1.
Cube 2: Hypercube
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It is the second film in the Cube film series, and a sequel to Cube. The film starts with a woman named Becky, shown to be trapped in the Cube. She enters another room, but unknown to her, the room has reversed gravity, as she is pulled up and they come across Colonel Thomas Maguire, who says that they have to solve the code in order to leave the mysterious place. Just as he finishes, a wall begins to close in on the group, the group escapes while Thomas stays behind, while Kate and Simon watch in horror as Thomas is disintegrated by the wall. Kate notices the numbers 60659 everywhere they go, the group soon realizes they are connected to Izon, a defense contractor. While in conversation, Mrs. Paley opens a panel to reveal her being killed by Simon, Jerry thinks that it is a parallel universe, while Max and Julia think it is an optical illusion. Later, while the group is sleeping, Simon realizes that he is in the tesseract to look for Becky, a missing Izon worker, meanwhile, Sasha hears a noise and awakens everyone, due to her acute hearing. The group finds a square in the middle of the room. The group flees into another room, but Jerry is injured by the tesseract, trying to call Jerry, the rest of the group watches as Jerry is shredded by the tesseract, which grows rapidly. Sasha and Kate are separated from the group, as a result, Simon starts to suspect that Mrs. Paley is an undercover spy, so he gags and ties her up, but crystal beams start protruding from the walls. Simon tries to save Mrs. Paley, but when he sees that there isnt enough time, as the clinging Mrs. Paley refuses to release him, Max and Julia, disturbed that Simon killed Mrs. Paley, leave and abandon him. Julia tells Max she must be dreaming, and then kisses him, Simon, alone and hungry, goes insane. He encounters a parallel Jerry and the missing Becky, killing both of them, meanwhile, Kate finds grisly alternate realities of her death in other rooms, and is horrified. Sasha tells Kate that time and space are distorted where they are, Kate, however, still believes that there is a way out. Kate then finds Simon and stabs him in the eye after he grabs her in another room, as Simon appears behind Alex, old and blind in one eye, proving Alexs space-time theory. Alex claims that they are all dead, which causes Simon to snap her neck, Kate finds that the tesseract is shrinking, and kills Simon with the knife. The hypercube starts to wear away, and Kate opens a panel in the bottom, at 6,06,59, she jumps in just when the Hypercube implodes. Kate wakes up in the hands of Izon authorities in an unknown factory and she gives them the necklace, but because of their confidentiality, she is shot in the head and killed by one of the Izon operatives
2.
Connection Machine
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Danny Hillis and Sheryl Handler founded Thinking Machines Corporation in Waltham, Massachusetts in 1983, moving in 1984 to Cambridge, MA. The CM-1, depending on the configuration, has as many as 65,536 individual processors, each extremely simple, CM-1 and its successor CM-2 take the form of a cube 1.5 meters on a side, divided equally into eight smaller cubes. Each subcube contains 16 printed circuit boards and a main processor called a sequencer, each circuit board contains 32 chips. Each chip contains a router,16 processors, and 16 RAMs, the CM-1 as a whole has a 20-dimensional hypercube-based routing network, a main RAM, and an input-output processor. Each router contains 5 buffers to store the data being transmitted when a clear channel isnt available, the engineers had originally calculated that 7 buffers per chip would be needed, but this made the chip slightly too large too build. Nobel Prize winning physicist Richard Feynman had previously calculated that 5 buffers would be enough and they resubmitted the design of the chip with only 5 buffers, and when they put the machine together, it worked fine. Each chip is connected to a device called a nexus. The CM-1 uses Feynmans algorithm for computing logarithms that he had developed at Los Alamos National Laboratory for the Manhattan Project and it is well suited to the CM-1, using as it did, only shifting and adding, with a small table shared by all the processors. Feynman also discovered that the CM-1 would compute the Feynman diagrams for quantum chromodynamics calculations faster than a special purpose machine developed at Caltech. To improve its commercial viability, TMC launched the CM-2 in 1987, adding Weitek 3132 floating point numeric coprocessors, thirty-two of the original one-bit processors shared each numeric processor. The CM-2 can be configured with up to 512 MB of RAM, two later variants of the CM-2 were also produced, the smaller CM-2a with either 4096 or 8192 single-bit processors, and the faster CM-200. Other early languages included Karl Sims IK and Cliff Lassers URDU, much system utility software for the CM-1/2 was written in *Lisp. Many applications for the CM-2, however, were written in C*, to make programming easier, it was made to simulate a SIMD design. The later CM-5E replaces the SPARC processors with faster SuperSPARCs, the CM-5 was the second-fastest system in the November 1993 TOP500 list, running 1024 cores with Rpeak of 131.0 GFLOPS/s. Connection Machines were noted for their visual design. The CM-1 and CM-2 design teams were led by Tamiko Thiel, by default, when a processor is executing an instruction, its LED is on. In a SIMD program, the goal is to have as many processors as possible working the program at the same time – indicated by having all LEDs being steady on. Those unfamiliar with the use of the LEDs wanted to see the LEDs blink – or even spell out messages to visitors, the result is that finished programs often have superfluous operations to blink the LEDs
3.
Tesseract
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In geometry, the tesseract is the four-dimensional analog of the cube, the tesseract is to the cube as the cube is to the square. Just as the surface of the consists of six square faces. The tesseract is one of the six convex regular 4-polytopes, the tesseract is also called an 8-cell, C8, octachoron, octahedroid, cubic prism, and tetracube. It is the four-dimensional hypercube, or 4-cube as a part of the family of hypercubes or measure polytopes. In this publication, as well as some of Hintons later work, the tesseract can be constructed in a number of ways. As a regular polytope with three cubes folded together around every edge, it has Schläfli symbol with hyperoctahedral symmetry of order 384, constructed as a 4D hyperprism made of two parallel cubes, it can be named as a composite Schläfli symbol ×, with symmetry order 96. As a 4-4 duoprism, a Cartesian product of two squares, it can be named by a composite Schläfli symbol ×, with symmetry order 64, as an orthotope it can be represented by composite Schläfli symbol × × × or 4, with symmetry order 16. Since each vertex of a tesseract is adjacent to four edges, the dual polytope of the tesseract is called the hexadecachoron, or 16-cell, with Schläfli symbol. The standard tesseract in Euclidean 4-space is given as the hull of the points. That is, it consists of the points, A tesseract is bounded by eight hyperplanes, each pair of non-parallel hyperplanes intersects to form 24 square faces in a tesseract. Three cubes and three squares intersect at each edge, there are four cubes, six squares, and four edges meeting at every vertex. All in all, it consists of 8 cubes,24 squares,32 edges, the construction of a hypercube can be imagined the following way, 1-dimensional, Two points A and B can be connected to a line, giving a new line segment AB. 2-dimensional, Two parallel line segments AB and CD can be connected to become a square, 3-dimensional, Two parallel squares ABCD and EFGH can be connected to become a cube, with the corners marked as ABCDEFGH. 4-dimensional, Two parallel cubes ABCDEFGH and IJKLMNOP can be connected to become a hypercube and it is possible to project tesseracts into three- or two-dimensional spaces, as projecting a cube is possible on a two-dimensional space. Projections on the 2D-plane become more instructive by rearranging the positions of the projected vertices, the scheme is similar to the construction of a cube from two squares, juxtapose two copies of the lower-dimensional cube and connect the corresponding vertices. Each edge of a tesseract is of the same length, the regular complex polytope 42, in C2 has a real representation as a tesseract or 4-4 duoprism in 4-dimensional space. 42 has 16 vertices, and 8 4-edges and its symmetry is 42, order 32. It also has a lower construction, or 4×4, with symmetry 44
4.
Perspective (graphical)
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Perspective in the graphic arts is an approximate representation, on a flat surface, of an image as it is seen by the eye. If viewed from the spot as the windowpane was painted. Each painted object in the scene is thus a flat, scaled down version of the object on the side of the window. All perspective drawings assume the viewer is a distance away from the drawing. Objects are scaled relative to that viewer, an object is often not scaled evenly, a circle often appears as an ellipse and a square can appear as a trapezoid. This distortion is referred to as foreshortening, Perspective drawings have a horizon line, which is often implied. This line, directly opposite the viewers eye, represents objects infinitely far away and they have shrunk, in the distance, to the infinitesimal thickness of a line. It is analogous to the Earths horizon, any perspective representation of a scene that includes parallel lines has one or more vanishing points in a perspective drawing. A one-point perspective drawing means that the drawing has a vanishing point, usually directly opposite the viewers eye. All lines parallel with the line of sight recede to the horizon towards this vanishing point. This is the standard receding railroad tracks phenomenon, a two-point drawing would have lines parallel to two different angles. Any number of vanishing points are possible in a drawing, one for each set of lines that are at an angle relative to the plane of the drawing. Perspectives consisting of parallel lines are observed most often when drawing architecture. In contrast, natural scenes often do not have any sets of parallel lines, the only method to indicate the relative position of elements in the composition was by overlapping, of which much use is made in works like the Parthenon Marbles. Chinese artists made use of perspective from the first or second century until the 18th century. It is not certain how they came to use the technique, some authorities suggest that the Chinese acquired the technique from India, oblique projection is also seen in Japanese art, such as in the Ukiyo-e paintings of Torii Kiyonaga. This was detailed within Aristotles Poetics as skenographia, using flat panels on a stage to give the illusion of depth, the philosophers Anaxagoras and Democritus worked out geometric theories of perspective for use with skenographia. Alcibiades had paintings in his house designed using skenographia, so this art was not confined merely to the stage, Euclids Optics introduced a mathematical theory of perspective, but there is some debate over the extent to which Euclids perspective coincides with the modern mathematical definition
5.
