1.
Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Quechua language
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Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
4.
Horn (anatomy)
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A horn is a permanent pointed projection on the head of various animals consisting of a covering of keratin and other proteins surrounding a core of live bone. Horns are distinct to antlers which are not permanent, in mammals, true horns are found mainly among the ruminant artiodactyls, in the families Antilocapridae and Bovidae. One pair of horns is usual, however, two or more occur in a few wild species and domesticated breeds of sheep. Polycerate sheep breeds include the Hebridean, Icelandic, Jacob, Manx Loaghtan, horns usually have a curved or spiral shape, often with ridges or fluting. In many species only males have horns, horns start to grow soon after birth, and continue to grow throughout the life of the animal. Partial or deformed horns in livestock are called scurs, similar growths on other parts of the body are not usually called horns, but spurs, claws or hoofs depending on the part of the body on which they occur. These are covered with furred skin, cervidae, Most deer have antlers, which are not true horns. When fully developed, antlers are dead bone without a horn or skin covering, they are only by adults and are shed. Rhinocerotidae, The horns of rhinoceroses are made of keratin, the substance as fingernails, and grow continuously. Chamaeleonidae, Many chameleons, most notably the Jacksons Chameleon, possess horns on their skulls, ceratopsidae, The horns of the Triceratops were extensions of its skull bones although debate exists over whether they had a keratin covering. Horned lizards, These lizards have horns on their heads which have a keratin covering over a bony core. Insects, Some insects have horn-like structures on the head or thorax and these are pointed outgrowths of the hard chitinous exoskeleton. Some have greatly enlarged jaws, also made of chitin, canidae, Golden jackals are known to occasionally develop a horny growth on the skull, which is associated with magical powers in south-eastern Asia. Many mammal species in various families have tusks, which serve the same functions as horns. These include the Moschidae, Suidae, Proboscidea, Monodontidae and Odobenidae, Polled animals or pollards are those of normally-horned species whose horns have been removed, or which have not grown. In some cases animals have small horny growths in the skin where their horns would be – these are known as scurs. Cutaneous horns are the examples of horns growing on people. They are most often benign growths and can be removed by a razor, cases of people growing horns have been historically described, sometimes with mythical status
5.
Chacas District
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Chacas is a district of the province Asunción in the Ancash Region of Peru. The Cordillera Blanca traverses the district, some of the highest peaks of the district are Wallqan and Yanarahu. Other mountains are listed below, The people in the district are mainly indigenous citizens of Quechua descent, Quechua is the language which the majority of the population learnt to speak in childhood,26. 42% of the residents started speaking using the Spanish language. Alliqucha Ancash Quechua Lawriqucha Paryaqucha Pataqucha Runtuqucha Waqramarka Yanaqucha Yanarahu Lake
6.
Cordillera Blanca
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The Cordillera Blanca is a mountain range in Peru which is part of the larger Andes range and extends for 200 kilometres between 8°08 and 9°58S and 77°00 and 77°52W, in NW direction. It includes several peaks over 6,000 metres high and 722 individual glaciers, the highest mountain in Peru, Huascarán of 6,768 metres, is located here. The Cordillera Blanca lies entirely inside the region of Ancash, Huascarán National Park, established in 1975, encompasses almost the entire range of the Cordillera Blanca. The area of permanent ice cover shrank by about a third between the 1970s and 2006, the Cordillera Blanca is the most extensive tropical ice-covered mountain range in the world and has the major ice concentration in Peru. It is part of the Cordillera Occidental, and trends in a direction for 200 km between 8°08 and 9°58S of latitude and 77°00 and 77°52 W of longitude. It has five of the most spectacular peaks above 6,000 m in the Peruvian Andes, the Cordillera Blanca also acts as a continental divide, Santa River on the west drains into the Pacific Ocean whereas Marañón River on the east drains into the Atlantic Ocean. A total of 722 individual glaciers are recognized in this range. Most of these glaciers are on the side of the ranges. Most of the glaciers,91 percent of the total, are classified as mountain glaciers, as with all Andean glaciers, the Cordillera Blanca has witnessed a major retreat of its during the 20th century due to global climate change. Studies have shown a retreat of over 15% since the 1970s, other notable lakes are Laguna 69, Lake Allicocha, Lake Auquiscocha, Lake Palcacocha, Lake Querococha and Lake Conococha. There are several 6,000 m peaks in the Cordillera Blanca with a 400 m topographic prominence, and several other peaks over 5,500 m. Huascarán Sur, the highest peak, has two commonly quoted heights -6,746 m from the Peruvian National Geographic Institute map, a selection of some of the highest peaks of the Cordillera Blanca is listed below. Among the most important in the area are, Monterrey and Chancos, both are at 7 and 27 km respectively from the regional capital, Huaraz. Dry season extends from May to September, being June and July the months with less rain, the data on the chart correspond to the village of Musho, located at the foot of Huascarán. Flora and fauna are adapted to climate and elevational range of mountainous areas, almost all the extension of the Cordillera Blanca is protected by Huascarán National Park. The main types of plant communities present in the area are, plants have adapted to the intense solar radiation, low temperatures and water availability. Most plant species have pubescent leaves, an adaptation which protects the plants from water loss for the solar radiation. Examples of typical vegetation of this area are, Polylepis racemosa, Escallonia resinosa, Alnus acuminata, Senna birostris, Vallea stipularis, vaccinium floribundum, Puya raimondii, Calamagrostis vicunarum, Festuca dolichophylla, Jarava ichu, Azorella spp
7.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
8.
