as
Estépar, in Northern Spain. The excavation occurred in July–August of 2014.
Mass murder
–
Student
Seung-Hui Cho killed 32 people on
Virginia Tech 's campus in 2007.
14.
Poisoning
–
Poisoning is a condition or a process in which an organism becomes poisoned by a toxic substance or venom of an animal. Acute poisoning is exposure to a poison on one occasion or during a period of time. Symptoms develop in relation to the exposure. Absorption of a poison is necessary for systemic poisoning, in contrast, substances that destroy tissue but do not absorb, such as lye, are classified as corrosives rather than poisons. Furthermore, many common household medications are not labeled with skull and crossbones, in the medical sense, poisoning can be caused by less dangerous substances than those legally classified as a poison. Chronic poisoning is long-term repeated or continuous exposure to a poison where symptoms do not occur immediately or after each exposure, the patient gradually becomes ill, or becomes ill after a long latent period. Chronic poisoning most commonly occurs following exposure to poisons that bioaccumulate, or are biomagnified, such as mercury, gadolinium, contact or absorption of poisons can cause rapid death or impairment. Agents that act on the system can paralyze in seconds or less. Inhaled or ingested cyanide, used as a method of execution in gas chambers, for example, the herbicide 2, 4-D imitates the action of a plant hormone, which makes its lethal toxicity specific to plants. Indeed,2, 4-D is not a poison, but classified as harmful, many substances regarded as poisons are toxic only indirectly, by toxication. An example is wood alcohol or methanol, which is not poisonous itself, but is chemically converted to toxic formaldehyde and formic acid in the liver
Poisoning
–
"Poisoning of Queen
Bona " by
Jan Matejko.
Poisoning
–
The GHS pictogram for poisonous substances. The
skull and crossbones has long been a standard symbol for poison.
15.
Serial killer
–
Different authorities apply different criteria when designating serial killers, while most set a threshold of three murders, others extend it to four or lessen it to two. The Federal Bureau of Investigation, for example, defines serial killing as a series of two or more murders, committed as separate events, usually, but not always, by one offender acting alone. The murders may be attempted or completed in a fashion. Serial killing is not the same as mass murdering, nor is it spree killing, however, there is ample evidence the term was used in Europe and the U. S. earlier. The German term and concept were coined by the influential Ernst Gennat, psychopathic behavior that is consistent with traits common to some serial killers include sensation seeking, a lack of remorse or guilt, impulsivity, the need for control, and predatory behavior. They were often abused—emotionally, physically and/or sexually—by a family member, a disproportionate number exhibit one, two, or all three of the Macdonald triad of predictors of future violent behavior, Many are fascinated with fire setting. They are involved in activity, especially in children who have not reached sexual maturity. More than 60 percent, or simply a large proportion, wet their beds beyond the age of 12 and they were frequently bullied or socially isolated as children or adolescents. For example, Henry Lee Lucas was ridiculed as a child, kenneth Bianchi was teased as a child because he urinated in his pants, suffered twitching, and as a teenager was ignored by his peers. Some were involved in petty crimes, such as fraud, theft, vandalism, often, they have trouble staying employed and tend to work in menial jobs. The FBI, however, states, Serial murderers often seem normal, have families and/or a steady job, other sources state they often come from unstable families. Studies have suggested that serial killers generally have an average or low-average IQ, although they are often described, a sample of 202 IQs of serial killers had a median IQ of 89. There are exceptions to these criteria, however, for example, Harold Shipman was a successful professional. He was considered a pillar of the community, he even won a professional award for a childrens asthma clinic and was interviewed by Granada Televisions World in Action. Dennis Nilsen was an ex-soldier turned civil servant and trade unionist who had no criminal record when arrested. Neither was known to have exhibited many of the tell-tale signs, vlado Taneski, a crime reporter, was a career journalist who was caught after a series of articles he wrote gave clues that he had murdered people. Russell Williams was a successful and respected career Royal Canadian Air Force Colonel who was convicted of murdering two women, along with fetish burglaries and rapes, Many serial killers have faced similar problems in their childhood development. Family, or lack thereof, is the most prominent part of a childs development because it is what the child can identify with on a regular basis
Serial killer
–
Mug shot of serial killer, cannibal, and necrophile
Ottis Toole.
Serial killer
–
German serial killer
Fritz Haarmann with police detectives, November 1924
Serial killer
–
Ted Bundy in custody, Florida, July 1978 (State Archives of Florida)
Serial killer
–
Highway prostitute
Aileen Wuornos killed seven men in Florida between 1989 and 1990
16.
Torture murder
–
Torture murder is a loosely defined term to describe a murder where death has been preceded by the torture of the victim. In many legal jurisdictions a murder involving exceptional brutality or cruelty will attract harsher sentences, similar positions are taken in the laws of Italy, Germany and Norway and others. In many U. S. states, the fact that a murder is especially heinous, cruel, or depraved is an aggravating factor making it punishable by the death penalty. This was upheld by the U. S. Supreme Court in Walton v. Arizona, some notable perpetrators and victims include the following. The dates indicate the time of the crime or crimes and this list includes those in positions of power. Empress Lü Zhi Gilles de Rais Vlad III the Impaler Elizabeth Báthory Delphine LaLaurie H
Torture murder
17.
Manslaughter in English law
–
In the English law of homicide, manslaughter is a less serious offence than murder, the differential being between levels of fault based on the mens rea. In England and Wales, the practice is to prefer a charge of murder. The jury then decides whether the defendant is guilty or not guilty of murder or manslaughter. On conviction for manslaughter, sentencing is at the judges discretion, manslaughter may be either voluntary or involuntary, depending on whether the accused has the required mens rea for murder. Voluntary manslaughter occurs when the defendant kills with mens rea, the Homicide Act 1957 now provides two defences which may be raised to allow the court to find the accused guilty of voluntary manslaughter, diminished responsibility and suicide pact. The Coroners and Justice Act 2009 creates the defence of loss of control, under section 2 of the Homicide Act 1957 there are three requirements for the defendant to raise the defence of diminished responsibility. Under section 2 of the Act it is for the defendant to prove he suffered such a condition on the balance of probabilities. An abnormality of mind has been defined by Lord Parker CJ as ‘as state of mind so different from that of human beings that the reasonable man would term it abnormal’. In deciding whether this state of mind exists the jury should consider medical evidence, the jury does not have to accept the medical evidence if other material conflicts with and outweighs it. The Homicide Act specifies three causes one of which must cause the abnormality, they are a condition of arrested or retarded development of mind, whether the abnormality is caused by one of the specified causes is a matter for medical evidence alone. Alcoholism is capable of being an abnormality of mind even if there is no damage to the brain. Whether the abnormality substantially impaired the defendant’s mental responsibility for the killing is a question of degree for the jury, in R v Lloyd the Court of Appeal held that the lack of control must simply be ‘more than trivial’. See sections 54 and 55 of the Coroners and Justice Act 2009, section 4 of the Homicide Act 1957 introduced the defence of suicide pact. Parliaments intention was to show compassion for those who had been involved in a suicide pact. Section 4 defines a suicide pact as ‘a common agreement between two or more persons having for its object the death of all of them, whether or not each is to take his own life’. Further the accused must have had an intention of dying in pursuance of the pact to avoid the accused entering into a supposed pact with the real intention of committing murder. Involuntary manslaughter arises where the accused did not intend to cause death or serious injury, for these purposes, recklessness is defined as a blatant disregard for the dangers of a particular situation. An example of this would be dropping a brick off a bridge, landing on a persons head, killing him
Manslaughter in English law
–
Classes of crimes
18.
Euthanasia
–
Euthanasia is the practice of intentionally ending a life in order to relieve pain and suffering. There are different euthanasia laws in each country, the British House of Lords Select Committee on Medical Ethics defines euthanasia as a deliberate intervention undertaken with the express intention of ending a life, to relieve intractable suffering. In the Netherlands and Flanders, euthanasia is understood as termination of life by a doctor at the request of a patient, Euthanasia is categorized in different ways, which include voluntary, non-voluntary, or involuntary. Voluntary euthanasia is legal in some countries, non-voluntary euthanasia is illegal in all countries. Involuntary euthanasia is illegal in all countries and is usually considered murder. As of 2006, euthanasia is the most active area of research in contemporary bioethics, in some countries there is a divisive public controversy over the moral, ethical, and legal issues of euthanasia. Jurisdictions where euthanasia is legal include the Netherlands, Canada, Colombia, Belgium, like other terms borrowed from history, euthanasia has had different meanings depending on usage. Bacon referred to an outward euthanasia—the term outward he used to distinguish from a spiritual concept—the euthanasia which regards the preparation of the soul, in current usage, euthanasia has been defined as the painless inducement of a quick death. Another approach incorporates the notion of suffering into the definition, the third element incorporated into many definitions is that of intentionality – the death must be intended, rather than being accidental, and the intent of the action must be a merciful death. Beauchamp and Davidson also highlight Baruch Brodys an act of euthanasia is one in one person. Kills another person for the benefit of the person, who actually does benefit from being killed. Prior to Draper, Beauchamp and Davidson had also offered a definition that includes these elements and their definition specifically discounts fetuses in order to distinguish between abortions and euthanasia, In summary, we have argued. In discussing his definition, Wreen noted the difficulty of justifying euthanasia when faced with the notion of the right to life. In response, Wreen argued that euthanasia has to be voluntary, and that euthanasia is, as such. Other commentators incorporate consent more directly into their definitions, hence, euthanasia can be voluntary only. Euthanasia may be classified according to whether a person gives informed consent into three types, voluntary, non-voluntary and involuntary, however, others see consent as essential. Euthanasia conducted with the consent of the patient is termed voluntary euthanasia, active voluntary euthanasia is legal in Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Passive voluntary euthanasia is legal throughout the U. S. per Cruzan v. Director, when the patient brings about his or her own death with the assistance of a physician, the term assisted suicide is often used instead
Euthanasia
–
Felix Adler, circa 1913, the first prominent American to argue for permitting suicide in cases of chronic illness
19.