Cube
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In geometry, a cube is a three-dimensional solid object bounded by six square faces, facets or sides, with three meeting at each vertex. The cube is the only regular hexahedron and is one of the five Platonic solids and it has 6 faces,12 edges, and 8 vertices. The cube is also a square parallelepiped, an equilateral cuboid and it is a regular square prism in three orientations, and a trigonal trapezohedron in four orientations. The cube is dual to the octahedron and it has cubical or octahedral symmetry. The cube has four special orthogonal projections, centered, on a vertex, edges, face, the first and third correspond to the A2 and B2 Coxeter planes. The cube can also be represented as a tiling. This projection is conformal, preserving angles but not areas or lengths, straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane. In analytic geometry, a surface with center and edge length of 2a is the locus of all points such that max = a. For a cube of length a, As the volume of a cube is the third power of its sides a × a × a, third powers are called cubes, by analogy with squares. A cube has the largest volume among cuboids with a surface area. Also, a cube has the largest volume among cuboids with the same linear size. They were unable to solve this problem, and in 1837 Pierre Wantzel proved it to be impossible because the root of 2 is not a constructible number. The cube has three uniform colorings, named by the colors of the faces around each vertex,111,112,123. The cube has three classes of symmetry, which can be represented by coloring the faces. The highest octahedral symmetry Oh has all the faces the same color, the dihedral symmetry D4h comes from the cube being a prism, with all four sides being the same color. The lowest symmetry D2h is also a symmetry, with sides alternating colors. Each symmetry form has a different Wythoff symbol, a cube has eleven nets, that is, there are eleven ways to flatten a hollow cube by cutting seven edges. To color the cube so that no two adjacent faces have the color, one would need at least three colors
6.
Geometry
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Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer, Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a practical way for dealing with lengths, areas, and volumes. Geometry began to see elements of mathematical science emerging in the West as early as the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put into a form by Euclid, whose treatment, Euclids Elements. Geometry arose independently in India, with texts providing rules for geometric constructions appearing as early as the 3rd century BC, islamic scientists preserved Greek ideas and expanded on them during the Middle Ages. By the early 17th century, geometry had been put on a solid footing by mathematicians such as René Descartes. Since then, and into modern times, geometry has expanded into non-Euclidean geometry and manifolds, while geometry has evolved significantly throughout the years, there are some general concepts that are more or less fundamental to geometry. These include the concepts of points, lines, planes, surfaces, angles, contemporary geometry has many subfields, Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense. The mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, Euclidean geometry also has applications in computer science, crystallography, and various branches of modern mathematics. Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to problems in geometry. It has applications in physics, including in general relativity, topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis. It has close connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis, algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of multivariate polynomials and other algebraic techniques. It has applications in areas, including cryptography and string theory. Discrete geometry is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple objects, such as points. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics, Geometry has applications to many fields, including art, architecture, physics, as well as to other branches of mathematics. The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia, the earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus and Moscow Papyrus, the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322. For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, later clay tablets demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiters position and motion within time-velocity space
7.
N-dimensional space
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In physics and mathematics, the dimension of a mathematical space is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any point within it. Thus a line has a dimension of one only one coordinate is needed to specify a point on it – for example. The inside of a cube, a cylinder or a sphere is three-dimensional because three coordinates are needed to locate a point within these spaces, in classical mechanics, space and time are different categories and refer to absolute space and time. That conception of the world is a space but not the one that was found necessary to describe electromagnetism. The four dimensions of spacetime consist of events that are not absolutely defined spatially and temporally, Minkowski space first approximates the universe without gravity, the pseudo-Riemannian manifolds of general relativity describe spacetime with matter and gravity. Ten dimensions are used to string theory, and the state-space of quantum mechanics is an infinite-dimensional function space. The concept of dimension is not restricted to physical objects, high-dimensional spaces frequently occur in mathematics and the sciences. They may be parameter spaces or configuration spaces such as in Lagrangian or Hamiltonian mechanics, in mathematics, the dimension of an object is an intrinsic property independent of the space in which the object is embedded. This intrinsic notion of dimension is one of the ways the mathematical notion of dimension differs from its common usages. The dimension of Euclidean n-space En is n, when trying to generalize to other types of spaces, one is faced with the question what makes En n-dimensional. One answer is that to cover a ball in En by small balls of radius ε. This observation leads to the definition of the Minkowski dimension and its more sophisticated variant, the Hausdorff dimension, for example, the boundary of a ball in En looks locally like En-1 and this leads to the notion of the inductive dimension. While these notions agree on En, they turn out to be different when one looks at more general spaces, a tesseract is an example of a four-dimensional object. The rest of this section some of the more important mathematical definitions of the dimensions. A complex number has a real part x and an imaginary part y, a single complex coordinate system may be applied to an object having two real dimensions. For example, an ordinary two-dimensional spherical surface, when given a complex metric, complex dimensions appear in the study of complex manifolds and algebraic varieties. The dimension of a space is the number of vectors in any basis for the space. This notion of dimension is referred to as the Hamel dimension or algebraic dimension to distinguish it from other notions of dimension
8.
Square
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In geometry, a square is a regular quadrilateral, which means that it has four equal sides and four equal angles. It can also be defined as a rectangle in which two adjacent sides have equal length, a square with vertices ABCD would be denoted ◻ ABCD. e. A rhombus with equal diagonals a convex quadrilateral with sides a, b, c, d whose area is A =12 =12. Opposite sides of a square are both parallel and equal in length, all four angles of a square are equal. All four sides of a square are equal, the diagonals of a square are equal. The square is the n=2 case of the families of n-hypercubes and n-orthoplexes, a truncated square, t, is an octagon. An alternated square, h, is a digon, the perimeter of a square whose four sides have length ℓ is P =4 ℓ and the area A is A = ℓ2. In classical times, the power was described in terms of the area of a square. This led to the use of the square to mean raising to the second power. The area can also be calculated using the diagonal d according to A = d 22. In terms of the circumradius R, the area of a square is A =2 R2, since the area of the circle is π R2, in terms of the inradius r, the area of the square is A =4 r 2. Because it is a polygon, a square is the quadrilateral of least perimeter enclosing a given area. Dually, a square is the quadrilateral containing the largest area within a given perimeter. Indeed, if A and P are the area and perimeter enclosed by a quadrilateral, then the isoperimetric inequality holds,16 A ≤ P2 with equality if. The diagonals of a square are 2 times the length of a side of the square and this value, known as the square root of 2 or Pythagoras constant, was the first number proven to be irrational. A square can also be defined as a parallelogram with equal diagonals that bisect the angles, if a figure is both a rectangle and a rhombus, then it is a square. If a circle is circumscribed around a square, the area of the circle is π /2 times the area of the square, if a circle is inscribed in the square, the area of the circle is π /4 times the area of the square. A square has an area than any other quadrilateral with the same perimeter
9.
Compact space
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In mathematics, and more specifically in general topology, compactness is a property that generalizes the notion of a subset of Euclidean space being closed and bounded. Examples include a closed interval, a rectangle, or a set of points. This notion is defined for general topological spaces than Euclidean space in various ways. One such generalization is that a space is compact if any infinite sequence of points sampled from the space must frequently get arbitrarily close to some point of the space. An equivalent definition is that every sequence of points must have an infinite subsequence that converges to some point of the space, the Heine-Borel theorem states that a subset of Euclidean space is compact in this sequential sense if and only if it is closed and bounded. Thus, if one chooses a number of points in the closed unit interval some of those points must get arbitrarily close to some real number in that space. For instance, some of the numbers 1/2, 4/5, 1/3, 5/6, 1/4, 6/7, the same set of points would not accumulate to any point of the open unit interval, so the open unit interval is not compact. Euclidean space itself is not compact since it is not bounded, in particular, the sequence of points 0, 1, 2, 3, … has no subsequence that converges to any given real number. Apart from closed and bounded subsets of Euclidean space, typical examples of compact spaces include spaces consisting not of geometrical points, the term compact was introduced into mathematics by Maurice Fréchet in 1904 as a distillation of this concept. Various equivalent notions of compactness, including sequential compactness and limit point compactness, in general topological spaces, however, different notions of compactness are not necessarily equivalent. This more subtle notion, introduced by Pavel Alexandrov and Pavel Urysohn in 1929, the term compact set is sometimes a synonym for compact space, but usually refers to a compact subspace of a topological space. In the 19th century, several disparate mathematical properties were understood that would later be seen as consequences of compactness. On the one hand, Bernard Bolzano had been aware that any bounded sequence of points has a subsequence that must eventually get close to some other point. The process could then be repeated by dividing the resulting smaller interval into smaller and smaller parts until it closes down on the limit point. The full significance of Bolzanos theorem, and its method of proof, in the 1880s, it became clear that results similar to the Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem could be formulated for spaces of functions rather than just numbers or geometrical points. The idea of regarding functions as points of a generalized space dates back to the investigations of Giulio Ascoli. The uniform limit of this sequence then played precisely the same role as Bolzanos limit point and this ultimately led to the notion of a compact operator as an offshoot of the general notion of a compact space. It was Maurice Fréchet who, in 1906, had distilled the essence of the Bolzano–Weierstrass property, in 1870, Eduard Heine showed that a continuous function defined on a closed and bounded interval was in fact uniformly continuous
10.
Convex polytope
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A convex polytope is a special case of a polytope, having the additional property that it is also a convex set of points in the n-dimensional space Rn. Some authors use the terms polytope and convex polyhedron interchangeably. In addition, some require a polytope to be a bounded set. The terms bounded/unbounded convex polytope will be used whenever the boundedness is critical to the discussed issue. Yet other texts treat a convex n-polytope as a surface or -manifold, Convex polytopes play an important role both in various branches of mathematics and in applied areas, most notably in linear programming. A comprehensive and influential book in the subject, called Convex Polytopes, was published in 1967 by Branko Grünbaum, in 2003 the 2nd edition of the book was published, with significant additional material contributed by new writers. In Grünbaums book, and in other texts in discrete geometry. Grünbaum points out that this is solely to avoid the repetition of the word convex. A polytope is called if it is an n-dimensional object in Rn. Many examples of bounded convex polytopes can be found in the article polyhedron, a convex polytope may be defined in a number of ways, depending on what is more suitable for the problem at hand. Grünbaums definition is in terms of a set of points in space. Other important definitions are, as the intersection of half-spaces and as the hull of a set of points. This is equivalent to defining a bounded convex polytope as the hull of a finite set of points. Such a definition is called a vertex representation, for a compact convex polytope, the minimal V-description is unique and it is given by the set of the vertices of the polytope. A convex polytope may be defined as an intersection of a number of half-spaces. Such definition is called a half-space representation, there exist infinitely many H-descriptions of a convex polytope. However, for a convex polytope, the minimal H-description is in fact unique and is given by the set of the facet-defining halfspaces. A closed half-space can be written as an inequality, a 1 x 1 + a 2 x 2 + ⋯ + a n x n ≤ b where n is the dimension of the space containing the polytope under consideration
11.