Archaeological sites in Peru
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Archaeological sites in Peru are numerous and diverse, representing different aspects including temples and fortresses of the various cultures of ancient Peru, such as the Moche and Nazca. The sites vary in importance from small local sites to UNESCO World Heritage sites of global importance and their nature and complexity of the sites vary from small single-featured sites such as pyramids to entire cities, such as Chan Chan and Machu Picchu. Preservation and investigation of sites are controlled mainly by the National Institute for Culture. The lack of funding to protect sites and enforce existing laws, results in large scale looting, the following is an alphabetical list of archaeological sites in Peru, it lists the main archaeological sites of touristic importance as published by the Ministry of Foreign Commerce and Tourism. Cultural periods of Peru List of pre-Columbian cultures National Institute for Culture Archaeological sites in Peru Peruvian Archaeology News
9.
Acaray
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Radio carbon dating has established it was built about 900-200BC and abandoned 1000–1470AD. Surrounding the hilltop fortress are lower-lying areas of occupation and extensive cemeteries, attention was called to the site early on by the German archaeologist Hans Horkheimer, who wrote about Acaray in 1962 in the Peruvian magazine, Caretas, published in Lima. Horkheimer noted the abundance of rolled river cobbles on the surface of the site, during the 1970s interest in Acaray increased, and the first work by archaeologists was initiated at the fortress. She led a team that surveyed the Huaura Valley and excavated at several sites and she estimated that it was built about 900-200BC and abandoned 1000–1470AD. According to Brown Vega, Acaray early megalithic wall constructions may be similar to those of Chankillo from the same period, war and social life in prehispanic Perú, ritual, defense, and communities at the Fortress of Acaray, Huaura Valley. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, conflict in the early horizon and late intermediate period, new dates from the fortress of Acaray, Huaura valley, Perú. 30, 38B Ruiz Estrada, Arturo, Torero, M. Domingo, Acaray, huacho, Perú, Comite de Educacion de la Cooperative de Ahorro y Credito San Bartolome
10.