Assisted suicide
–
Assisted suicide is suicide committed with the aid of another person, sometimes a physician. Canada, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Switzerland allow physicians to physically assist in the death of patients, Assisted suicide is prohibited by common law or criminal statute in all U. S. Assisted suicide and euthanasia are sometimes combined under the term assisted dying. Physician-assisted suicide is often confused with euthanasia, in cases of euthanasia the physician administers the means of death, usually a lethal drug. In physician-assisted suicide, it is required that the person voluntarily expresses his or her wish to die, physician-assisted suicide thus involves a person’s self-administration of deadly drugs that are supplied by a doctor. Due to the recent election November 8, there have many people debating the newly passed Colorado End of Life Options Act, the new law is usually compared to the Death With Dignity Act that has been in place in the state of Oregon for 20 years. While it passed by a vote of two thirds, that leaves one third of the states voters that did not wish to see it pass. A few common reasons that have come up, include, religious beliefs, fear of abuse, most supporters believe that it is their right to make this difficult decision on their own and wish to have the choice, despite opposing reasons. They view their choice for aid-in-dying as an end to their suffering, Medical decisions are personal and should be made by individuals and their families without interference from a third party—like the federal or state government. Libertarians strongly support AiD legislation for this reason, one argument for assisted suicide or medical aid in dying is that it reduces prolonged suffering in those with terminal illnesses. When death is imminent patients can choose to have aid in dying as an option to shorten an unbearable dying process. Washington vs. Glucksberg Assisted suicide is a controversial topic. In Washington, it did not become legal until 2008, in 1997, four Washington physicians, and three deathly ill patients brought forth a lawsuit that would challenge the ban on physician assisted suicide that was in place at the time. This lawsuit was first part of a court hearing, where it ruled in favor of Glucksberg. The lawsuit was then affirmed by the ninth circuit, thus, it was taken to the supreme court, and there the supreme court decided to grant Washington certiorari. Eventually, the court decided, with a unanimous vote. The laws and arguments on this topic are often argued and changed depending on legal evaluation and decision, a similar trend was found in Vermont, where AiD was authorized in 2013. In Oregon, in death rates are at the lowest in the nation, at home death rates are at the highest in the nation
Assisted suicide
–
Legal
20.
Capital punishment
–
Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a death sentence, etymologically, the term capital in this context alluded to execution by beheading. Fifty-six countries retain capital punishment,103 countries have abolished it de jure for all crimes, six have abolished it for ordinary crimes. Capital punishment is a matter of controversy in various countries and states. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment, also, the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states, prohibits the use of the death penalty by its members. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007,2008,2010,2012 and 2014, non-binding resolutions calling for a moratorium on executions. Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the population live in countries where executions take place, such as China, India. Execution of criminals and political opponents has been used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime, in most countries that practise capital punishment it is reserved for murder, terrorism, war crimes, espionage, treason, defection or as part of military justice. In many countries use the death penalty, drug trafficking is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are punished by the death penalty, in militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history, most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment, usually, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice. The response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included a formal apology, a blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of a system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour, acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished. However, in practice, it is difficult to distinguish between a war of vendetta and one of conquest. Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context, compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, the person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals
Capital punishment
–
Anarchist
Auguste Vaillant guillotined in France in 1894
Capital punishment
–
Hanged, drawn and quartered: the execution of
Hugh Despenser the Younger, as depicted in the
Froissart of Louis of Gruuthuse
Capital punishment
–
The Christian Martyrs' Last Prayer, by
Jean-Léon Gérôme (1883).
Roman Colosseum.
Capital punishment
–
Giovanni Battista Bugatti, executioner of the
Papal States between 1796 and 1865,
carried out 516 executions (Bugatti pictured offering
snuff to a condemned prisoner).
Vatican City abolished
its capital punishment statute in 1969.
21.
War
–
War is a state of armed conflict between societies. It is generally characterized by extreme aggression, destruction, and mortality, an absence of war is usually called peace. Warfare refers to the activities and characteristics of types of war. Total war is warfare that is not restricted to legitimate military targets. While some scholars see war as a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature, as concerns a belligerents losses in proportion to its prewar population, the most destructive war in modern history may have been the Paraguayan War. In 2013 war resulted in 31,000 deaths, down from 72,000 deaths in 1990, in 2003, Richard Smalley identified war as the sixth biggest problem facing humanity for the next fifty years. Another byproduct of some wars is the prevalence of propaganda by some or all parties in the conflict, the word is related to the Old Saxon werran, Old High German werran, and the German verwirren, meaning “to confuse”, “to perplex”, and “to bring into confusion”. In German, the equivalent is Krieg, the Spanish, Portuguese, the scholarly study of war is sometimes called polemology, from the Greek polemos, meaning war, and -logy, meaning the study of. Studies of war by military theorists throughout military history have sought to identify the philosophy of war, asymmetric warfare is a conflict between two populations of drastically different levels of military capability or size. Biological warfare, or germ warfare, is the use of weaponized biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, chemical warfare involves the use of weaponized chemicals in combat. Poison gas as a weapon was principally used during World War I. Civil war is a war between forces belonging to the nation or political entity. Conventional warfare is declared war between states in which nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are not used or see limited deployment, cyberwarfare involves the actions by a nation-state or international organization to attack and attempt to damage another nations information systems. Information warfare is the application of force on a large scale against information assets and systems, against the computers. Nuclear warfare is warfare in which weapons are the primary, or a major. War of aggression is a war for conquest or gain rather than self-defense, the earliest recorded evidence of war belongs to the Mesolithic cemetery Site 117, which has been determined to be approximately 14,000 years old. About forty-five percent of the skeletons there displayed signs of violent death, since the rise of the state some 5,000 years ago, military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare
War
–
The War by Tadeusz Cyprian (1949), a photograph in the collection of the
National Museum in
Warsaw showing ruins of Warsaw's Napoleon Square in the aftermath of
World War II.
War
–
Mural of War (1896), by
Gari Melchers
War
–
Ruins of
Guernica (1937). The
Spanish Civil War was one of Europe's bloodiest and most brutal civil wars.
War
–
Japanese
samurai attacking a
Mongol ship, 13th century
22.
Filicide
–
Filicide is the deliberate act of a parent killing his or her own child. The word filicide derives from the Latin words filius meaning son or filia meaning daughter, a filicide may refer both to the parent who killed his or her child, as well as to the criminal act that the parent committed. A September 2014 report by UNICEF found that the three countries in the world with the highest rates of homicide of children and adolescents were, El Salvador, Guatemala and Venezuela. The report also found that, Among the 10 countries with the largest numbers of victims, Nigeria has the most, with almost 13,000 deaths. Furthermore, 52% of the children killed by their mothers were male, while 57% of the children killed by their fathers were male, parents were responsible for 61% of child murders under the age of five. Sometimes, there is a combination of murder and suicide in filicide cases, on average, according to FBI statistics,450 children are murdered by their parents each year in the United States. Dr. Phillip Resnick, who published research on filicide in 1969, stated there were five main motives for filicide, including altruistic, fatal maltreatment, unwanted child. Altruistic killings occur because the parent believes the world is too cruel for the child or because the child is enduring suffering. In fatal maltreatment killings, the goal is not always to kill the child but death may occur anyway, spousal revenge killings are killings of children done to indirectly harm a domestic partner, they do not frequently occur. Glen Carruthers, author of Making sense of spousal revenge filicide, in the United States, homicide is in the top five causes of deaths of children, and in the top three causes of death in children aged between 1 and 4 years old. A direct correlation has been identified between child abuse rates and child homicide rates, research suggests children who are murdered by their parent were physically abused victims prior to death. This is often seen as an indicator of domestic violence
Filicide
–
Ivan the Terrible and His Son
Ivan on November 16th, 1581., a painting of the filicide by
Ilya Yefimovich Repin.
23.