N-skeleton
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In other words, given an inductive definition of a complex, the n-skeleton is obtained by stopping at the n-th step. The 0-skeleton is a space, and the 1-skeleton a topological graph. The skeletons of a space are used in theory, to construct spectral sequences by means of filtrations. They are particularly important when X has infinite dimension, in the sense that the Xn do not become constant as n → ∞, in geometry, a k-skeleton of n-polytope P consists of all i-polytope elements of dimension up to k. Briefly speaking, a simplicial set K ∗ can be described by a collection of sets K i, i ≥0, together with face and degeneracy maps between them satisfying a number of equations. More precisely, the restriction functor i ∗, Δ o p S e t s → Δ ≤ n o p S e t s has a left adjoint, denoted i ∗. The n-skeleton of some simplicial set K ∗ is defined as s k n, = i ∗ i ∗ K. Moreover, the n-coskeleton is defined as c o s k n, = i. For example, the 0-skeleton of K is the constant simplicial set defined by K0, the 0-coskeleton is given by the Cech nerve ⋯ → K0 × K0 → K0. The above constructions work for more categories as well, provided that the category has fiber products. The coskeleton is needed to define the concept of hypercovering in homotopical algebra and algebraic geometry
12.
Parallel (geometry)
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In geometry, parallel lines are lines in a plane which do not meet, that is, two lines in a plane that do not intersect or touch each other at any point are said to be parallel. By extension, a line and a plane, or two planes, in three-dimensional Euclidean space that do not share a point are said to be parallel. However, two lines in space which do not meet must be in a common plane to be considered parallel. Parallel planes are planes in the same space that never meet. Parallel lines are the subject of Euclids parallel postulate, parallelism is primarily a property of affine geometries and Euclidean space is a special instance of this type of geometry. Some other spaces, such as space, have analogous properties that are sometimes referred to as parallelism. For example, A B ∥ C D indicates that line AB is parallel to line CD, in the Unicode character set, the parallel and not parallel signs have codepoints U+2225 and U+2226, respectively. In addition, U+22D5 represents the relation equal and parallel to, given parallel straight lines l and m in Euclidean space, the following properties are equivalent, Every point on line m is located at exactly the same distance from line l. Line m is in the plane as line l but does not intersect l. When lines m and l are both intersected by a straight line in the same plane, the corresponding angles of intersection with the transversal are congruent. Thus, the property is the one usually chosen as the defining property of parallel lines in Euclidean geometry. The other properties are consequences of Euclids Parallel Postulate. Another property that also involves measurement is that parallel to each other have the same gradient. The definition of parallel lines as a pair of lines in a plane which do not meet appears as Definition 23 in Book I of Euclids Elements. Alternative definitions were discussed by other Greeks, often as part of an attempt to prove the parallel postulate, proclus attributes a definition of parallel lines as equidistant lines to Posidonius and quotes Geminus in a similar vein. Simplicius also mentions Posidonius definition as well as its modification by the philosopher Aganis, at the end of the nineteenth century, in England, Euclids Elements was still the standard textbook in secondary schools. A major difference between these texts, both between themselves and between them and Euclid, is the treatment of parallel lines. These reform texts were not without their critics and one of them, Charles Dodgson, wrote a play, Euclid and His Modern Rivals, one of the early reform textbooks was James Maurice Wilsons Elementary Geometry of 1868
13.
Line segment
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In geometry, a line segment is a part of a line that is bounded by two distinct end points, and contains every point on the line between its endpoints. A closed line segment includes both endpoints, while a line segment excludes both endpoints, a half-open line segment includes exactly one of the endpoints. Examples of line include the sides of a triangle or square. More generally, when both of the end points are vertices of a polygon or polyhedron, the line segment is either an edge if they are adjacent vertices. When the end points both lie on a such as a circle, a line segment is called a chord. Sometimes one needs to distinguish between open and closed line segments, thus, the line segment can be expressed as a convex combination of the segments two end points. In geometry, it is defined that a point B is between two other points A and C, if the distance AB added to the distance BC is equal to the distance AC. Thus in R2 the line segment with endpoints A = and C = is the collection of points. A line segment is a connected, non-empty set, if V is a topological vector space, then a closed line segment is a closed set in V. However, an open line segment is an open set in V if and only if V is one-dimensional. More generally than above, the concept of a segment can be defined in an ordered geometry. A pair of segments can be any one of the following, intersecting, parallel, skew. The last possibility is a way that line segments differ from lines, in an axiomatic treatment of geometry, the notion of betweenness is either assumed to satisfy a certain number of axioms, or else be defined in terms of an isometry of a line. Segments play an important role in other theories, for example, a set is convex if the segment that joins any two points of the set is contained in the set. This is important because it transforms some of the analysis of sets to the analysis of a line segment. The Segment Addition Postulate can be used to add congruent segment or segments with equal lengths and consequently substitute other segments into another statement to make segments congruent. A line segment can be viewed as a case of an ellipse in which the semiminor axis goes to zero, the foci go to the endpoints. A complete orbit of this ellipse traverses the line segment twice, as a degenerate orbit this is a radial elliptic trajectory. In addition to appearing as the edges and diagonals of polygons and polyhedra, some very frequently considered segments in a triangle include the three altitudes, the three medians, the perpendicular bisectors of the sides, and the internal angle bisectors
14.
Dimension
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In physics and mathematics, the dimension of a mathematical space is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any point within it. Thus a line has a dimension of one only one coordinate is needed to specify a point on it – for example. The inside of a cube, a cylinder or a sphere is three-dimensional because three coordinates are needed to locate a point within these spaces, in classical mechanics, space and time are different categories and refer to absolute space and time. That conception of the world is a space but not the one that was found necessary to describe electromagnetism. The four dimensions of spacetime consist of events that are not absolutely defined spatially and temporally, Minkowski space first approximates the universe without gravity, the pseudo-Riemannian manifolds of general relativity describe spacetime with matter and gravity. Ten dimensions are used to string theory, and the state-space of quantum mechanics is an infinite-dimensional function space. The concept of dimension is not restricted to physical objects, high-dimensional spaces frequently occur in mathematics and the sciences. They may be parameter spaces or configuration spaces such as in Lagrangian or Hamiltonian mechanics, in mathematics, the dimension of an object is an intrinsic property independent of the space in which the object is embedded. This intrinsic notion of dimension is one of the ways the mathematical notion of dimension differs from its common usages. The dimension of Euclidean n-space En is n, when trying to generalize to other types of spaces, one is faced with the question what makes En n-dimensional. One answer is that to cover a ball in En by small balls of radius ε. This observation leads to the definition of the Minkowski dimension and its more sophisticated variant, the Hausdorff dimension, for example, the boundary of a ball in En looks locally like En-1 and this leads to the notion of the inductive dimension. While these notions agree on En, they turn out to be different when one looks at more general spaces, a tesseract is an example of a four-dimensional object. The rest of this section some of the more important mathematical definitions of the dimensions. A complex number has a real part x and an imaginary part y, a single complex coordinate system may be applied to an object having two real dimensions. For example, an ordinary two-dimensional spherical surface, when given a complex metric, complex dimensions appear in the study of complex manifolds and algebraic varieties. The dimension of a space is the number of vectors in any basis for the space. This notion of dimension is referred to as the Hamel dimension or algebraic dimension to distinguish it from other notions of dimension
15.
Perpendicular
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In elementary geometry, the property of being perpendicular is the relationship between two lines which meet at a right angle. The property extends to other related geometric objects, a line is said to be perpendicular to another line if the two lines intersect at a right angle. Perpendicularity can be shown to be symmetric, meaning if a first line is perpendicular to a second line, for this reason, we may speak of two lines as being perpendicular without specifying an order. Perpendicularity easily extends to segments and rays, in symbols, A B ¯ ⊥ C D ¯ means line segment AB is perpendicular to line segment CD. A line is said to be perpendicular to an if it is perpendicular to every line in the plane that it intersects. This definition depends on the definition of perpendicularity between lines, two planes in space are said to be perpendicular if the dihedral angle at which they meet is a right angle. Perpendicularity is one instance of the more general mathematical concept of orthogonality, perpendicularity is the orthogonality of classical geometric objects. Thus, in advanced mathematics, the perpendicular is sometimes used to describe much more complicated geometric orthogonality conditions. The word foot is used in connection with perpendiculars. This usage is exemplified in the top diagram, above, the diagram can be in any orientation. The foot is not necessarily at the bottom, step 2, construct circles centered at A and B having equal radius. Let Q and R be the points of intersection of two circles. Step 3, connect Q and R to construct the desired perpendicular PQ, to prove that the PQ is perpendicular to AB, use the SSS congruence theorem for and QPB to conclude that angles OPA and OPB are equal. Then use the SAS congruence theorem for triangles OPA and OPB to conclude that angles POA, to make the perpendicular to the line g at or through the point P using Thales theorem, see the animation at right. The Pythagorean Theorem can be used as the basis of methods of constructing right angles, for example, by counting links, three pieces of chain can be made with lengths in the ratio 3,4,5. These can be out to form a triangle, which will have a right angle opposite its longest side. This method is useful for laying out gardens and fields, where the dimensions are large, the chains can be used repeatedly whenever required. If two lines are perpendicular to a third line, all of the angles formed along the third line are right angles
16.
Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter
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Harold Scott MacDonald Donald Coxeter, FRS, FRSC, CC was a British-born Canadian geometer. Coxeter is regarded as one of the greatest geometers of the 20th century and he was born in London but spent most of his adult life in Canada. He was always called Donald, from his third name MacDonald, in his youth, Coxeter composed music and was an accomplished pianist at the age of 10. He felt that mathematics and music were intimately related, outlining his ideas in a 1962 article on Mathematics and he worked for 60 years at the University of Toronto and published twelve books. He was most noted for his work on regular polytopes and higher-dimensional geometries and he was a champion of the classical approach to geometry, in a period when the tendency was to approach geometry more and more via algebra. Coxeter went up to Trinity College, Cambridge in 1926 to read mathematics, there he earned his BA in 1928, and his doctorate in 1931. In 1932 he went to Princeton University for a year as a Rockefeller Fellow, where he worked with Hermann Weyl, Oswald Veblen, returning to Trinity for a year, he attended Ludwig Wittgensteins seminars on the philosophy of mathematics. In 1934 he spent a year at Princeton as a Procter Fellow. In 1936 Coxeter moved to the University of Toronto, flather, and John Flinders Petrie published The Fifty-Nine Icosahedra with University of Toronto Press. In 1940 Coxeter edited the eleventh edition of Mathematical Recreations and Essays and he was elevated to professor in 1948. Coxeter was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 1948 and he also inspired some of the innovations of Buckminster Fuller. Coxeter, M. S. Longuet-Higgins and J. C. P. Miller were the first to publish the full list of uniform polyhedra, since 1978, the Canadian Mathematical Society have awarded the Coxeter–James Prize in his honor. He was made a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1950, in 1990, he became a Foreign Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and in 1997 was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. In 1973 he got the Jeffery–Williams Prize,1940, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes I, Mathematische Zeitschrift 46, 380-407, MR2,10 doi,10. 1007/BF011814491942, Non-Euclidean Geometry, University of Toronto Press, MAA. 1954, Uniform Polyhedra, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A246, arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson and Asia Ivić Weiss, editors, Kaleidoscopes — Selected Writings of H. S. M. John Wiley and Sons ISBN 0-471-01003-01999, The Beauty of Geometry, Twelve Essays, Dover Publications, LCCN 99-35678, ISBN 0-486-40919-8 Davis, Chandler, Ellers, Erich W, the Coxeter Legacy, Reflections and Projections. King of Infinite Space, Donald Coxeter, the Man Who Saved Geometry, www. donaldcoxeter. com www. math. yorku. ca/dcoxeter webpages dedicated to him Jarons World, Shapes in Other Dimensions, Discover mag. Apr 2007 The Mathematics in the Art of M. C, escher video of a lecture by H. S. M
17.
Hyperrectangle
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In geometry, an n-orthotope is the generalization of a rectangle for higher dimensions, formally defined as the Cartesian product of intervals. A three-dimensional orthotope is also called a rectangular prism, rectangular cuboid. A special case of an n-orthotope, where all edges are equal length, is the n-cube, the dual polytope of an n-orthotope has been variously called a rectangular n-orthoplex, rhombic n-fusil, or n-lozenge. It is constructed by 2n points located in the center of the rectangular faces. An n-fusils Schläfli symbol can be represented by a sum of n line segments. A 1-fusil is a line segment and its plane cross selections in all pairs of axes are rhombi. Minimum bounding box Coxeter, Harold Scott MacDonald
18.
Minkowski addition
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In geometry, the Minkowski sum of two sets of position vectors A and B in Euclidean space is formed by adding each vector in A to each vector in B, i. e. the set A + B =. Analogously, the Minkowski difference is defined as A − B = and it is important to note that in general A − B ≠ A +. For instance, in a one-dimensional case A = and B = the Minkowski difference A − B =, the correct formula connecting Minkowski sum and difference is as follows, A − B = c. In a two-dimensional case, Minkowski difference is related to erosion in image processing. The concept is named for Hermann Minkowski and this result holds more generally for each finite collection of non-empty sets Conv = ∑Conv. In mathematical terminology, the operations of Minkowski summation and of forming convex hulls are commuting operations, if S is a convex set then also μ S + λ S is a convex set, furthermore μ S + λ S = S for every μ, λ ≥0. Conversely, if this property holds for all non-negative real numbers, μ, λ. The figure shows an example of a set for which A + A ⊋ 2A. An example in 1 dimension is, B=∪ and it can be easily calculated that 2B=∪ but B+B=∪∪, hence again B+B ⊋ 2B. Minkowski sums act linearly on the perimeter of two-dimensional convex bodies, additionally, if K is a curve of constant width, then the Minkowski sum of K and of its 180° rotation is a disk. These two facts can be combined to give a proof of Barbiers theorem on the perimeter of curves of constant width. Minkowski addition plays a role in mathematical morphology. It arises in the paradigm of 2D computer graphics. Minkowski sums are used in planning of an object among obstacles. They are used for the computation of the space, which is the set of all admissible positions of the object. In numerical control machining, the programming of the NC tool exploits the fact that the Minkowski sum of the piece with its trajectory gives the shape of the cut in the material. In OpenSCAD Minkowski sums are used to outline a shape with another shape creating a composite of both shapes, Minkowski sums are also frequently used in aggregation theory when individual objects to be aggregated are characterized via sets. Assume that the edges of a polygon are given and the direction, say, counterclockwise, then it is easily seen that these edges of the convex polygon are ordered by polar angle
19.
Zonohedron
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A zonohedron is a convex polyhedron where every face is a polygon with point symmetry or, equivalently, symmetry under rotations through 180°. Any zonohedron may equivalently be described as the Minkowski sum of a set of segments in three-dimensional space. Zonohedra were originally defined and studied by E. S. Fedorov, more generally, in any dimension, the Minkowski sum of line segments forms a polytope known as a zonotope. The original motivation for studying zonohedra is that the Voronoi diagram of any lattice forms a uniform honeycomb in which the cells are zonohedra. Any zonohedron formed in this way can tessellate 3-dimensional space and is called a primary parallelohedron, each primary parallelohedron is combinatorially equivalent to one of five types, the rhombohedron, hexagonal prism, truncated octahedron, rhombic dodecahedron, and the rhombo-hexagonal dodecahedron. Let be a collection of three-dimensional vectors, with each vector vi we may associate a line segment. The Minkowski sum forms a zonohedron, and all zonohedra that contain the origin have this form, the vectors from which the zonohedron is formed are called its generators. This characterization allows the definition of zonohedra to be generalized to higher dimensions, each edge in a zonohedron is parallel to at least one of the generators, and has length equal to the sum of the lengths of the generators to which it is parallel. Therefore, by choosing a set of generators with no parallel pairs of vectors, by choosing sets of vectors with high degrees of symmetry, we can form in this way, zonohedra with at least as much symmetry. Generators parallel to the edges of an octahedron form a truncated octahedron, the Minkowski sum of any two zonohedra is another zonohedron, generated by the union of the generators of the two given zonohedra. Both of these zonohedra are simple, as is the truncated small rhombicuboctahedron formed from the Minkowski sum of the cube, truncated octahedron, conversely any arrangement of great circles may be formed from the Gauss map of a zonohedron generated by vectors perpendicular to the planes through the circles. Any simple zonohedron corresponds in this way to a simplicial arrangement, simplicial arrangements of great circles correspond via central projection to simplicial arrangements of lines in the projective plane, which were studied by Grünbaum. There are also many examples that do not fit into these three families. Any prism over a polygon with an even number of sides forms a zonohedron. These prisms can be formed so that all faces are regular, two faces are equal to the regular polygon from which the prism was formed. Zonohedra of this type are the cube, hexagonal prism, octagonal prism, decagonal prism, dodecagonal prism, the truncated cuboctahedron, with 12 squares,8 hexagons, and 6 octagons. The truncated icosidodecahedron, with 30 squares,20 hexagons and 12 decagons, in addition, certain Catalan solids are again zonohedra, The rhombic dodecahedron is the dual of the cuboctahedron. The rhombic triacontahedron is the dual of the icosidodecahedron, zonohedrification is a process defined by George W. Hart for creating a zonohedron from another polyhedron
20.
Hypercube graph
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In graph theory, the hypercube graph Qn is the graph formed from the vertices and edges of an n-dimensional hypercube. For instance, the cubical graph Q3 is the graph formed by the 8 vertices and 12 edges of a three-dimensional cube, Qn has 2n vertices, 2n−1n edges, and is a regular graph with n edges touching each vertex. It is the n-fold Cartesian product of the complete graph. Hypercube graphs should not be confused with cubic graphs, which are graphs that have exactly three edges touching each vertex, the only hypercube graph Qn that is a cubic graph is the cubical graph Q3. Equivalently, it may be constructed using 2n vertices labeled with n-bit binary numbers, the joining edges form a perfect matching. Another construction of Qn is the Cartesian product of n two-vertex complete graphs K2, more generally the Cartesian product of copies of a complete graph is called a Hamming graph, the hypercube graphs are examples of Hamming graphs. The graph Q0 consists of a vertex, while Q1 is the complete graph on two vertices and Q2 is a cycle of length 4. The graph Q3 is the 1-skeleton of a cube, a cubical graph, the graph Q4 is the Levi graph of the Möbius configuration. It is also the knights graph for a toroidal 4 ×4 chessboard, every hypercube graph is bipartite, it can be colored with only two colors. Every hypercube Qn with n >1 has a Hamiltonian cycle, additionally, a Hamiltonian path exists between two vertices u and v if and only if they have different colors in a 2-coloring of the graph. Both facts are easy to prove using the principle of induction on the dimension of the hypercube, hamiltonicity of the hypercube is tightly related to the theory of Gray codes. More precisely there is a correspondence between the set of n-bit cyclic Gray codes and the set of Hamiltonian cycles in the hypercube Qn. An analogous property holds for acyclic n-bit Gray codes and Hamiltonian paths, a lesser known fact is that every perfect matching in the hypercube extends to a Hamiltonian cycle. The question whether every matching extends to a Hamiltonian cycle remains an open problem, the hypercube graph Qn, is the Hasse diagram of a finite Boolean algebra. is a median graph. Every median graph is a subgraph of a hypercube, and can be formed as a retraction of a hypercube. has more than 22n-2 perfect matchings. is arc transitive. The symmetries of graphs can be represented as signed permutations. Contains all the cycles of length 4,6, 2n and is thus a bipancyclic graph. is a n-vertex-connected graph, by Balinskis theorem is planar if and only if n ≤3. For larger values of n, the hypercube has genus 2n −3 +1. has exactly 22 n − n −1 ∏ k =2 n k spanning trees
21.