Asana, Peru
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Asana is an archaeological site by the Asana River, a tributary of the Osmore River, in the south-central Andes of southern Peru. The site is situated at an elevation of 3,430 metres, with land use documented from 3, 000–4,800 metres. Asana was occupied over the course of 8,000 years, though the inhabitants were initially mobile foragers, Asana is located on the north bank of the Asana River in the flat fertile valley along 11,270 feet of the river. The geological and geomorphological features are factors for its unique setting. An archaeological study of the Asana river valley was conducted 1986–89, the area studied was along a river length of about 20 kilometres, between Tumilaca Molina and Cueva Quellaveco and from the origin of the minor tributary of the river Charoque to Tala village. The valley floors and hill slopes, covering an area of 4.8 square kilometres, led to the discovery of the Asana site and also six rock shelters. One of the shelters, Qusquri, was discovered on the left bank of the river valley at an elevation of 3,000 metres, in a series of river terraces at an elevation range of 3. Human habitation has been traced to 10,500 BP at Asana, excavations have revealed six stratigraphic zones from 10,500 BP to 3500 BP, before the site became abandoned in 3500 BP. During the settlement period, guanaco and taruka were the local wild herbivores, over the centuries, the guanaco were domesticated. The Asana at the elevation had formed the base camp of the earliest settlers who were hunter gatherers, hunting guanaco. Up to 5000 BP, settlement became more permanent, the gradual change from forager over to the pastoral society was recorded between 4800 and 4400 BP. By Middle Halocene age, guanacos had been domesticated, if these limits increased then they would establish new camps. Human settlement abruptly ended at Asana, lithic material found at the site attests to the shifting of camps and supports links existing between the settlements of the lower and upper elevations. Both residential and non-residential structures were found and indicated a type of growth. Structure were dated between 5500–3600 BP, a ceremonial structure was found in an open air pre-ceramic site during excavations conducted from 1989–90. It is inferred that activities occurred at the site during a 250–500-year period. A feature identified as a ground, dated to 4800 BP, was thought to be used for feasts. Aldenderfer, Mark S. Montane Foragers, Asana and the South-Central Andean Archaic, Iowa City, University of Iowa Press
11.
Asiru Phat'jata
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Asiru Phatjata is a hill in Peru, situated at a height of about 3,895 metres. It is located in the Puno Region, Yunguyo Province, Yunguyo District, Asiru Phatjata lies near Lake Titicaca at the road which connects Yunguyo and Puno, south of the village Asiru Phatjata and north of the mountain Qhapiya. On the hill there is an archaeological area and it was declared a National Cultural Heritage of Peru by the National Institute of Culture
12.
Cahuachi
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Cahuachi, in Peru, was a major ceremonial center of the Nazca culture, based from 1 AD to about 500 AD in the coastal area of the Central Andes. It overlooked some of the Nazca lines, the Italian archaeologist Giuseppe Orefici has been excavating at the site for the past few decades. The site contains over 40 mounds topped with adobe structures, the past several years long time researcher Omar Faizi has conducted in depth study of the Nazca lines with startling conclusions to his study. Scholars once thought the site was the capital of the Nazca state but have determined that the permanent population was quite small and they believe that it was a pilgrimage center, whose population increased greatly in relation to major ceremonial events. New research has suggested that 40 of the mounds were natural hills modified to appear as artificial constructions, looting is the greatest problem facing the site today. Most of the burial sites surrounding Cahuachi were not known until recently and are tempting targets for looters, the Cahuachi site is located near the south coast of Peru, and found in the Nazca Valley. Within the Nazca Valley is the Río Grande de Nazca drainage system and is where the Nasca culture developed, the area is ecologically classified as “pre-mountain desert formation. Yunga refers to the Quechua Yungas meaning warm valley, the site itself can be found on the southern side of the Nazca River, one of ten major tributaries that form the Río Grande de Nazca drainage system. The Nazca Valley Grande drainage area is dry in the summer. Precipitation varies between none and 125 mm, the Río Grande regions soils are available for irrigation agriculture with limitations. Cahuachi is located off of the bottom of the treeless hills and terraces beneath Pampa de Atarco. It is on these hills that formed the core majority of artificial constructions at Cahuachi. Dr. Frabee was the first to acknowledge and excavate the site of Cahuachi in the Nazca region in 1922. The following researchers have studied and interpreted the site, Kroeber, Tello, Doering, Strong. Among the most extensive research done at Cahuachi was the conducted by William Strong. Strong was one of the archaeologists who took a broad approach to the site, contextualizing it within Nasca society. He set out to find evidence that would resolve the gap between Paracas and Nasca styles in the region. He also did settlement pattern studies in order to out the kinds of activities that went on at Cahuachi
13.