Siblicide
–
Siblicide is the killing of an infant individual by its close relatives. It may occur directly between siblings or be mediated by the parents, the evolutionary drivers may be either indirect benefits for the genetic viability of a population or direct benefits for the perpetrators. Siblicide has mainly, but not only, been observed in birds, the word is also used as a unifying term for fratricide and sororicide in the human species, unlike these more specific terms, it leaves the sex of the victim unspecified. Siblicidal behavior can be obligate or facultative. Obligate siblicide is when a sibling almost always ends up being killed, facultative siblicide means that siblicide may or may not occur, based on environmental conditions. In birds, obligate siblicidal behavior results in the older chick killing the other chick, in facultative siblicidal animals, fighting is frequent, but does not always lead to death of a sibling, this type of behavior often exists in patterns for different species. For instance, in the blue-footed booby, a sibling may be hit by a nest mate only once a day for a couple of weeks and then attacked at random, more birds are facultatively siblicidal than obligatory siblicidal. This is perhaps because siblicide takes an amount of energy and is not always advantageous. Siblicide generally only occurs when resources, specifically food sources, are scarce, siblicide is advantageous for the surviving offspring because they have now eliminated most or all of their competition. Some parents encourage siblicide, while others prevent it, if resources are scarce, the parents may encourage siblicide because only some offspring will survive anyway, so they want the strongest offspring to survive. By letting the offspring kill each other, it saves the parents time and this is one of the driving forces of siblicide because it increases the fitness of the offspring by decreasing the amount of competition they have. Parents may either discourage or accept siblicide depending on whether it increases the probability of their offspring surviving to reproduce, in instances of siblicide, the victim is usually the youngest sibling. This siblings reproductive value can be measured by how much it enhances or detracts from the success of other siblings, the marginal sibling can act as an additional element of parental success if it, as well as its siblings, survive. The cost and effect siblicide has on a broods reproductive success can be broken down into an algebraic equation, M is the level of parental investment in the entire brood, with an absolute maximum value MH. The parameter ᶿ determines the relationship between parental investment and the cost of reproduction, the equation indicates that as M increases, the future reproductive success of the parent decreases. This results in older chicks being more aggressive and having a head start. The extra excess egg is laid either due to exploit the possibility of elevated food abundance or due to the chance of sterility in one egg. This is suggested by studies into the common grackle, Quiscalus quiscula, the closely related masked and Nazca boobies are both obligately siblicidal species, while the blue-footed booby is a facultatively siblicidal species
Siblicide
–
A
Nazca booby (Sula granti) with a chick and egg. When the second egg hatches, any siblings present will almost certainly kill their younger brother or sister.
24.
Fratricide
–
Fratricide is the act of a person, directly or via use of either a hired or an indoctrinated intermediary that ultimately results in the killing of their brother. According to the story of Cain and Abel, fratricide was the first type of murder to be committed, in the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, Karna was killed by Arjuna who didnt know that Karna was his eldest brother. However, the context of the crime becomes markedly different when seen from the angle,1. Arjuna was oath-bound to avenge the death of his only son, while Arjuna was blissfully unaware that Karna was his own blood-brother, the latter was apprised of the same by their common mother Kunti. And hence, even though he was privy to the bond of brotherhood, if not that the seed of destruction carried in the heart of one brother was sowed and reaped to the full by the hand of another. When a new Sultan ascended to the throne he would all of his surviving brothers. The largest killing took place on the succession of Mehmet III when 19 of his brothers were killed and buried with their father, the aim was to prevent civil war. Reflecting public disapproval, his successor Ahmed I abandoned the practice, replacing it with life imprisonment in the Kafes, in the Mughal Empire, fratricides often occurred as a result of wars of succession. Shah Jahan had his eldest brother Khusrau Mirza killed in 1622, shah Jahan also had his brother Shahriyar killed in 1628. Shah Jahans son, Dara Shikho was assassinated by four of his brother Aurangzebs henchmen in front of his son on the night of 30 August 1659. The events in the Greek tragedy Antigone unfold due to the war between the princely brothers, Eteocles and Polyneices, who killed each other in combat. Polyneices had challenged his brothers claim to the throne of the city Thebes, Eteocles fought for Thebes to defend the city against Polyneices and his army. The two killed one another by each stabbing the other in the heart, Ashoka, also known as Chand-Ashoka, killed his real brothers as punishment for the kingss death and quarrel for the kingdom. Later on Ashoka conquered Greater India entire, before he adopted Buddhism and forsook war
Fratricide
–
"
Cain kills
Abel ", a fratricide illustrated by
Gustave Doré (And Cain talked with Abel his brother; and it came to pass, when they were in the field, that Cain rose up against Abel his brother and slew him).
25.
Mariticide
–
Mariticide literally means killing of ones husband. The killing of a wife is given the name uxoricide, under English common law it was a petty treason until 1828, and until it was altered under the Treason Act 1790 the punishment was to be strangled and burnt at the stake. Laodice I allegedly poisoned her husband Antiochus II Theos of the Seleucid dynasty around 246 BC and her youth and beauty were dwelt upon in numerous popular ballads, which are to be found in Jamiesons, Kinlochs, and Buchans collections. Florence Maybrick spent fourteen years in prison in England after being convicted of murdering her considerably older English husband, James Maybrick, in 1889. Tillie Klimek claimed to have psychic powers by predicting her husbands deaths, edith Thompson and Frederick Bywaters were executed in 1923 for the murder of Thompson’s husband Percy. Heather Osland drugged and had her son kill her husband in 1991, katherine Knight murdered her de facto husband in Oct.2001 by stabbing him, then skinned him and attempted to feed pieces of his body to his children. She was sentenced to life in prison without parole, her appeal against this sentence as too harsh was rejected, sheila Garvie, convicted in 1968 of the Murder of Maxwell Garvie, her husband In 1991, Pamela Smart had her husband murdered by a student of hers. Though the student committed the murder, the courts ruled that Smart had been guilty of mariticide due to her influence on the young man, in 1998, entertainer Phil Hartman was killed by his wife Brynn Hartman, who then killed herself. In 2004 Jamila MBarek paid her brother to murder her husband, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, in Greek mythology Clytemnestra murders her husband Agamemnon as an act of vengeance for the murder of their daughter Iphigeneia, and to retain power after his return from Troy. In Friday the 13th, Pamelas Tale Pamela Voorhees kills her husband Elias Voorhees in order to protect their younger only son Jason Voorhees. In Lamb to the Slaughter, A housewife kill her husband by hitting him with a lamb leg In Dead Alive Vera drowned her husband because he had an affair with a woman. In Addams Family Values, Deborah Debbie Jellinsky attempted unsuccessfully to kill her third husband Fester Addams after she killed two of her husbands and ran off with their money
Mariticide
–
Anne Williams burned at the stake for mariticide in
Gloucester, 1753.
26.
Uxoricide
–
Uxoricide is murder of ones wife or romantic partner. It can refer to the act itself or the person who carries it out, overall, rates of uxoricide are much higher than rates of mariticide. Of the 2340 deaths at the hands of partners in America in 2007. In the region of South-East Asia, 55% of all murdered women died at the hands of their partner, followed by 40% in the African region, preliminary findings of an ongoing study estimate that globally, approximately 35% of murders of women are committed by intimate partners. Evolved Homicide Theory states that men have evolved a particular killing strategy in order to deprive male rivals of sexual access to their mate, therefore, when a man experiences partner infidelity, he may kill his partner as a reproductive strategy. Proponents of Psychodynamic theories have offered explanations for the underlying the occurrence of Uxoricide. It has been suggested that men who kill their partners experience both an unconscious dependence on their wife and a resentment of her. These men wish to leave the relationship, but unknowingly perceive themselves as too helpless to do so, links have also been established between violence in childhood and likelihood of uxoricide occurring. Other psychodynamic researchers have reported that Thematic Apperception tests reveal significant trends of rejection by a mother or wife in men who commit uxoricide, psychoanalytic dream interpretation has also argued that unconscious conflict manifests into violent outbursts. For example, in one instance one man had experienced and recorded over 200 distressing, cohabiting women are at greater risk of domestic violence and uxoricide than married women. Research has found that women are 9 times more likely to be killed by their intimate partner than married women. A number of reasons for this finding have been studied. Cohabiting women are likely to be younger, have a lower level of education and are more likely to bring children from a previous relationship into their home with their new intimate partner. This may be because investment from a stepfather reduces reproductive benefits, research has found that the presence of step-children can significantly increase the risk of uxoricide for women. A large number of filicides are accompanied by uxoricide and suicide, research has shown that females often experience increased abuse following the termination of a relationship. An Australian study found that of a sample of uxoricide cases, sexual jealousy may be a possible reason for this heightened risk following separation. Another risk factor for Uxoricide is estrangement, women who choose to leave their partner place themselves at higher risk of spousal homicide. Therefore, by killing his partner he will avoid the damage associated with intrasexual competition
Uxoricide
–
18th century illustration of Matthias Brinsden murdering his wife.
27.
Parricide
–
Parricide is defined as, The act of killing ones father, or less usually mother or other close relative, but usually not children. Lucius Hostius reportedly was the first patricide in Rome, sometime after the Second Punic War, mary Blandy poisoned her father, Francis Blandy, with arsenic in England in 1751. Lizzie Borden was an American woman accused and acquitted of murdering her father and stepmother, the Criminal Code of Japan once determined that patricide brought capital punishment or life imprisonment. However, the law was abolished because of the trial of the Tochigi patricide case in which a woman killed her father in 1968 after she was abused by him. William Bresnahan fatally stabbed his parents in 1964, ronald DeFeo, Jr. was convicted for the 1974 murders of his father, mother, two brothers and two sisters. Matthew Heikkila killed his parents with a shotgun on January 29,1991. Kip Kinkel murdered his parents on May 20,1998, a day before the Thurston High School shooting, russell Bramlage fatally shot his parents in November 2007. Alex Crain fatally shot his parents on December 9,2010, murder of Blake and Mary-Jo Hadley Trey Sesler fatally shot his parents and brother on March 20,2012. Murder of Glory Chau and Moon Siu Vincent Parker fatally stabbed, zachary Callens fatally shot his parents on August 11,2014. In the 1998 film Star Trek, Insurrection, Captain Picard points out that. Ruafo need for revenge has now escalated into parricide. com entry for parricide Pendulum Foundation, Parricide Facts
Parricide
–
Tullia drives over the corpse of her Father
Parricide
–
Parricide,
capital punishment in
Jersey
28.