Convex hull
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In mathematics, the convex hull or convex envelope of a set X of points in the Euclidean plane or in a Euclidean space is the smallest convex set that contains X. With the latter definition, convex hulls may be extended from Euclidean spaces to arbitrary real vector spaces, they may also be generalized further, to oriented matroids. The algorithmic problem of finding the convex hull of a set of points in the plane or other low-dimensional Euclidean spaces is one of the fundamental problems of computational geometry. A set of points is defined to be if it contains the line segments connecting each pair of its points. The convex hull of a given set X may be defined as The minimal convex set containing X The intersection of all convex sets containing X The set of all combinations of points in X. The union of all simplices with vertices in X and it is not obvious that the first definition makes sense, why should there exist a unique minimal convex set containing X, for every X. Thus, it is exactly the unique minimal convex set containing X. Each convex set containing X must contain all convex combinations of points in X, in fact, according to Carathéodorys theorem, if X is a subset of an N-dimensional vector space, convex combinations of at most N +1 points are sufficient in the definition above. If the convex hull of X is a set, then it is the intersection of all closed half-spaces containing X. The hyperplane separation theorem proves that in case, each point not in the convex hull can be separated from the convex hull by a half-space. However, there exist convex sets, and convex hulls of sets, more abstractly, the convex-hull operator Conv has the characteristic properties of a closure operator, It is extensive, meaning that the convex hull of every set X is a superset of X. It is non-decreasing, meaning that, for two sets X and Y with X ⊆ Y, the convex hull of X is a subset of the convex hull of Y. It is idempotent, meaning that for every X, the hull of the convex hull of X is the same as the convex hull of X. The convex hull of a point set S is the set of all convex combinations of its points. For each choice of coefficients, the convex combination is a point in the convex hull. Expressing this as a formula, the convex hull is the set. The convex hull of a point set S ⊊ R n forms a convex polygon when n =2. Each point x i in S that is not in the hull of the other points is called a vertex of Conv . In fact, every convex polytope in R n is the hull of its vertices
22.
Cartesian coordinate system
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Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin, usually at ordered pair. The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the projections of the point onto the two axis, expressed as signed distances from the origin. One can use the principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by three Cartesian coordinates, its signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes. In general, n Cartesian coordinates specify the point in an n-dimensional Euclidean space for any dimension n and these coordinates are equal, up to sign, to distances from the point to n mutually perpendicular hyperplanes. The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes can be described by Cartesian equations, algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape. For example, a circle of radius 2, centered at the origin of the plane, a familiar example is the concept of the graph of a function. Cartesian coordinates are also tools for most applied disciplines that deal with geometry, including astronomy, physics, engineering. They are the most common system used in computer graphics, computer-aided geometric design. Nicole Oresme, a French cleric and friend of the Dauphin of the 14th Century, used similar to Cartesian coordinates well before the time of Descartes. The adjective Cartesian refers to the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes who published this idea in 1637 and it was independently discovered by Pierre de Fermat, who also worked in three dimensions, although Fermat did not publish the discovery. Both authors used a single axis in their treatments and have a length measured in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and these commentators introduced several concepts while trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes work. Many other coordinate systems have developed since Descartes, such as the polar coordinates for the plane. The development of the Cartesian coordinate system would play a role in the development of the Calculus by Isaac Newton. The two-coordinate description of the plane was later generalized into the concept of vector spaces. Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a one-dimensional space – that is, for a straight line—involves choosing a point O of the line, a unit of length, and an orientation for the line. An orientation chooses which of the two half-lines determined by O is the positive, and which is negative, we say that the line is oriented from the negative half towards the positive half
23.
Factorial
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In mathematics, the factorial of a non-negative integer n, denoted by n. is the product of all positive integers less than or equal to n. =5 ×4 ×3 ×2 ×1 =120, the value of 0. is 1, according to the convention for an empty product. The factorial operation is encountered in areas of mathematics, notably in combinatorics, algebra. Its most basic occurrence is the fact there are n. ways to arrange n distinct objects into a sequence. This fact was known at least as early as the 12th century, fabian Stedman, in 1677, described factorials as applied to change ringing. After describing a recursive approach, Stedman gives a statement of a factorial, Now the nature of these methods is such, the factorial function is formally defined by the product n. = ∏ k =1 n k, or by the relation n. = {1 if n =0. The factorial function can also be defined by using the rule as n. All of the above definitions incorporate the instance 0, =1, in the first case by the convention that the product of no numbers at all is 1. This is convenient because, There is exactly one permutation of zero objects, = n. ×, valid for n >0, extends to n =0. It allows for the expression of many formulae, such as the function, as a power series. It makes many identities in combinatorics valid for all applicable sizes, the number of ways to choose 0 elements from the empty set is =0. More generally, the number of ways to choose n elements among a set of n is = n. n, the factorial function can also be defined for non-integer values using more advanced mathematics, detailed in the section below. This more generalized definition is used by advanced calculators and mathematical software such as Maple or Mathematica, although the factorial function has its roots in combinatorics, formulas involving factorials occur in many areas of mathematics. There are n. different ways of arranging n distinct objects into a sequence, often factorials appear in the denominator of a formula to account for the fact that ordering is to be ignored. A classical example is counting k-combinations from a set with n elements, one can obtain such a combination by choosing a k-permutation, successively selecting and removing an element of the set, k times, for a total of n k _ = n ⋯ possibilities. This however produces the k-combinations in an order that one wishes to ignore, since each k-combination is obtained in k. different ways. This number is known as the coefficient, because it is also the coefficient of Xk in n
24.
On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences
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The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, also cited simply as Sloanes, is an online database of integer sequences. It was created and maintained by Neil Sloane while a researcher at AT&T Labs, Sloane continues to be involved in the OEIS in his role as President of the OEIS Foundation. OEIS records information on integer sequences of interest to professional mathematicians and amateurs, and is widely cited. As of 30 December 2016 it contains nearly 280,000 sequences, the database is searchable by keyword and by subsequence. Neil Sloane started collecting integer sequences as a student in 1965 to support his work in combinatorics. The database was at first stored on punched cards and he published selections from the database in book form twice, A Handbook of Integer Sequences, containing 2,372 sequences in lexicographic order and assigned numbers from 1 to 2372. The Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences with Simon Plouffe, containing 5,488 sequences and these books were well received and, especially after the second publication, mathematicians supplied Sloane with a steady flow of new sequences. The collection became unmanageable in book form, and when the database had reached 16,000 entries Sloane decided to go online—first as an e-mail service, as a spin-off from the database work, Sloane founded the Journal of Integer Sequences in 1998. The database continues to grow at a rate of some 10,000 entries a year, Sloane has personally managed his sequences for almost 40 years, but starting in 2002, a board of associate editors and volunteers has helped maintain the database. In 2004, Sloane celebrated the addition of the 100, 000th sequence to the database, A100000, in 2006, the user interface was overhauled and more advanced search capabilities were added. In 2010 an OEIS wiki at OEIS. org was created to simplify the collaboration of the OEIS editors and contributors, besides integer sequences, the OEIS also catalogs sequences of fractions, the digits of transcendental numbers, complex numbers and so on by transforming them into integer sequences. Sequences of rationals are represented by two sequences, the sequence of numerators and the sequence of denominators, important irrational numbers such as π =3.1415926535897. are catalogued under representative integer sequences such as decimal expansions, binary expansions, or continued fraction expansions. The OEIS was limited to plain ASCII text until 2011, yet it still uses a form of conventional mathematical notation. Greek letters are represented by their full names, e. g. mu for μ. Every sequence is identified by the letter A followed by six digits, sometimes referred to without the leading zeros, individual terms of sequences are separated by commas. Digit groups are not separated by commas, periods, or spaces, a represents the nth term of the sequence. Zero is often used to represent non-existent sequence elements, for example, A104157 enumerates the smallest prime of n² consecutive primes to form an n×n magic square of least magic constant, or 0 if no such magic square exists. The value of a is 2, a is 1480028129, but there is no such 2×2 magic square, so a is 0
25.
Polytope
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In elementary geometry, a polytope is a geometric object with flat sides, and may exist in any general number of dimensions n as an n-dimensional polytope or n-polytope. For example, a polygon is a 2-polytope and a three-dimensional polyhedron is a 3-polytope. Polytopes in more than three dimensions were first discovered by Ludwig Schläfli, the German term polytop was coined by the mathematician Reinhold Hoppe, and was introduced to English mathematicians as polytope by Alicia Boole Stott. The term polytope is nowadays a broad term that covers a class of objects. Many of these definitions are not equivalent, resulting in different sets of objects being called polytopes and they represent different approaches to generalizing the convex polytopes to include other objects with similar properties. In this approach, a polytope may be regarded as a tessellation or decomposition of some given manifold, an example of this approach defines a polytope as a set of points that admits a simplicial decomposition. However this definition does not allow star polytopes with interior structures, the discovery of star polyhedra and other unusual constructions led to the idea of a polyhedron as a bounding surface, ignoring its interior. A polyhedron is understood as a surface whose faces are polygons, a 4-polytope as a hypersurface whose facets are polyhedra and this approach is used for example in the theory of abstract polytopes. In certain fields of mathematics, the terms polytope and polyhedron are used in a different sense and this terminology is typically confined to polytopes and polyhedra that are convex. A polytope comprises elements of different dimensionality such as vertices, edges, faces, cells, terminology for these is not fully consistent across different authors. For example, some authors use face to refer to an -dimensional element while others use face to denote a 2-face specifically, authors may use j-face or j-facet to indicate an element of j dimensions. Some use edge to refer to a ridge, while H. S. M. Coxeter uses cell to denote an -dimensional element, the terms adopted in this article are given in the table below, An n-dimensional polytope is bounded by a number of -dimensional facets. These facets are themselves polytopes, whose facets are -dimensional ridges of the original polytope, Every ridge arises as the intersection of two facets. Ridges are once again polytopes whose facets give rise to -dimensional boundaries of the original polytope and these bounding sub-polytopes may be referred to as faces, or specifically j-dimensional faces or j-faces. A 0-dimensional face is called a vertex, and consists of a single point, a 1-dimensional face is called an edge, and consists of a line segment. A 2-dimensional face consists of a polygon, and a 3-dimensional face, sometimes called a cell, the convex polytopes are the simplest kind of polytopes, and form the basis for several different generalizations of the concept of polytopes. A convex polytope is defined as the intersection of a set of half-spaces. This definition allows a polytope to be neither bounded nor finite, Polytopes are defined in this way, e. g. in linear programming
26.