Caral
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This article is about the archaeological site. Caral is the most ancient city of the Americas and a site of the Norte Chico civilization. Caral was inhabited roughly between the 26th and 20th centuries BCE, enclosing an area of more than 60 hectares. Caral was described by its excavators as the oldest urban center in the Americas, accommodating more than 3000 inhabitants, it is the best studied and one of the largest Norte Chico sites known. Ruth Shady further explored the 4, 000- to 4, 600-year-old city of temples in the Peruvian desert, with its complex of temples. The urban complex is spread out over 150 acres and contains plazas, Caral was a thriving metropolis at roughly the same time that Egypts great pyramids were being built. It is believed that Caral may answer questions about the origins of the Andean civilizations, among the artefacts found at Caral are a knotted textile piece that the excavators have labeled a quipu. Evidence has emerged that the quipu may also have recorded logographic information in the way writing does. Gary Urton has suggested that the quipus used a system which could record phonological or logographic data. The main temple complex is 150 meters long,110 meters wide and 28 meters high, the date of its construction is unknown. No trace of warfare has been found at Caral, no battlements, no weapons, ruth Shadys findings suggest it was a gentle society, built on commerce and pleasure. In one of the temples, they uncovered 32 flutes made of condor and pelican bones and 37 cornetts of deer, one find revealed the remains of a baby, wrapped and buried with a necklace made of stone beads. Caral spawns 19 other temple complexes scattered across the 35 square miles area of the Supe Valley, the find of the quipu indicates that the later Inca Empire preserved some cultural continuity from the Caral civilization. The date of 2627 BCE is based on carbon dating reed and these bags were used to carry the stones that were used for the construction of the temples. The material is an excellent candidate for dating, thus allowing for a high precision, the site may date even earlier as samples from the oldest parts of the excavation have yet to be dated. The town had a population of approximately 3000 people, however, there are 19 other sites in the area, allowing for a possible total population of 20,000 people for the Supe Valley. All of these sites in the Supe valley share similarities with Caral and they had small platforms or stone circles. In 2000, Marco Machacuay and his colleague, Rocío Aramburú and this image, known as a geoglyph, is located on the desert floor just west of the main site at Caral
14.
Chan Chan
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Chan Chan, the largest city of the pre-Columbian era in South America, is now an archaeological site in La Libertad Region 5 kilometres west of Trujillo, Peru. Chan Chan is located in the mouth of the Moche Valley and was the capital of the empire of the Chimor from 900 to 1470. Chimor, a conquest state, developed from the Chimú culture which established itself along the Peruvian coast around 1400 AD, in the Chimú tongue, Quingnam, Chan Chan means Sun Sun, it was named for its sunny climate which is cooled year round by a southerly breeze. Chan Chan is in a particularly arid section of the desert of northern Peru. Due to the lack of rain in this area, the source of water for Chan Chan is in the form of rivers carrying surface runoff from the Andes. This runoff allows for control of land and water through irrigation systems, the city of Chan Chan spanned 20 km² and had a dense urban center of 6 km² which contained extravagant ciudadelas. Ciudadelas were large architectural masterpieces which housed plazas, storerooms, the splendor of these ciudadelas suggests their association with the royal class. Housing for the classes of Chan Chans hierarchical society are known as small. Because the lower classes were often artisans whose role in the empire was to produce crafts, many of these SIARs were used as workshops. In this figure, it can be seen that Verlarde, Laberinto, and Bandelier form the border of Chan Chan while Uhle, Chaiguac, Tschudi. The location chosen for the coordinates is in the center of these cities, the name is probabilly derived from the Quingnam Jiang or Chang which means Sun, from which Chan-Chan would be literally, Sun-Sun. It is hypothesized that its meaning would be, Great sun, resplendent Sun. Another theory says that the name would derive from the term, the Shi voice translates as Moon and An as house, meaning House of the Moon, making known that the Moon was the main deity. Chan Chan is believed to have been constructed around 850 AD by the Chimú and it was the Chimor empire capital city with an estimated population of 40, 000-60,000 people. After the Inca conquered the Chimú around 1470 AD, Chan Chan fell into decline, in 1535 AD, Francisco Pizarro founded the Spanish city of Trujillo which pushed Chan Chan further into the shadows. While no longer a capital city, Chan Chan was still well known for its great riches and was consequently looted by the Spaniards. An indication of the great Chimú wealth is seen in a sixteenth century list of items looted from a tomb in Chan Chan. In 1969, Michael Moseley and Carol J. Mackey began excavations of Chan Chan, the plan was approved by the Peruvian Government
15.