Matricide
–
Matricide is the act of killing ones mother. Amastris, queen of Heraclea, was drowned by her two sons in 284 BC, cleopatra III of Egypt was assassinated in 101 BC by order of her son, Ptolemy X, for her conspiracy. Ptolemy XI of Egypt had his wife, Berenice III, murdered shortly after their wedding in 80 BC and she was also his stepmother, or perhaps his mother. In AD59, the Roman Emperor Nero is said to have ordered the murder of his mother Agrippina the Younger, mary Ann Lamb, the mentally ill sister of essayist Charles Lamb, killed their invalid mother during an episode of mania in 1796. Sidney Harry Fox, a British man, hanged in 1930 for killing his mother to gain from her insurance. Battle of Okinawa,1945, There are accounts in which Okinawan civilians killed their mothers to prevent them from being captured, raped, tortured, the Parker–Hulme murder case of 1954. This case was chronicled in the 1994 film Heavenly Creatures, jack Gilbert Graham killed his mother along with 44 people by planting a dynamite bomb in his mothers suitcase, that was subsequently loaded aboard United Airlines Flight 629 in 1955. Henry Lee Lucas killed his mother in 1960 by stabbing her in the neck and he was eventually shot and killed by Austin police. John Emil List murdered his mother, wife and his three children on November 9,1971, making List also guilty of filicide and uxoricide and he was a fugitive for 18 years. He was apprehended on June 1,1989 after an episode of Americas Most Wanted aired, on May 1,1990 he was sentenced to 5 life terms in prison. Antony Baekeland murdered his mother, Barbara Daly Baekeland on November 11,1972 and she had allegedly forced him to have sex with her, in order to cure his homosexuality. Savage Grace is a book and a movie based on this event, serial killer Edmund Kemper beat his mother to death in 1973, along with one of his mothers friends before turning himself in to the police. He had previously committed half-a-dozen sex-murders, Kemper had been psychologically abused by his domineering mother in his youth. He was indicted for murders and remains at large, jim Gordon, a session musician who played drums with Eric Clapton band Derek and the Dominos bludgeoned his mother with a hammer and then stabbed her to death with a butchers knife in 1983. In May 1984 he was sentenced to sixteen years to life in prison, susan Cabot, 1950s actress, was beaten to death in 1986 at her Hollywood home by her son Timothy Roman. He was convicted of involuntary manslaughter, the Menendez Brothers were convicted during a highly publicized trial in July 1996 for the shotgun killings of their parents in 1989. Brett Reider, a 15-year-old boy in Omaha, Nebraska, stabbed his mother to death during a dispute in 1993 and he was convicted of second degree murder and sentenced as an adult to 11–20 years. In 1996, his sister, Alissa Reider made an HBO documentary, Brett Killed Mom
Matricide
–
Orestes Pursued by the Furies by
William-Adolphe Bouguereau.
Clytemnestra was murdered by
Orestes and the
Furies torment him for his crime
29.
Blood libel
–
Blood libel is an accusation that Jews kidnapped and murdered the children of Christians in order to use their blood as part of their religious rituals during Jewish holidays. Historically, these claims – alongside those of well poisoning and host desecration – have been a theme of the persecution of Jews in Europe. In some cases, the victim of human sacrifice has become venerated as a martyr. Three of these – William of Norwich, Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln, and Simon of Trent – became objects of local sects and veneration, one, Gavriil Belostoksky, was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church. In Jewish lore, blood libels were the impetus for the creation of the Golem of Prague by Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel in the 16th century. According to Walter Laqueur, Altogether, there have been about 150 recorded cases of blood libel resulted in the arrest and killing of Jews throughout history. In almost every case, Jews were murdered, sometimes by a mob, sometimes following torture, the term blood libel can also refer to any unpleasant and damaging false accusation, and has taken on a broader metaphorical meaning. However, this remains controversial and has been protested by Jewish groups. The supposed torture and human sacrifice alleged in the blood libels run contrary to the teachings of Judaism, according to the Bible, God commanded Abraham in the Binding of Isaac to sacrifice his son, but ultimately provided a ram as a substitute. The Ten Commandments in the Torah forbid murder, in addition, the use of blood in cooking is prohibited by the kosher dietary laws. Blood from slaughtered animals may not be consumed, and must be drained out of the animal, according to the Book of Leviticus, blood from sacrificed animals may only be placed on the altar of the Great Temple in Jerusalem. Furthermore, consumption of human flesh would violate kashrut, while animal sacrifice was part of the practice of ancient Judaism, the Tanakh and Jewish teachings portray human sacrifice as one of the evils that separated the pagans of Canaan from the Hebrews. Jews were prohibited from engaging in rituals and were punished for doing so. In fact, ritual cleanliness for priests prohibited them from even being in the room as a human corpse. The earliest versions of the accusation involved Jews crucifying Christian children at Easter/Passover because of a prophecy, there is no reference to the use of blood in unleavened matzo bread, which evolves later as a major motivation for the crime. The Graeco-Egyptian author Apion claimed that Jews sacrificed Greek victims in their temple and this accusation is known from Josephus rebuttal of it in Against Apion. Apion states that when Antiochus Epiphanes entered the temple in Jerusalem, every year, Apion claimed, the Jews would sacrifice a Greek and consume his flesh, at the same time swearing eternal hatred to Greeks. Apions claim probably repeats ideas already in circulation as similar claims are made by Posidonius and Apollonius Molon in the 1st century BC, another example concerns the murder of a Christian boy by a group of Jewish youths
Blood libel
–
The crucifixion of William of Norwich depicted on a
rood screen in Holy Trinity church,
Loddon, Norfolk
Blood libel
–
Painting of Werner of Oberwesel as a martyr
Blood libel
–
From an 18th-century etching from Brückenturm. Above: The murdered body of Simon of Trent. Below: The "
Judensau."
Blood libel
–
Fresco in St Paul's Church in
Sandomierz, Poland, depicting blood libel
30.
Crucifixion
–
It is principally known from classical antiquity, but remains in occasional use in some countries. The crucifixion of Jesus is a narrative in Christianity. Ancient Greek has two verbs for crucify, ana-stauro, from stauros, stake, and apo-tumpanizo crucify on a plank, in earlier pre-Roman Greek texts anastauro usually means impale. New Testament Greek uses four verbs, three of them based upon stauros, usually translated cross, prospegnumi, to fix or fasten to, impale, crucify occurs only once at the Acts of the Apostles 2,23. The English term cross derives from the Latin word crux, the Latin term crux classically referred to a tree or any construction of wood used to hang criminals as a form of execution. The term later came to specifically to a cross. The English term crucifix derives from the Latin crucifixus or cruci fixus, past participle passive of crucifigere or cruci figere, Crucifixion was often performed in order to terrorize and dissuade its witnesses from perpetrating particularly heinous crimes. Victims were left on display after death as warnings to others who might attempt dissent, Crucifixion was usually intended to provide a death that was particularly slow, painful, gruesome, humiliating, and public, using whatever means were most expedient for that goal. Crucifixion methods varied considerably with location and time period, in some cases, the condemned was forced to carry the crossbeam to the place of execution. A whole cross would weigh well over 135 kg, but the crossbeam would not be quite as burdensome, weighing around 45 kg. Upright posts would presumably be fixed permanently in place. Objects used in the crucifixion of criminals, such as nails, were sought as amulets with perceived medicinal qualities, while a crucifixion was an execution, it was also a humiliation, by making the condemned as vulnerable as possible. Although artists have depicted the figure on a cross with a loin cloth or a covering of the genitals. Writings by Seneca the Younger state some victims suffered a stick forced upwards through their groin, despite its frequent use by the Romans, the horrors of crucifixion did not escape mention by some of their eminent orators. Frequently, the legs of the executed were broken or shattered with an iron club, an act called crurifragium. This act hastened the death of the person but was meant to deter those who observed the crucifixion from committing offenses. The gibbet on which crucifixion was carried out could be of many shapes, at times the gibbet was only one vertical stake, called in Latin crux simplex. This was the simplest available construction for torturing and killing the condemned, frequently, however, there was a cross-piece attached either at the top to give the shape of a T or just below the top, as in the form most familiar in Christian symbolism
Crucifixion
–
Protester tied to a cross in Washington D.C, photography by Oliver F. Atkins (1970)
Crucifixion
Crucifixion
–
Crucifixion of Jesus by
Marco Palmezzano (Uffizi,
Florence), painting c. 1490
Crucifixion
–
Prisoner kneeling on chains, thumbs supporting arms, photographic print on
stereo card,
Mukden, China (c 1906).