Vertex (geometry)
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In geometry, a vertex is a point where two or more curves, lines, or edges meet. As a consequence of this definition, the point where two lines meet to form an angle and the corners of polygons and polyhedra are vertices. A vertex is a point of a polygon, polyhedron, or other higher-dimensional polytope. However, in theory, vertices may have fewer than two incident edges, which is usually not allowed for geometric vertices. However, a smooth approximation to a polygon will also have additional vertices. A polygon vertex xi of a simple polygon P is a principal polygon vertex if the diagonal intersects the boundary of P only at x and x, there are two types of principal vertices, ears and mouths. A principal vertex xi of a simple polygon P is called an ear if the diagonal that bridges xi lies entirely in P, according to the two ears theorem, every simple polygon has at least two ears. A principal vertex xi of a simple polygon P is called a mouth if the diagonal lies outside the boundary of P. Any convex polyhedrons surface has Euler characteristic V − E + F =2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges and this equation is known as Eulers polyhedron formula. Thus the number of vertices is 2 more than the excess of the number of edges over the number of faces, for example, a cube has 12 edges and 6 faces, and hence 8 vertices
27.
Edge (geometry)
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For edge in graph theory, see Edge In geometry, an edge is a particular type of line segment joining two vertices in a polygon, polyhedron, or higher-dimensional polytope. In a polygon, an edge is a segment on the boundary. In a polyhedron or more generally a polytope, an edge is a segment where two faces meet. A segment joining two vertices while passing through the interior or exterior is not an edge but instead is called a diagonal. In graph theory, an edge is an abstract object connecting two vertices, unlike polygon and polyhedron edges which have a concrete geometric representation as a line segment. However, any polyhedron can be represented by its skeleton or edge-skeleton, conversely, the graphs that are skeletons of three-dimensional polyhedra can be characterized by Steinitzs theorem as being exactly the 3-vertex-connected planar graphs. Any convex polyhedrons surface has Euler characteristic V − E + F =2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges and this equation is known as Eulers polyhedron formula. Thus the number of edges is 2 less than the sum of the numbers of vertices and faces, for example, a cube has 8 vertices and 6 faces, and hence 12 edges. In a polygon, two edges meet at each vertex, more generally, by Balinskis theorem, at least d edges meet at every vertex of a convex polytope. Similarly, in a polyhedron, exactly two faces meet at every edge, while in higher dimensional polytopes three or more two-dimensional faces meet at every edge. Thus, the edges of a polygon are its facets, the edges of a 3-dimensional convex polyhedron are its ridges, archived from the original on 4 February 2007
28.
Face (geometry)
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In solid geometry, a face is a flat surface that forms part of the boundary of a solid object, a three-dimensional solid bounded exclusively by flat faces is a polyhedron. In more technical treatments of the geometry of polyhedra and higher-dimensional polytopes, in elementary geometry, a face is a polygon on the boundary of a polyhedron. Other names for a polygonal face include side of a polyhedron, for example, any of the six squares that bound a cube is a face of the cube. Sometimes face is used to refer to the 2-dimensional features of a 4-polytope. With this meaning, the 4-dimensional tesseract has 24 square faces, some other polygons, which are not faces, are also important for polyhedra and tessellations. These include Petrie polygons, vertex figures and facets, any convex polyhedrons surface has Euler characteristic V − E + F =2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges, and F is the number of faces. This equation is known as Eulers polyhedron formula, thus the number of faces is 2 more than the excess of the number of edges over the number of vertices. For example, a cube has 12 edges and 8 vertices, in higher-dimensional geometry the faces of a polytope are features of all dimensions. A face of dimension k is called a k-face, for example, the polygonal faces of an ordinary polyhedron are 2-faces. In set theory, the set of faces of a polytope includes the polytope itself, for any n-polytope, −1 ≤ k ≤ n. For example, with meaning, the faces of a cube include the empty set, its vertices, edges and squares. Formally, a face of a polytope P is the intersection of P with any closed halfspace whose boundary is disjoint from the interior of P, from this definition it follows that the set of faces of a polytope includes the polytope itself and the empty set. In other areas of mathematics, such as the theories of abstract polytopes and star polytopes, abstract theory still requires that the set of faces include the polytope itself and the empty set. A cell is an element of a 4-dimensional polytope or 3-dimensional tessellation. Cells are facets for 4-polytopes and 3-honeycombs, examples, In higher-dimensional geometry, the facets of a n-polytope are the -faces of dimension one less than the polytope itself. A polytope is bounded by its facets, for example, The facets of a line segment are its 0-faces or vertices. The facets of a polygon are its 1-faces or edges, the facets of a polyhedron or plane tiling are its 2-faces. The facets of a 4D polytope or 3-honeycomb are its 3-faces, the facets of a 5D polytope or 4-honeycomb are its 4-faces
29.
Cell (geometry)
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In solid geometry, a face is a flat surface that forms part of the boundary of a solid object, a three-dimensional solid bounded exclusively by flat faces is a polyhedron. In more technical treatments of the geometry of polyhedra and higher-dimensional polytopes, in elementary geometry, a face is a polygon on the boundary of a polyhedron. Other names for a polygonal face include side of a polyhedron, for example, any of the six squares that bound a cube is a face of the cube. Sometimes face is used to refer to the 2-dimensional features of a 4-polytope. With this meaning, the 4-dimensional tesseract has 24 square faces, some other polygons, which are not faces, are also important for polyhedra and tessellations. These include Petrie polygons, vertex figures and facets, any convex polyhedrons surface has Euler characteristic V − E + F =2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges, and F is the number of faces. This equation is known as Eulers polyhedron formula, thus the number of faces is 2 more than the excess of the number of edges over the number of vertices. For example, a cube has 12 edges and 8 vertices, in higher-dimensional geometry the faces of a polytope are features of all dimensions. A face of dimension k is called a k-face, for example, the polygonal faces of an ordinary polyhedron are 2-faces. In set theory, the set of faces of a polytope includes the polytope itself, for any n-polytope, −1 ≤ k ≤ n. For example, with meaning, the faces of a cube include the empty set, its vertices, edges and squares. Formally, a face of a polytope P is the intersection of P with any closed halfspace whose boundary is disjoint from the interior of P, from this definition it follows that the set of faces of a polytope includes the polytope itself and the empty set. In other areas of mathematics, such as the theories of abstract polytopes and star polytopes, abstract theory still requires that the set of faces include the polytope itself and the empty set. A cell is an element of a 4-dimensional polytope or 3-dimensional tessellation. Cells are facets for 4-polytopes and 3-honeycombs, examples, In higher-dimensional geometry, the facets of a n-polytope are the -faces of dimension one less than the polytope itself. A polytope is bounded by its facets, for example, The facets of a line segment are its 0-faces or vertices. The facets of a polygon are its 1-faces or edges, the facets of a polyhedron or plane tiling are its 2-faces. The facets of a 4D polytope or 3-honeycomb are its 3-faces, the facets of a 5D polytope or 4-honeycomb are its 4-faces
30.
2-polytope
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In elementary geometry, a polygon /ˈpɒlɪɡɒn/ is a plane figure that is bounded by a finite chain of straight line segments closing in a loop to form a closed polygonal chain or circuit. These segments are called its edges or sides, and the points where two edges meet are the vertices or corners. The interior of the polygon is called its body. An n-gon is a polygon with n sides, for example, a polygon is a 2-dimensional example of the more general polytope in any number of dimensions. The basic geometrical notion of a polygon has been adapted in various ways to suit particular purposes, mathematicians are often concerned only with the bounding closed polygonal chain and with simple polygons which do not self-intersect, and they often define a polygon accordingly. A polygonal boundary may be allowed to intersect itself, creating star polygons and these and other generalizations of polygons are described below. The word polygon derives from the Greek adjective πολύς much, many and it has been suggested that γόνυ knee may be the origin of “gon”. Polygons are primarily classified by the number of sides, Polygons may be characterized by their convexity or type of non-convexity, Convex, any line drawn through the polygon meets its boundary exactly twice. As a consequence, all its interior angles are less than 180°, equivalently, any line segment with endpoints on the boundary passes through only interior points between its endpoints. Non-convex, a line may be found which meets its boundary more than twice, equivalently, there exists a line segment between two boundary points that passes outside the polygon. Simple, the boundary of the polygon does not cross itself, there is at least one interior angle greater than 180°. Star-shaped, the interior is visible from at least one point. The polygon must be simple, and may be convex or concave, self-intersecting, the boundary of the polygon crosses itself. Branko Grünbaum calls these coptic, though this term does not seem to be widely used, star polygon, a polygon which self-intersects in a regular way. A polygon cannot be both a star and star-shaped, equiangular, all corner angles are equal. Cyclic, all lie on a single circle, called the circumcircle. Isogonal or vertex-transitive, all lie within the same symmetry orbit. The polygon is cyclic and equiangular
31.
3-polytope
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In geometry, a polyhedron is a solid in three dimensions with flat polygonal faces, straight edges and sharp corners or vertices. The word polyhedron comes from the Classical Greek πολύεδρον, as poly- + -hedron, a convex polyhedron is the convex hull of finitely many points, not all on the same plane. Cubes and pyramids are examples of convex polyhedra, a polyhedron is a 3-dimensional example of the more general polytope in any number of dimensions. Convex polyhedra are well-defined, with several equivalent standard definitions, however, the formal mathematical definition of polyhedra that are not required to be convex has been problematic. Many definitions of polyhedron have been given within particular contexts, some more rigorous than others, some of these definitions exclude shapes that have often been counted as polyhedra or include shapes that are often not considered as valid polyhedra. As Branko Grünbaum observed, The Original Sin in the theory of polyhedra goes back to Euclid, the writers failed to define what are the polyhedra. Nevertheless, there is agreement that a polyhedron is a solid or surface that can be described by its vertices, edges, faces. Natural refinements of this definition require the solid to be bounded, to have a connected interior, and possibly also to have a connected boundary. However, the polyhedra defined in this way do not include the self-crossing star polyhedra, their faces may not form simple polygons, definitions based on the idea of a bounding surface rather than a solid are also common. If a planar part of such a surface is not itself a convex polygon, ORourke requires it to be subdivided into smaller convex polygons, cromwell gives a similar definition but without the restriction of three edges per vertex. Again, this type of definition does not encompass the self-crossing polyhedra, however, there exist topological polyhedra that cannot be realized as acoptic polyhedra. One modern approach is based on the theory of abstract polyhedra and these can be defined as partially ordered sets whose elements are the vertices, edges, and faces of a polyhedron. A vertex or edge element is less than an edge or face element when the vertex or edge is part of the edge or face, additionally, one may include a special bottom element of this partial order and a top element representing the whole polyhedron. However, these requirements are relaxed, to instead require only that the sections between elements two levels apart from line segments. Geometric polyhedra, defined in other ways, can be described abstractly in this way, a realization of an abstract polyhedron is generally taken to be a mapping from the vertices of the abstract polyhedron to geometric points, such that the points of each face are coplanar. A geometric polyhedron can then be defined as a realization of an abstract polyhedron, realizations that forgo the requirement of planarity, that impose additional requirements of symmetry, or that map the vertices to higher dimensional spaces have also been considered. Unlike the solid-based and surface-based definitions, this perfectly well for star polyhedra. However, without restrictions, this definition allows degenerate or unfaithful polyhedra
32.