Chanquillo
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Chankillo is an ancient monumental complex in the Peruvian coastal desert, found in the Casma-Sechin basin in the Ancash Department of Peru. The ruins include the hilltop Chankillo fort, the nearby Thirteen Towers solar observatory, the Thirteen Towers have been interpreted as an astronomical observatory built in the 4th century BC. The culture that produced Chankillo is called the Casma/Sechin culture or the Sechin Complex, the site covers about four square kilometres and has been interpreted as a fortified temple. The regularly-spaced thirteen towers of Chankillo were constructed atop the ridge of a low hill running near north to south and are, to the east and west investigators designated two possible observation points. From these vantages, the 300m long spread of the towers along the horizon corresponds very closely to the rising and setting positions of the Sun over the year, the Thirteen Towers of Chankillo could be the earliest known observatory in the Americas. Inhabitants of Chankillo would have been able to determine an accurate date, acaray List of archaeoastronomical sites by country 3D reconstruction of the site Chankillo, Peru, Ancient Solar Observatory
16.
Chauchilla Cemetery
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Chauchilla Cemetery is a cemetery that contains prehispanic mummified human remains and archeological artifacts, located 30 kilometres south of the city of Nazca in Peru. The cemetery was discovered in the 1920s, but had not been used since the 9th century AD, the cemetery includes many important burials over a period of 600 to 700 years. The start of the interments was in about 200 AD and it is important as a source of archaeology to Nazca culture. The cemetery has been plundered by huaqueros who have left human bones. Similar local cemeteries have been damaged to a greater extent, the site has been protected by Peruvian law since 1997 and tourists pay around seven U. S. dollars to take the two-hour tour of this ancient necropolis. The site is by the Poroma riverbed and can be accessed via a road from the Panamerican Highway. In 1997, the majority of the bones and plundered pottery were restored to the tombs. The bodies are so remarkably preserved due mainly to the dry climate in the Peruvian Desert, the bodies were clothed in embroidered cotton and then painted with a resin and kept in purpose-built tombs made from mud bricks. The resin is thought to have kept out insects and slowed bacteria trying to feed on the bodies, the nearby site of Estaquería may provide clues to the remarkable preservation of the numerous bodies in these cemeteries. At that site, archeologists found wooden pillars initially thought to have used for astronomical sightings. However, it is now believed that the posts were used to dry bodies in a mummification process and this may account for the high degree of preservation seen in thousand-year-old bodies which still have hair and the remains of soft tissue, such as skin. Chauchilla Cemetery is a prominent setting in Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, though not called by name in the film, the cemetery is explicitly identified in the screenplay, promotional materials, and merchandise. This fictionalized version of the features a number of embellishments, including mask-wearing Nazcan guards. The cemetery is depicted as being built on a promontory overlooking the Nazca Valley, offering the characters a view of the famous Nazca Lines
17.
Choquequirao
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Choquequirao, Chuqi Kiraw or Chuqikiraw is an Incan site in south Peru, similar in structure and architecture to Machu Picchu. The ruins are buildings and terraces at levels above and below Sunchu Pata, the hilltop was anciently leveled and ringed with stones to create a 30 by 50 m platform. Choquequirao at an elevation of 3,050 metres ) is in the spurs of the Vilcabamba mountain range in the Santa Teresa district, the complex is 1,800 hectares, of which 30–40% is excavated. The site overlooks the Apurimac River canyon which has an elevation of 1,450 metres, the site is reached by a two-day hike from outside Cusco. Choquequirao has topped in the prestigious Lonely Planets Best in Travel 2017 Top Regions list, Choquequirao is a 15th and 16th century settlement associated with the Incan Empire, or more correctly Tahuantinsuyo. The site had two major growth stages and this could be explained if Pachacuti founded Choquequirao and his son, Tupac Inca Yupanqui, remodeled and extended it after becoming the Sapa Inca. Choquequirao is located in the considered to be Pachacuti’s estate. Other sites in this area are Sayhuite, Machu Picchu, Chachabamba, Choquesuysuy and Guamanmarca, the architectural style of several important features appears to be of Chachapoya design, suggesting that Chachapoya workers were probably involved in the construction. This suggests that Tupaq Inka probably ordered the construction, colonial documents also suggest that Tupac Inca ruled Choquequirao since his great grandson, Tupa Sayri, claimed ownership of the site and neighboring lands during Spanish colonization. It was one of the last bastions of resistance and refuge of the Son of the Sun, Manco Inca Yupanqui, spreading over 700 meters, the ceremonial area drops as much as 65 meters from