31.
Stoning
–
Stoning, or lapidation, is a method of capital punishment whereby a group throws stones at a person until they die. No individual among the group can be identified as the one who kills the subject and this is in contrast to the case of a judicial executioner. Slower than other forms of execution, stoning within the context of contemporary Western culture is considered a form of execution by torture, in some countries, such as Afghanistan and Iraq, stoning has been declared illegal by the state, but is practiced extrajudicially. In several others, people have been sentenced to death by stoning, in modern times, allegations of stoning are politically sensitive, the government of Iran, for example, describes allegations of stoning as political propaganda. The Jewish Torah serves as a religious reference for Judaism. Stoning is the method of execution mentioned most frequently in the Torah. And thou shalt stone him with stones, that he die, because he sought to thrust thee away from the LORD thy God. The inclusion of the children in the punishment was troubling to later Jewish commentators, the Talmud describes four methods of execution, stoning, pouring molten lead down the throat of the condemned person, beheading, and strangulation. The Mishna gives the following list of persons who should be stoned, prior to early Christianity, particularly in the Mishnah, doubts were growing in Jewish society about the effectiveness of capital punishment in general in acting as a useful deterrent. Subsequently its use was dissuaded by the central legislators, the Mishnah states, A Sanhedrin that puts a man to death once in seven years is called destructive. Rabbi Eliezer ben Azariah says that this extends to a Sanhedrin that puts a man to death once in seventy years. Rabbi Akiba and Rabbi Tarfon say, Had we been in the Sanhedrin none would ever have put to death. Rabban Simeon ben Gamaliel says, they would have multiplied shedders of blood in Israel, in the following centuries the leading Jewish sages imposed so many restrictions on the implementation of capital punishment as to make it de facto illegal. The restrictions were to prevent execution of the innocent, and included many conditions for a testimony to be admissible that were difficult to fulfill. Philosopher Moses Maimonides wrote, It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent one to death and he was concerned that the law guard its public perception, to preserve its majesty and retain the peoples respect. He saw errors of commission as much more threatening to the integrity of law than errors of omission, in rabbinic law, capital punishment may only be inflicted by the verdict of a regularly constituted court of twenty-three qualified members. The culprit must be a person of age and of sound mind. On the day the verdict is pronounced, the convict is led forth to execution, a sentence is not attended by confiscation of the convicts goods, the persons possessions descend to their legal heirs
Stoning
–
Saint Stephen, first martyr of Christianity, painted in 1506 by
Marx Reichlich (1460-1520) (Pinakothek of
Munich)
Stoning
–
An
Aztec adulterer being stoned to death;
Florentine Codex
Stoning
–
The Punishment of Korah and the Stoning of Moses and Aaron (1480–1482), by
Sandro Botticelli,
Sistine Chapel,
Rome.
Stoning
–
Stoning of the Devil, 2006
Hajj
32.
Genocide
–
Genocide is intentional action to destroy a people in whole or in part. The hybrid word genocide is a combination of the Greek word génos, the United Nations Genocide Convention, which was established in 1948, defines genocide as acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group. The term genocide was coined in a 1943 book responding to mass murder of populations in the 20th century, in 1943, Raphael Lemkin created the term genocide in his book Axis Rule in Occupied Europe. The book describes the implementation of Nazi policies in occupied Europe, the term described the systematic destruction of a nation or people, and the word was quickly adopted by many in the international community. The word genocide is the combination of the Greek prefix geno-, Lemkin defined genocide as follows, Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. The preamble to the 1948 Genocide Convention notes that instances of genocide have taken place throughout history. Lemkins lifelong interest in the murder of populations in the 20th century was initially in response to the killing of Armenians in 1915. He dedicated his life to mobilizing the international community, to together to prevent the occurrence of such events. In a 1949 interview, Lemkin said I became interested in genocide because it happened so many times and it happened to the Armenians, then after the Armenians, Hitler took action. In 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Prevention, the CPPCG was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951. The USSR argued that the Conventions definition should follow the etymology of the term, and may have feared greater international scrutiny of its own Great Purge. Other nations feared that including political groups in the definition would invite international intervention in domestic politics. ”The conventions purpose and scope was later described by the United Nations Security Council as follows, In 2007 the European Court of Human Rights, noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. In the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements, in the case of Onesphore Rwabukombe the German Supreme Court adhered to its previous judgement and didnt follow the narrow interpretation of the ICTY and the ICJ. The phrase in whole or in part has been subject to discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 ICTY8 that Genocide had been committed. The aim of the Genocide Convention is to prevent the destruction of entire human groups. The Appeals Chamber goes into details of other cases and the opinions of respected commentators on the Genocide Convention to explain how they came to this conclusion. The judges continue in paragraph 12, The determination of when the part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations
Genocide
–
Buchenwald concentration camp was not an
extermination camp, though it was responsible for a vast number of deaths
Genocide
–
Armenian Genocide victims
Genocide
–
Nuon Chea, the Khmer Rouge's chief ideologist, before the
Cambodian Genocide Tribunal on 5 December 2011.
Genocide
–
The cemetery at the
Srebrenica-Potočari Memorial and Cemetery to Genocide Victims
33.
Human extinction
–
In futures studies, human extinction is the hypothetical end of the human species. The probability of extinction within the next hundred years, due to human cause, is an active topic of debate. In contrast, human extinction by wholly natural scenarios, such as impact or large-scale volcanism, is extremely unlikely to occur in the near future. Existential risks are risks that threaten the future of humanity. Philosopher Robert Adams rejects Parfits impersonal views, but speaks instead of an imperative for loyalty. The aspiration for a better society- more just, more rewarding and our interest in the lives of our children and grandchildren, and the hopes that they will be able, in turn, to have the lives of their children and grandchildren as projects. Nuclear or biological warfare, for example, an arms race results in much larger arsenals than those seen during the Cold War. Pandemic involving one or more viruses, prions, or antibiotic-resistant bacteria, past examples include the Spanish flu outbreak in 1918 and the various European viruses that decimated indigenous American populations. However, they are confident that in practice, countries would be able to recognize and intervene effectively to halt the spread of such a microbe and prevent human extinction. However, well before this, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will be too low to support plant life, destroying the foundation of the food chains. About 7–8 billion years from now, if and after the Sun has become a red giant, human-induced changes to the atmospheres composition may render Earth uninhabitable for humans. The upper limit, above which human survival and reproduction would be impossible, is still unknown, If developing world demographics are assumed to become developed world demographics, and if the latter are extrapolated, data suggest an extinction before 3000 AD. Leslie estimates that if the reproduction rate drops to the German level the extinction date will be 2400, however, evolutionary biology suggests the demographic transition may reverse itself, conflicting evidence suggests birth rates may be rising in the 21st century in the developed world. The work of Hans Rosling, a Swedish medical doctor, academic, statistician, the creators of the first superintelligent entity could make a mistake and inadvertently give it goals that lead it to immediately annihilate the human race. Some scenarios, Uncontrolled nanotechnology incidents resulting in the destruction of the Earths ecosystem, early in the development of thermonuclear weapons there were some concerns that a fusion reaction could ignite the atmosphere in a chain reaction that would engulf Earth. Calculations showed the energy would dissipate far too quickly to sustain a reaction, near-Earth objects, serve as an absolute threat to the survival of living species, and that even small-scale events caused by one can result in a substantial amount of local and regional damages. Because there are very few extraterrestrial impacts ever recorded in Earths history, however, a single, extraterrestrial event can lead to the accumulation of more deaths and destruction than any man-made war or epidemic could ever produce. One mitigation technique includes the Kinetic impactor, during this process, what must be noted and paid attention to is that a second observer spacecraft is also present and vital in precisely calculating the resulting change in the asteroids orbit
Human extinction
34.
Regicide
–
The broad definition of regicide is the deliberate killing of a monarch, or the person responsible for the killing of a person of royalty. In a narrower sense, in the British tradition, it refers to the execution of a king after a trial, reflecting the historical precedent of the trial. More broadly, it can refer to the killing of an emperor or any other reigning sovereign. Before the Tudor period, English kings had been murdered while imprisoned or killed in battle by their subjects, elizabeth had originally been excommunicated by Pope Pius V, in Regnans in Excelsis, for converting England to Protestantism after the reign of Mary I of England. The defeat of the Spanish Armada and the Protestant Wind convinced most English people that God approved of Elizabeths action, after the First English Civil War, King Charles I was a prisoner of the Parliamentarians. They tried to negotiate a compromise with him, but he stuck steadfastly to his view that he was King by Divine Right, on 13 December 1648, the House of Commons broke off negotiations with the King. In the middle of December, the King was moved from Windsor to London, the House of Commons of the Rump Parliament passed a Bill setting up a High Court of Justice in order to try Charles I for high treason in the name of the people of England. From a Royalist and post-restoration perspective this Bill was not lawful, however, the Parliamentary leaders and the Army pressed on with the trial anyway. At his trial in front of The High Court of Justice on Saturday 20 January 1649 in Westminster Hall, I would know by what authority, I mean lawful. In view of the issues involved, both sides based themselves on surprisingly technical legal grounds. Charles did not dispute that Parliament as a whole did have some powers, but he maintained that the House of Commons on its own could not try anybody. At that time under English law if a prisoner refused to plead then this was treated as a plea of guilty and he was found guilty on Saturday 27 January 1649, and his death warrant was signed by 59 Commissioners. To show their agreement with the sentence of death, all of the Commissioners who were present rose to their feet. On the day of his execution,30 January 1649, Charles dressed in two shirts so that he would not shiver from the cold, in case it was said that he was shivering from fear. Charles was then escorted through the Banqueting House in the Palace of Whitehall to a scaffold where he would be beheaded. He forgave those who had passed sentence on him and gave instructions to his enemies that they should learn to know their duty to God, the King - that is, my successors - and the people. He then gave a speech outlining his unchanged views of the relationship between the monarchy and the monarchs subjects, ending with the words I am the martyr of the people. His head was severed from his body with one blow, one week later, the Rump, sitting in the House of Commons, passed a bill abolishing the monarchy
Regicide
–
This contemporary print depicts Charles I's decapitation.