4-polytope
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In geometry, a 4-polytope is a four-dimensional polytope. It is a connected and closed figure, composed of lower-dimensional polytopal elements, vertices, edges, faces, each face is shared by exactly two cells. The two-dimensional analogue of a 4-polytope is a polygon, and the three-dimensional analogue is a polyhedron, topologically 4-polytopes are closely related to the uniform honeycombs, such as the cubic honeycomb, which tessellate 3-space, similarly the 3D cube is related to the infinite 2D square tiling. Convex 4-polytopes can be cut and unfolded as nets in 3-space, a 4-polytope is a closed four-dimensional figure. It comprises vertices, edges, faces and cells, a cell is the three-dimensional analogue of a face, and is therefore a polyhedron. Each face must join exactly two cells, analogous to the way in each edge of a polyhedron joins just two faces. Like any polytope, the elements of a 4-polytope cannot be subdivided into two or more sets which are also 4-polytopes, i. e. it is not a compound, the most familiar 4-polytope is the tesseract or hypercube, the 4D analogue of the cube. 4-polytopes cannot be seen in space due to their extra dimension. Several techniques are used to help visualise them, Orthogonal projection Orthogonal projections can be used to show various symmetry orientations of a 4-polytope. They can be drawn in 2D as vertex-edge graphs, and can be shown in 3D with solid faces as visible projective envelopes. Perspective projection Just as a 3D shape can be projected onto a flat sheet, sectioning Just as a slice through a polyhedron reveals a cut surface, so a slice through a 4-polytope reveals a cut hypersurface in three dimensions. A sequence of sections can be used to build up an understanding of the overall shape. The extra dimension can be equated with time to produce an animation of these cross sections. The topology of any given 4-polytope is defined by its Betti numbers, the value of the Euler characteristic used to characterise polyhedra does not generalize usefully to higher dimensions, and is zero for all 4-polytopes, whatever their underlying topology. This inadequacy of the Euler characteristic to distinguish between different topologies in higher dimensions led to the discovery of the more sophisticated Betti numbers. Similarly, the notion of orientability of a polyhedron is insufficient to characterise the surface twistings of toroidal 4-polytopes, like all polytopes, 4-polytopes may be classified based on properties like convexity and symmetry. Self-intersecting 4-polytopes are also known as star 4-polytopes, from analogy with the shapes of the non-convex star polygons. A 4-polytope is regular if it is transitive on its flags and this means that its cells are all congruent regular polyhedra, and similarly its vertex figures are congruent and of another kind of regular polyhedron
33.
5-polytope
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In five-dimensional geometry, a five-dimensional polytope or 5-polytope is a 5-dimensional polytope, bounded by facets. Each polyhedral cell being shared by exactly two 4-polytope facets, a 5-polytope is a closed five-dimensional figure with vertices, edges, faces, and cells, and 4-faces. A vertex is a point where five or more edges meet, an edge is a line segment where four or more faces meet, and a face is a polygon where three or more cells meet. A cell is a polyhedron, and a 4-face is a 4-polytope, furthermore, the following requirements must be met, Each cell must join exactly two 4-faces. Adjacent 4-faces are not in the same four-dimensional hyperplane, the figure is not a compound of other figures which meet the requirements. The topology of any given 5-polytope is defined by its Betti numbers, the value of the Euler characteristic used to characterise polyhedra does not generalize usefully to higher dimensions, whatever their underlying topology. This inadequacy of the Euler characteristic to distinguish between different topologies in higher dimensions led to the discovery of the more sophisticated Betti numbers. Similarly, the notion of orientability of a polyhedron is insufficient to characterise the surface twistings of toroidal polytopes, 5-polytopes may be classified based on properties like convexity and symmetry. Self-intersecting 5-polytopes are also known as star polytopes, from analogy with the shapes of the non-convex Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra. A uniform 5-polytope has a group under which all vertices are equivalent. The faces of a uniform polytope must be regular, a semi-regular 5-polytope contains two or more types of regular 4-polytope facets. There is only one figure, called a demipenteract. A regular 5-polytope has all identical regular 4-polytope facets, a prismatic 5-polytope is constructed by a Cartesian product of two lower-dimensional polytopes. A prismatic 5-polytope is uniform if its factors are uniform, the hypercube is prismatic, but is considered separately because it has symmetries other than those inherited from its factors. A 4-space tessellation is the division of four-dimensional Euclidean space into a grid of polychoral facets. Strictly speaking, tessellations are not polytopes as they do not bound a 5D volume, a uniform 4-space tessellation is one whose vertices are related by a space group and whose facets are uniform 4-polytopes. Regular 5-polytopes can be represented by the Schläfli symbol, with s polychoral facets around each face, the 5-demicube honeycomb, vertex figure is a rectified 5-orthoplex and facets are the 5-orthoplex and 5-demicube. Pyramidal 5-polytopes, or 5-pyramids, can be generated by a 4-polytope base in a 4-space hyperplane connected to a point off the hyperplane, the 5-simplex is the simplest example with a 4-simplex base
34.
5-cube
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In five-dimensional geometry, a 5-cube is a name for a five-dimensional hypercube with 32 vertices,80 edges,80 square faces,40 cubic cells, and 10 tesseract 4-faces. It is represented by Schläfli symbol or, constructed as 3 tesseracts and it can be called a penteract, a portmanteau of tesseract and pente for five in Greek. It can also be called a regular deca-5-tope or decateron, being a 5-dimensional polytope constructed from 10 regular facets and it is a part of an infinite hypercube family. The dual of a 5-cube is the 5-orthoplex, of the family of orthoplexes. The 5-cube can be seen as an order-3 tesseractic honeycomb on a 4-sphere and it is related to the Euclidean 4-space tesseractic honeycomb and paracompact hyperbolic honeycomb order-5 tesseractic honeycomb. This polytope is one of 31 uniform 5-polytopes generated from the regular 5-cube or 5-orthoplex. Coxeter, Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Manuscript N. W. Johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D, 5D uniform polytopes o3o3o3o4x - pent. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007
35.
6-polytope
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In six-dimensional geometry, a six-dimensional polytope or 6-polytope is a polytope, bounded by 5-polytope facets. A 6-polytope is a closed figure with vertices, edges, faces, cells, 4-faces. A vertex is a point where six or more edges meet, an edge is a line segment where four or more faces meet, and a face is a polygon where three or more cells meet. A 4-face is a polychoron, and a 5-face is a 5-polytope, furthermore, the following requirements must be met, Each 4-face must join exactly two 5-faces. Adjacent facets are not in the same five-dimensional hyperplane, the figure is not a compound of other figures which meet the requirements. The topology of any given 6-polytope is defined by its Betti numbers, the value of the Euler characteristic used to characterise polyhedra does not generalize usefully to higher dimensions, and is zero for all 6-polytopes, whatever their underlying topology. This inadequacy of the Euler characteristic to distinguish between different topologies in higher dimensions led to the discovery of the more sophisticated Betti numbers. Similarly, the notion of orientability of a polyhedron is insufficient to characterise the surface twistings of toroidal polytopes, 6-polytopes may be classified by properties like convexity and symmetry. Self-intersecting 6-polytope are also known as star 6-polytopes, from analogy with the shapes of the non-convex Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra. A regular 6-polytope has all identical regular 5-polytope facets, a semi-regular 6-polytope contains two or more types of regular 4-polytope facets. There is only one figure, called 221. A uniform 6-polytope has a group under which all vertices are equivalent. The faces of a uniform polytope must be regular, a prismatic 6-polytope is constructed by the Cartesian product of two lower-dimensional polytopes. A prismatic 6-polytope is uniform if its factors are uniform, the 6-cube is prismatic, but is considered separately because it has symmetries other than those inherited from its factors. A 5-space tessellation is the division of five-dimensional Euclidean space into a grid of 5-polytope facets. Strictly speaking, tessellations are not 6-polytopes as they do not bound a 6D volume, a uniform 5-space tessellation is one whose vertices are related by a space group and whose facets are uniform 5-polytopes. Regular 6-polytopes can be generated from Coxeter groups represented by the Schläfli symbol with t 5-polytope facets around each cell, There are only three such convex regular 6-polytopes, - 6-simplex - 6-cube - 6-orthoplex There are no nonconvex regular polytopes of 5 or more dimensions. For the 3 convex regular 6-polytopes, their elements are, Here are six simple uniform convex 6-polytopes, the expanded 6-simplex is the vertex figure of the uniform 6-simplex honeycomb
36.
6-cube
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In geometry, a 6-cube is a six-dimensional hypercube with 64 vertices,192 edges,240 square faces,160 cubic cells,60 tesseract 4-faces, and 12 5-cube 5-faces. It has Schläfli symbol, being composed of 3 5-cubes around each 4-face and it can be called a hexeract, a portmanteau of tesseract with hex for six in Greek. It can also be called a regular dodeca-6-tope or dodecapeton, being a 6-dimensional polytope constructed from 12 regular facets and it is a part of an infinite family of polytopes, called hypercubes. The dual of a 6-cube can be called a 6-orthoplex, and is a part of the family of cross-polytopes. Applying an alternation operation, deleting alternating vertices of the 6-cube, creates another uniform polytope, called a 6-demicube, which has 12 5-demicube and 32 5-simplex facets. Cartesian coordinates for the vertices of a 6-cube centered at the origin and this polytope is one of 63 Uniform 6-polytopes generated from the B6 Coxeter plane, including the regular 6-cube or 6-orthoplex. Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8 p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, 6D uniform polytopes o3o3o3o3o4x - ax. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007
37.