the elevated areas to the main square. The city also played an important role as a link between the Amazon Jungle and the city of Cusco, Choquequirao is situated at an elevation of 3,000 m above sea level on a southwest-facing spur of a glaciated peak above the Apurimac River. The region is characterized by mountain topography and covered with Amazonian flora and it is 98 km west of Cusco, in the Vilcabamba range. Architecturally it is similar to Machu Picchu, also there is a conglomeration of common buildings clustered away from the plaza. Excavations and surface items suggest they were used for workshops. Most buildings are well-preserved and well-restored, restoration continues, the terrain around the site was greatly modified. The central area of the site was leveled artificially and the hillsides were terraced to allow cultivation. The typical Inca terraces form the largest constructions on site, many of the ceremonial structures are associated with water. There are two unusual temple waka sites that lie several hundred meters lower than the two plazas and these are carefully crafted step terraces down a steep slope are designed around water
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Coricancha
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Coricancha, Korikancha, Qurikancha, or Quri Kancha was the most important temple in the Inca Empire. Originally named Inti Kancha or Inti Wasi, it was dedicated to Inti, mostly destroyed after the 16th century war with the Spanish conquistadors much of its stonework forms the foundation of the Santo Domingo church and convent. Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui rebuilt Cusco and the House of the Sun, enriching it with more oracles and edifices and he provided vases of gold and silver for the Mama-cunas, nuns, to use in the veneration services. Finally, he took the bodies of the seven deceased Incas, the walls were once covered in sheets of solid gold, and its adjacent courtyard was filled with golden statues. Spanish reports tell of its opulence that was fabulous beyond belief, when the Spanish required the Inca to raise a ransom in gold for the life of the leader Atahualpa, most of the gold was collected from Coricancha. The Spanish colonists built the Church of Santo Domingo on the site, demolishing the temple, construction took most of a century. This is one of sites where the Spanish incorporated Inca stonework into the structure of a colonial building. Major earthquakes severely damaged the church, but the Inca stone walls, built out of huge, tightly-interlocking blocks of stone, nearby is an underground archaeological museum, which contains numerous interesting pieces, including mummies, textiles, and sacred idols from the site. The site now includes the Church and Convent of Santo Domingo. Iperu, tourist information and assistance Tourism in Peru Media related to Qurikancha at Wikimedia Commons
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Cumbe Mayo
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Cumbe Mayo is at an average altitude of 3,500 meters above sea level and 20 kilometers southwest from Cajamarca. Built by an advanced pre-Inca society around 1500 B. C. E, the Cumbe Mayo and it lies in the Archaeological Complex of Cumbemayo, a place where the highest hydraulic technology of ancient Peruvian communities and the impact of time upon nature are wonderfully combined. The canals at Cumbe Mayo are thought to be at least 3,000 years old, archeologists aren’t exactly sure why they were built, but it’s thought that the canals were meant to slow down and regulate the movement of water. They were likely constructed using obsidian hammers, one of the main attractions of Cumbemayo, or Narrow River in Cajamarca Quechua, is the aqueduct. Heading towards the one can observe some stairways sculpted in stone. Also prominent is the Sanctuary a huge cliff resembling a head, whose mouth would be a grotto. The caves and shelters of the area evidence other stone engravings, the aqueduct winds down the hills toward the city of Cajamarca, stretching out over about five miles in length. The canals brought water from the grounds to the valleys below. A number of petroglyphs are also scattered around the aqueduct and in surrounding caves and these symbols provide additional insight into the people who constructed the canals. Built by an advanced pre-Inca society around 1500 B. C. E, the Cumbe Mayo and it carefully follows the grade of the land, draining water from the hills’ melting snow, to the arid cities in the valleys below. As water was a scarcity, it was worshipped by the Cajamarca people thousands of years ago, towering above the Cumbe Mayo, are Los Frailones, the Stone Monks. Los Frailones are massive volcanic pillars, some stretching as high as 60 feet, the stone forests suddenly appear from the landscape, starkly contrasting the flat, grass-covered plains around Cajamarca. The erosive forces of wind and rain likely carved out the pillars, many of the pillars, carved by wind and rain have taken on new shapes, resembling hands and even animals, and allowing the mind to wander in the pristine Peruvian setting. Their impressive and rare geological formations, where some will identify the shapes of monks forming part of procession, for this reason, this stone forest located in Cumbemayo is known as Los Frailones
Peru