Regicide
–
One of the assistants of
Sanson shows the head of Louis XVI.
Regicide
–
Ravaillac murdering
Henry IV, rue de la Ferronnerie in Paris, 1610
35.
Tyrannicide
–
Tyrannicide is the killing or assassination of a tyrant or unjust ruler, usually for the common good, and usually by one of the tyrants subjects. The term also denotes those who kill a tyrant, tyrannicide can also be a political theory, and as such dates from antiquity. Support for tyrannicide can be found in Plutarchs Lives, Ciceros De Officiis, various Christian philosophers and theologians also wrote about tyrannicide. The Jesuistic casuistry developed a theory, criticized by Blaise Pascal in the Provincial Letters. Before them, the scholastic philosopher John of Salisbury also legitimised tyrannicide, under conditions, in the Policraticus. His theory was derived from his idea of the state as an organism in which all the members cooperate actively in the realization of the common utility. In 1408 the theologian Jean Petit used biblical examples to justify tyrannicide following the murder of Louis I, Duke of Orleans by Petits patron John the Fearless, Petits thesis was extensively discussed and eventually condemned by the church. The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates by John Milton in 1649 also described the history of tyrannicide, cambridges David George has also argued that terrorism is a form of tyranny of which tyrannicide is a negation. Libertarian Nick Roberts argues, Top-level assassination hurts only volunteers — the willing tyrants, if rulers choose to rule and to go to war, their lives become forfeit because they are acting coercively towards their subjects and intended conquests. As a natural rights libertarian, I do not consider that the Hitlers, the Kennedys and those who plan and order the deaths of millions deserve to die. After all, who else is there to blame, throughout history, many leaders have died under the pretext of tyrannicide. Hipparchus, one of the last Greek leaders to use the title of tyrant, was assassinated in 514 BC by Harmodius and Aristogeiton, since then tyrant has been a pejorative term, lacking objective criteria. Many rulers and heads of state have been considered as such by their enemies but not by their adherents, tyrannicides have a poor record of achieving their intended outcome. Caesars death, for example, failed to bring a return to power, and instead led to the Roman Empire. Many attempts on Commoduss life in the late 2nd century failed, including the one instigated by his own sister Lucilla, but he ultimately fell victim to his own excess by a successful murderous coup. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, tyrannicide continued in the Byzantine Empire when Emperor Andronikos I Komnenos, was tied to a pillar, beaten, tyrannicide has also been connected to revolution, with many taking place during successful revolutions, and others sparking revolutionary upheavals. Many assassins were killed in the act, such as Rigoberto López Pérez, others were prosecuted for the killing. Khalid Islambouli was one of three members of Egyptian Islamic Jihad executed for the assassination of Anwar Sadat, the autocratic President of Egypt in 1981, outright revolt was the context for other tyrannicides, and allowed individual killers to escape or remain anonymous
Tyrannicide
–
Benjamin Franklin 's suggestion for the
Great Seal of the United States included the phrase "Rebellion to Tyrants is Obedience to God."
Tyrannicide
–
Statue of Harmodius and Aristogeiton
36.
War crime
–
A war crime is an act that constitutes a serious violation of the law of war that gives rise to individual criminal responsibility. The concept of war crimes emerged at the turn of the century when the body of customary international law applicable to warfare between sovereign states was codified. Moreover, trials in national courts during this period further helped clarify the law, following the end of World War II, major developments in the law occurred. Numerous trials of Axis war criminals established the Nuremberg principles, such as notion that war crimes constituted crimes defined by international law, additionally, the Geneva Conventions in 1949 defined new war crimes and established that states could exercise universal jurisdiction over such crimes. The trial of Peter von Hagenbach by an ad hoc tribunal of the Holy Roman Empire in 1474 was the first international war crimes trial, and also of command responsibility. He was convicted and beheaded for crimes that he as a knight was deemed to have a duty to prevent, although he had argued that he was only following orders. In 1654 a Major Connaught was tried at Chester Assizes and hanged for his part in the massacre of villagers in the church at the village of Boughton, twelve villagers were smoked out, stripped naked and had their throats cut. He was hanged at the scene of the crime having been convicted of striking a blow to the head of John Fowler with an axe. The Geneva Conventions are four related treaties adopted and continuously expanded from 1864 to 1949 that represent a legal basis, accordingly, states retain different codes and values with regard to wartime conduct. Some signatories have routinely violated the Geneva Conventions in a way which either uses the ambiguities of law or political maneuvering to sidestep the laws formalities and principles. Three conventions were revised and expanded with the one added in 1949, First Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded. Second Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick, third Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War. Fourth Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, Protocol II relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts. Protocol III relating to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem, a small number of German military personnel of the First World War were tried in 1921 by the German Supreme Court for alleged war crimes. The modern concept of war crime was further developed under the auspices of the Nuremberg Trials based on the definition in the London Charter that was published on August 8,1945. Along with war crimes the charter also defined crimes against peace and crimes against humanity, on July 1,2002, the International Criminal Court, a treaty-based court located in The Hague, came into being for the prosecution of war crimes committed on or after that date. Several nations, most notably the United States, China, Russia, the United States still participates as an observer. Article 12 of the Rome Statute provides jurisdiction over the citizens of non-contracting states in the event that they are accused of committing crimes in the territory of one of the state parties
War crime
–
Criminology and
penology
War crime
–
A picture taken by the
Polish Underground of
Nazi Secret Police rounding up Polish intelligentsia at
Palmiry near
Warsaw in 1940 for mass execution (
German AB-Aktion in occupied Poland).
War crime
–
Suchow, China, 1938. A ditch full of the bodies of Chinese civilians, killed by
Japanese soldiers.
War crime
–
HRW wrote that the
Saudi Arabian-led military intervention in Yemen that began on 26 March 2015 had conducted airstrikes in apparent violation of the laws of war.
37.
Society
–
In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups. A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant and this is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used extensively within criminology. The term society came from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly, or at least civil. Without an article, the term can refer to the entirety of humanity, Society, in general, addresses the fact that an individual has rather limited means as an autonomous unit. Cultural relativism as an approach or ethic has largely replaced notions of primitive, better/worse. Societies may also be structured politically, in order of increasing size and complexity, there are bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and state societies. These structures may have varying degrees of power, depending on the cultural, geographical. Thus, an isolated society with the same level of technology. A society that is unable to offer a response to other societies it competes with will usually be subsumed into the culture of the competing society. Sociologist Peter L. Berger defines society as. a human product, and nothing but a human product, according to him, society was created by humans but this creation turns back and creates or molds humans every day. This is similar to the earlier developed by anthropologists Morton H. This system of classification contains four categories, Hunter-gatherer bands, tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige. Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments, in addition to this there are, Humanity, mankind, upon which rest all the elements of society, including societys beliefs. Virtual society, a society based on identity, which is evolving in the information age. Over time, some cultures have progressed toward more complex forms of organization and this cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes settled around seasonal food stocks to become agrarian villages, villages grew to become towns and cities. Cities turned into city-states and nation-states, many societies distribute largess at the behest of some individual or some larger group of people. This type of generosity can be seen in all cultures, typically
Society
–
A half-section of the 12th-century South Tang Dynasty version of Night Revels of Han Xizai, original by
Gu Hongzhong. The painting portrays servants, musicians, monks, children, guests, and hosts all in a single social environment. It serves as an in-depth look into the Chinese social structure of the time.
Society
Society
–
The social group enables its members to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis. Both individual and social (common) goals can thus be distinguished and considered. Ant (formicidae)
social ethology.
Society
–
Canis lupus
social ethology
38.
Crime
–
In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term crime does not, in criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition. The most popular view is that crime is a created by law, in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant. One proposed definition is that a crime or offence is an act not only to some individual. Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law, the notion that acts such as murder, rape and theft are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is an offence is defined by criminal law of each country. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the criminal code, the state has the power to severely restrict ones liberty for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must adhere, usually, to be classified as a crime, the act of doing something criminal must – with certain exceptions – be accompanied by the intention to do something criminal. While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime, breaches of private law are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through civil procedure. With institutional and legal machinery at their disposal, agents of the State can compel populations to conform to codes, authorities employ various mechanisms to regulate certain behaviors in general. In addition, authorities provide remedies and sanctions, and collectively these constitute a criminal justice system, Legal sanctions vary widely in their severity, they may include incarceration of temporary character aimed at reforming the convict. Some jurisdictions have penal codes written to inflict permanent harsh punishments, legal mutilation, usually a natural person perpetrates a crime, but legal persons may also commit crimes. Conversely, at least under U. S. law, nonpersons such as animals cannot commit crimes, the sociologist Richard Quinney has written about the relationship between society and crime. When Quinney states crime is a phenomenon he envisages both how individuals conceive crime and how populations perceive it, based on societal norms. The word crime is derived from the Latin root cernō, meaning I decide, originally the Latin word crīmen meant charge or cry of distress. The Ancient Greek word krima, from which the Latin cognate derives, typically referred to a mistake or an offense against the community. In 13th century English crime meant sinfulness, according to etymonline. com and it was probably brought to England as Old French crimne, from Latin crimen. In Latin, crimen could have signified any one of the following, charge, indictment, accusation, crime, fault, the word may derive from the Latin cernere – to decide, to sift
Crime
Crime
–
Criminology and
penology
Crime
–
The spiked heads of executed criminals once adorned the gatehouse of the medieval
London Bridge.
39.
Life imprisonment
–
Life imprisonment is any sentence of imprisonment for a crime under which convicted persons are to remain in prison for the rest of their lives or until paroled. Life imprisonment can, in cases, also be imposed for traffic offenses causing death. Canada and some U. S. states allow judges to impose life imprisonment for such offenses and this sentence does not exist in all countries. Portugal was the first country in the world to life imprisonment by the prison reforms of Sampaio e Melo in 1884. However, where life imprisonment is a sentence, there may also be formal mechanisms to request parole after a certain period of imprisonment. This means that a convict could be entitled to spend the rest of the sentence outside prison, early release is usually conditional depending on past and future conduct, possibly with certain restrictions or obligations. In contrast, when a term of imprisonment has ended. The United States leads in life sentences, at a rate of 50 people per 100,000 residents imprisoned for life, the length of time and the conditions surrounding parole vary greatly for each jurisdiction. In some places, convicts are entitled to apply for parole relatively early, in others, however, the time until being entitled to apply for parole does not necessarily tell anything about the actual date of parole being granted. The highest determined prison sentence that can be imposed in the ICC, after this period, the court will review the sentence to determine whether or not it should be reduced. Some technically finite sentences are handed out, especially in the U. S. that exceed the maximum life span and are therefore seen as de facto life sentences. He committed suicide in his cell one month later. Courts in South Africa have handed out at least two sentences that have exceeded a century and were thus symbolic life sentences, unlike other areas of criminal law, sentences handed to minors do not differ from those given to legal adults. A few countries worldwide allow for minors to be given sentences that have no provision for eventual release. Of these, only the United States currently has minors serving such sentences, as of 2009, Human Rights Watch had calculated that there were 2,589 youth offenders serving life without parole in the United States. Graham v. Florida was a significant case in juvenile justice, in Jacksonville, Florida, Terrence J. Graham tried to rob a restaurant along with three adolescent accomplices. During the robbery one of Grahams accomplices had a bar that he used to hit the restaurant manager twice in the head. Once arrested, Graham was charged with attempted armed robbery and armed burglary with assault/battery, the maximum sentence he faced from these charges was life without the possibility of parole, and the prosecutor wanted to charge him as an adult
Life imprisonment
–
Mugshot of
Burton Phillips, sentenced to life imprisonment for bank robbery, 1935
40.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
41.
Self-defense
–
Self-defense is a countermeasure that involves defending the health and well-being of oneself from harm. The use of the right of self-defense as a justification for the use of force in times of danger is available in many jurisdictions. Physical self-defense is the use of force to counter an immediate threat of violence. Such force can be armed or unarmed. In either case, the chances of success depend on a number of parameters, related to the severity of the threat on one hand. Many styles of arts are practiced for self-defense or include self-defense techniques. Some styles train primarily for self-defense, while other martial or combat sports can be applied for self-defense. Some martial arts train how to escape from a knife or gun situation, or how to break away from a punch, a wide variety of weapons can be used for self-defense. The most suitable depends on the threat presented, the victim or victims, legal restrictions also greatly influence self-defence options. In many cases there are legal restrictions. Non-injurious water-based self-defense indelible dye-marker sprays, or ID-marker or DNA-marker sprays linking a suspect to a scene, would in most places be legal to own. Tie-wraps double as an effective restraint, weapons such as the Kubotan have been built for ease of carry and to resemble everyday objects. Ballpoint pen knives, swordsticks, cane guns and modified umbrellas are similar categories of concealed self-defense weapons that serve a dual purpose, mental self-defense is the ability to get into the proper mindset for executing a physical self-defense technique. Many martial arts schools and self-defense classes focus primarily on the nature of self-defense. If you are skilled in the aspects of a defensive technique. Controlled environments cannot easily mimic the stress and adrenaline dump which occurs during an attack, there is a very real need to be able to enter the proper warrior mindset if one is to have a realistic chance of surviving a potentially deadly encounter. The ability to go over, under, around or through any obstacle is the essence of this never quit mindset - similar to that of the Samurai of Japan, being aware of and avoiding potentially dangerous situations is one useful technique of self-defense. Attackers will typically select victims they feel they have an advantage against, such as physical size
Self-defense
–
This telescopic steel security baton is sold to the public in
Japan (2009).
Self-defense
–
Ju-Jitsu defence against a
knife attack.
Berlin 1924
42.
Jury nullification
–
Jury nullification is a finding by a trial jury in contradiction to the jurys belief about the facts of the case. This may happen in both civil and criminal trials, in a civil trial, a jury nullifies by finding a defendant not liable, even though members of the jury may believe the defendant is liable. This may occur when members of the jury disagree with the law the defendant has been charged with breaking, a jury can similarly unjustly and illegally convict a defendant on the ground of disagreement with an existing law, even if no law is broken. A jury verdict that is contrary to the letter of the law only to the particular case before it. If a pattern of acquittals develops, however, in response to repeated attempts to prosecute a statutory offence, a pattern of jury nullification may indicate public opposition to an unwanted legislative enactment. In the past, it was feared that a judge or panel of government officials might be unduly influenced to follow established legal practice. Similarly, juries are routinely cautioned by courts and some not to allow sympathy for a party or other affected persons to compromise the fair. These instructions are criticized by advocates of jury nullification, juries have also refused to convict due to the perceived injustice of a law in general, or of the way the law is applied in particular cases. There have also been cases where the jury has refused to convict due to their own prejudices, jury nullification is the source of much debate. Some maintain that it is an important safeguard of last resort against wrongful imprisonment and government tyranny, others view it as a violation of the right to a jury trial, which undermines the law. Some view it as a violation of the oath sworn by jurors, United States v. Green,556 F. 2d 71. Some fear that nullification could be used to violence against socially unpopular factions. They point to the danger that a jury may choose to convict a defendant who has not broken the letter of the law, however, judges retain the rights both to decide sentences and to disregard juries guilty verdicts, acting as a check against malicious juries. Jury nullification may also occur in civil suits, in which the verdict is generally a finding of liability or lack of liability, the main deontic issue involved in jury nullification is the tension between democratic self-government and integrity. The argument has been raised that prosecutors are not allowed to seek jury nullification, however, for a prosecutor to nullify a jury in this context would require negating the presumption of innocence. Nevertheless, there is doubt as to the ability of a jury to nullify the law. Today, there are several issues raised by jury nullification, such as whether, a judge may remove jurors for cause when they refuse to apply the law as instructed. A judge may punish a juror for exercising the power of jury nullification, all legal arguments, except perhaps on motions in limine to exclude evidence, should be made in the presence of the jury
Jury nullification
–
A nineteenth-century jury
Jury nullification
–
Even prior to
Bushel's Case, Sir
Nicholas Throckmorton, a
non-Episcopalian English Dissenter or
Nonconformist outside of the established
Church of England, was acquitted by a jury, despite the hostility of the judges.
43.
Criminal prosecution
–
The prosecutor is the chief legal representative of the prosecution in countries with either the common law adversarial system, or the civil law inquisitorial system. The prosecution is the party responsible for presenting the case in a criminal trial against an individual accused of breaking the law. Prosecutors are typically lawyers who possess a law degree, and are recognized as legal professionals by the court in which they intend to represent society and they usually only become involved in a criminal case once a suspect has been identified and charges need to be filed. They are typically employed by an office of the government, with safeguards in place to such an office can successfully pursue the prosecution of government officials. Often, multiple offices exist in a country, especially those countries with federal governments where sovereignty has been bifurcated or devolved in some way. Since prosecutors are backed by the power of the state, they are subject to special professional responsibility rules in addition to those binding all lawyers. For example, in the United States, Rule 3.8 of the ABA Model Rules of Professional Conduct requires prosecutors to make timely disclosure to the defense of all evidence or information and that tends to negate the guilt of the accused or mitigates the offense. Not all U. S. states adopt the rules, however, U. S. Supreme Court cases. Typical sources of requirements imposed on prosecutors come from appellate court opinions, state or federal court rules. A DPP may be subject to varying degrees of control by the Attorney General, in Australia, the Offices of the Director of Public Prosecutions institute prosecutions for indictable offences on behalf of the Crown. More recent constitutions, such as South Africas, tend to guarantee the independence, in Canada, public prosecutors in most provinces are called Crown Attorney or Crown Counsel. They are generally appointed by the provincial Attorney-General, though Scots law is a mixed system, its civil law jurisdiction indicates its civil law heritage. Here, all prosecutions are carried out by Procurators Fiscal and Advocates Depute on behalf of the Lord Advocate, in very serious cases, a Procurator Fiscal, Advocate Depute or even the Lord Advocate, may take charge of a police investigation. Other remedies are open to a prosecutor in Scotland, including fines and non-court based interventions, such as rehabilitation. All prosecutions are handled within the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service, Procurators fiscal will usually refer cases involving minors to Childrens Hearings, which are not courts of law, but a panel of lay members empowered to act in the interests of the child. In the United States, the director of an office may be known by any of several names depending on the jurisdiction. Prosecutors are most often chosen through local elections, and typically hire other attorneys as deputies or assistants to conduct most of the work of the office. United States Attorneys, appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, represent the government in federal court
Criminal prosecution
–
Prosecutors in hearing in court
44.
Deadly force
–
In most jurisdictions, the use of deadly force is justified only under conditions of extreme necessity as a last resort, when all lesser means have failed or cannot reasonably be employed. Firearms, bladed weapons, explosives, and vehicles are among those weapons the use of which is considered deadly force. The use of weapons in an offensive manner, such as a baseball bat, sharp pencil, tire iron or other. Common law allowed officers to use any force necessary to effect a felony arrest, most police agencies establish a use of force continuum starting with simple presence through deadly force. With this model, officers attempt to control subjects and situations with the force necessary. Agencies often have policies limiting the force used to be equal or one step higher on the continuum to the force they are opposing, a civilians′ use of deadly force is generally justified if they reasonably believe that they or others are in imminent danger of death or serious injury. Justification and affirmative defenses vary by state and may include certain property crimes, U. S. law requires an investigation whenever a person causes another persons death but the mechanism for such investigations can vary by state. The investigation develops evidence regarding the use of physical force for the particular state or jurisdiction. An investigation may performed by a local or state agency and also a civilian agency. A report of the findings of such an investigation may be submitted for prosecution, traditionally, intentional contact between vehicles has been characterized as unlawful deadly force, though some U. S. federal appellate cases have mitigated this precedent. In Adams v. St. Lucie County Sheriffs Department,998 F. 2d 923. 3d 1307. Which in turn was reversed by the U. S. Supreme Court in the Scott v. Harris case discussed above, in the Adams case, the officer rammed the suspects vehicle. In Donovan v. City of Milwaukee,17 F. 3d 944, in the Donovan case, the suspect lost control of his motorcycle and became airborne, crashing into the officers vehicle, which was parked as part of an intercepting roadblock
Deadly force
–
Warning sign at Langley AFB
Deadly force
–
Deputy Sheriff with
Reising submachine gun.
45.
List of countries by intentional homicide rate
–
List of countries by intentional homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants. The reliability of underlying national murder rate data may vary, the legal definition of intentional homicide differs among countries. Intentional homicide may or may not include infanticide, assisted suicide or euthanasia and they may also be under-reported for political reasons. Another problem for the comparability of the figures is that some data may include attempts. In general the values in these lists should not include failed attempts except when mentioned otherwise, a study undertaken by the Geneva Declaration on Armed Violence and Development estimated that there were approximately 490,000 intentional homicides in 2004. The study estimated that the rate was 7.6 intentional homicides per 100,000 inhabitants for 2004. UNODC reported a global average intentional homicide rate of 6.2 per 100,000 population for 2012, UNODC calculated a rate of 6.9 in 2010. Note, Please update the UNODC tables only with UNODC data, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime has a site called Global Study on Homicide. All data in this section comes from reports on that site, latest year for each country is indicated in the table below. Intentional homicide, as defined by UNODC, is unlawful death purposefully inflicted on a person by another person, rates are calculated per 100,000 inhabitants. The UNODC report has bar charts and timeline graphs of homicide rates for subregions, but the report does not list exact rate numbers. Subregion counts are not found in the report, but may be calculated by totaling the counts for each country in a subregion. Also, do not add references within the table itself and this breaks row alignment between the column of row numbers on the left, and the rest of the table. See Help, Sorting for info on row numbering, click on the sorting cell below the rate column in order to sort countries by homicide rate. The row number column on the left is static and its order does not change and it is useful for ranking countries by homicide rate. Click on the cell below the country column to sort alphabetically. The initial order of the countries is alphabetical within subregion, subregions are initially in alphabetical order within regions. Reload the page to return to that initial subregion order, click sorting buttons to sort alphabetically or numerically
List of countries by intentional homicide rate
–
Murder rate per 100,000 inhabitants in 2012. 0–1 1–2 2–5 5–10 10–20 >20
46.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
–
It is a member of the United Nations Development Group and was renamed the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime in 2002. In 2016 -2017 it has a biannual budget of US$700 million. The agency, employing between 1,500 and 2,000 people worldwide, has its headquarters in Vienna, with 21 field offices, the United Nations Secretary-General appoints the agencys Executive Director. Approximately 90% of the Offices funding comes from contributions, mainly from governments. UNODC incorporates the secretariat of the International Narcotics Control Board, the World Drug Report is a yearly publication that presents a comprehensive assessment of the international drug problem, with detailed information on the illicit drug situation. It provides estimates and information on trends in the production, trafficking and use of opium/heroin, coca/cocaine, cannabis and amphetamine-type stimulants. The Report, based on data and estimates collected or prepared by Governments, UNODC and other international institutions, United Nations Conventions and their related Protocols underpin all the operational work of UNODC. Another objective of the protocol is to protect the victims of trafficking in persons with full respect, the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air is concerned with the aggravating problem of organized crime groups for smuggling persons. The protocol aims to combat and prevent transnational smuggling as well as to promote cooperative measures for enhancing protective measures for victims. By adopting the protocol, the member states commit to adopt domestic criminal offences for illegal manufacturing, providing governmental licensing ammunition, the text of the Convention was negotiated during seven sessions held between 21 January 2002 and 1 October 2003. The Convention was adopted by the General Assembly on 31 October 2003, in 2003, the United Nations adopted the UN Convention against Corruption. The Convention came into force in December 2005, as of 9 November 2012,140 countries had signed and 164 countries had ratified the UNCAC. UNODC serves as the Secretariat for the Conference of the States Parties to the UNCAC, there are three drug related treaties that guide UNODCs drug related programs. These three major drug control treaties are mutually supportive and complementary. They also include provisions on trafficking and drug abuse. UNODC launches campaigns to raise awareness of drugs and crime problems, on 26 June every year, UNODC marks the International Day against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking. On 9 December every year, UNODC commemorates the International Anti-Corruption Day, the goal of the campaign is to mobilize support and to inspire people to act against drug abuse and trafficking. The campaign encourages people to put their health first and not to take drugs
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
–
UNODC headquarters in Vienna
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
–
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
47.
United Nations
–
The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
United Nations
–
1943 sketch by Franklin Roosevelt of the United Nations' original three branches: The
Four Policemen, an executive branch, and an international assembly of forty UN member states.
United Nations
–
Flag
United Nations
–
The
Chilean delegation signing the
UN Charter in San Francisco, 1945
United Nations
–
Dag Hammarskjöld was a particularly active Secretary-General from 1953 until his death in 1961.
48.
World Health Organization
–
The World Health Organization is a specialised agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health. It was established on 7 April 1948, headquartered in Geneva, the WHO is a member of the United Nations Development Group. Its predecessor, the Health Organization, was an agency of the League of Nations, the constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by 61 countries on 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 24 July 1948. It incorporated the Office international dhygiène publique and the League of Nations Health Organization, since its creation, it has played a leading role in the eradication of smallpox. The WHO is responsible for the World Health Report, an international publication on health, the worldwide World Health Survey. The head of WHO is Margaret Chan, the 2014/2015 proposed budget of the WHO is about US$4 billion. About US$930 million are to be provided by member states with a further US$3 billion to be from voluntary contributions, after failing to get a resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss, the Secretary General of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organisation. Dr. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for a conference on health. The use of the world, rather than international, emphasised the truly global nature of what the organisation was seeking to achieve. The constitution of the World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations and it thus became the first specialised agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$5 million for the 1949 year. Andrija Stampar was the Assemblys first president, and G. Brock Chisholm was appointed Director-General of WHO and its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections, and to improve maternal and child health, nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act was concerning the compilation of statistics on the spread. The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing, in 1947 the WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex, and by 1950 a mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine was under way. In 1955, the eradication programme was launched, although it was later altered in objective. 1965 saw the first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer. In 1958, Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake an initiative to eradicate smallpox. At this point,2 million people were dying from smallpox every year, in 1966, WHO moved into its headquarters building
World Health Organization
–
Three former directors of the
Global Smallpox Eradication Programme read the news that smallpox had been globally eradicated, 1980
World Health Organization
–
World Health Organization
World Health Organization
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WHO Headquarters in Geneva
World Health Organization
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Demonstration on
Chernobyl disaster day near WHO in
Geneva