Uniform 7-polytope
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In seven-dimensional geometry, a 7-polytope is a polytope contained by 6-polytope facets. Each 5-polytope ridge being shared by exactly two 6-polytope facets, a uniform 7-polytope is one which is vertex-transitive, and constructed from uniform 6-polytope facets. Regular 7-polytopes are represented by the Schläfli symbol with u 6-polytopes facets around each 4-face, There are exactly three such convex regular 7-polytopes, - 7-simplex - 7-cube - 7-orthoplex There are no nonconvex regular 7-polytopes. The topology of any given 7-polytope is defined by its Betti numbers, the value of the Euler characteristic used to characterise polyhedra does not generalize usefully to higher dimensions, whatever their underlying topology. This inadequacy of the Euler characteristic to distinguish between different topologies in higher dimensions led to the discovery of the more sophisticated Betti numbers. Similarly, the notion of orientability of a polyhedron is insufficient to characterise the surface twistings of toroidal polytopes, There are 71 forms based on all permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams with one or more rings. Norman Johnsons truncation names are given, bowers names and acronym are also given for cross-referencing. See also a list of A7 polytopes for symmetric Coxeter plane graphs of these polytopes, the B7 family has symmetry of order 645120. There are 127 forms based on all permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams with one or more rings, see also a list of B7 polytopes for symmetric Coxeter plane graphs of these polytopes. The D7 family has symmetry of order 322560 and this family has 3×32−1=95 Wythoffian uniform polytopes, generated by marking one or more nodes of the D7 Coxeter-Dynkin diagram. Of these,63 are repeated from the B7 family and 32 are unique to this family, bowers names and acronym are given for cross-referencing. See also list of D7 polytopes for Coxeter plane graphs of these polytopes, the E7 Coxeter group has order 2,903,040. There are 127 forms based on all permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams with one or more rings, see also a list of E7 polytopes for symmetric Coxeter plane graphs of these polytopes. Coxeter calls the first one a quarter 6-cubic honeycomb, however, there are 3 noncompact hyperbolic Coxeter groups of rank 7, each generating uniform honeycombs in 6-space as permutations of rings of the Coxeter diagrams. The reflective 7-dimensional uniform polytopes are constructed through a Wythoff construction process, and represented by a Coxeter-Dynkin diagram, an active mirror is represented by a ringed node. Each combination of active mirrors generates a unique uniform polytope, Uniform polytopes are named in relation to the regular polytopes in each family. Some families have two regular constructors and thus may be named in two equally valid ways, here are the primary operators available for constructing and naming the uniform 7-polytopes. The prismatic forms and bifurcating graphs can use the same truncation indexing notation, T. Gosset, On the Regular and Semi-Regular Figures in Space of n Dimensions, Messenger of Mathematics, Macmillan,1900 A. S. M
38.
7-cube
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In geometry, a 7-cube is a seven-dimensional hypercube with 128 vertices,448 edges,672 square faces,560 cubic cells,280 tesseract 4-faces,84 penteract 5-faces, and 14 hexeract 6-faces. It can be named by its Schläfli symbol, being composed of 3 6-cubes around each 5-face and it can be called a hepteract, a portmanteau of tesseract and hepta for seven in Greek. It can also be called a regular tetradeca-7-tope or tetradecaexon, being a 7 dimensional polytope constructed from 14 regular facets and it is a part of an infinite family of polytopes, called hypercubes. The dual of a 7-cube is called a 7-orthoplex, and is a part of the family of cross-polytopes. Applying an alternation operation, deleting alternating vertices of the hepteract, creates another uniform polytope, called a demihepteract, which has 14 demihexeractic and 64 6-simplex 6-faces. Cartesian coordinates for the vertices of a hepteract centered at the origin, hepteract 7D simple rotation through 2Pi with 7D perspective projection to 3D. Coxeter, Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, three regular polytopes in n-dimensions H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Manuscript N. W. Johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D, 7D uniform polytopes o3o3o3o3o3o4x - hept. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007, multi-dimensional Glossary, hypercube Garrett Jones Rotation of 7D-Cube www. 4d-screen. de
39.
Uniform 8-polytope
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In eight-dimensional geometry, an eight-dimensional polytope or 8-polytope is a polytope contained by 7-polytope facets. Each 6-polytope ridge being shared by exactly two 7-polytope facets, a uniform 8-polytope is one which is vertex-transitive, and constructed from uniform 7-polytope facets. Regular 8-polytopes can be represented by the Schläfli symbol, with v 7-polytope facets around each peak, There are exactly three such convex regular 8-polytopes, - 8-simplex - 8-cube - 8-orthoplex There are no nonconvex regular 8-polytopes. The topology of any given 8-polytope is defined by its Betti numbers, the value of the Euler characteristic used to characterise polyhedra does not generalize usefully to higher dimensions, and is zero for all 8-polytopes, whatever their underlying topology. This inadequacy of the Euler characteristic to distinguish between different topologies in higher dimensions led to the discovery of the more sophisticated Betti numbers. Similarly, the notion of orientability of a polyhedron is insufficient to characterise the surface twistings of toroidal polytopes, There are 135 forms based on all permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams with one or more rings. Bowers-style acronym names are given in parentheses for cross-referencing, see also a list of 8-simplex polytopes for symmetric Coxeter plane graphs of these polytopes. The B8 family has symmetry of order 10321920, There are 255 forms based on all permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams with one or more rings. See also a list of B8 polytopes for symmetric Coxeter plane graphs of these polytopes, the D8 family has symmetry of order 5,160,960. This family has 191 Wythoffian uniform polytopes, from 3x64-1 permutations of the D8 Coxeter-Dynkin diagram with one or more rings,127 are repeated from the B8 family and 64 are unique to this family, all listed below. See list of D8 polytopes for Coxeter plane graphs of these polytopes, the E8 family has symmetry order 696,729,600. There are 255 forms based on all permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams with one or more rings, eight forms are shown below,4 single-ringed,3 truncations, and the final omnitruncation are given below. Bowers-style acronym names are given for cross-referencing, see also list of E8 polytopes for Coxeter plane graphs of this family. However, there are 4 noncompact hyperbolic Coxeter groups of rank 8, T. Gosset, On the Regular and Semi-Regular Figures in Space of n Dimensions, Messenger of Mathematics, Macmillan,1900 A. S. M. Miller, Uniform Polyhedra, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973 Kaleidoscopes, Selected Writings of H. S. M. Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 Wiley, Kaleidoscopes, Selected Writings of H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, N. W, johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D
40.
8-cube
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In geometry, an 8-cube is an eight-dimensional hypercube. It has 256 vertices,1024 edges,1792 square faces,1792 cubic cells,1120 tesseract 4-faces,448 5-cube 5-faces,112 6-cube 6-faces and it is represented by Schläfli symbol, being composed of 3 7-cubes around each 6-face. It is called an octeract, a portmanteau of tesseract and oct for eight in Greek and it can also be called a regular hexdeca-8-tope or hexadecazetton, being an 8-dimensional polytope constructed from 16 regular facets. It is a part of an family of polytopes, called hypercubes. The dual of an 8-cube can be called a 8-orthoplex, and is a part of the family of cross-polytopes. Cartesian coordinates for the vertices of an 8-cube centered at the origin, applying an alternation operation, deleting alternating vertices of the octeract, creates another uniform polytope, called a 8-demicube, which has 16 demihepteractic and 128 8-simplex facets. Coxeter, Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Manuscript N. W. Johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D, 8D uniform polytopes o3o3o3o3o3o3o4x - octo. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007
41.
Uniform 9-polytope
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In nine-dimensional geometry, a nine-dimensional polytope or 9-polytope is a polytope contained by 8-polytope facets. Each 7-polytope ridge being shared by exactly two 8-polytope facets, a uniform 9-polytope is one which is vertex-transitive, and constructed from uniform 8-polytope facets. Regular 9-polytopes can be represented by the Schläfli symbol, with w 8-polytope facets around each peak, There are exactly three such convex regular 9-polytopes, - 9-simplex - 9-cube - 9-orthoplex There are no nonconvex regular 9-polytopes. The topology of any given 9-polytope is defined by its Betti numbers, the value of the Euler characteristic used to characterise polyhedra does not generalize usefully to higher dimensions, whatever their underlying topology. This inadequacy of the Euler characteristic to distinguish between different topologies in higher dimensions led to the discovery of the more sophisticated Betti numbers. Similarly, the notion of orientability of a polyhedron is insufficient to characterise the surface twistings of toroidal polytopes, - 9-orthoplex,611 - The A9 family has symmetry of order 3628800. There are 256+16-1=271 forms based on all permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams with one or more rings, bowers-style acronym names are given in parentheses for cross-referencing. There are 511 forms based on all permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams with one or more rings, eleven cases are shown below, Nine rectified forms and 2 truncations. Bowers-style acronym names are given in parentheses for cross-referencing, bowers-style acronym names are given in parentheses for cross-referencing. The D9 family has symmetry of order 92,897,280 and this family has 3×128−1=383 Wythoffian uniform polytopes, generated by marking one or more nodes of the D9 Coxeter-Dynkin diagram. Of these,255 are repeated from the B9 family and 128 are unique to this family, bowers-style acronym names are given in parentheses for cross-referencing. However, there are 4 noncompact hyperbolic Coxeter groups of rank 9, T. Gosset, On the Regular and Semi-Regular Figures in Space of n Dimensions, Messenger of Mathematics, Macmillan,1900 A. S. M. Miller, Uniform Polyhedra, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973 Kaleidoscopes, Selected Writings of H. S. M. Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, N. W, johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Toronto,1966 Klitzing, Richard, polytope names Polytopes of Various Dimensions, Jonathan Bowers Multi-dimensional Glossary Glossary for hyperspace, George Olshevsky
42.
9-cube
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It can be named by its Schläfli symbol, being composed of three 8-cubes around each 7-face. It is also called an enneract, a portmanteau of tesseract and it can also be called a regular octadeca-9-tope or octadecayotton, as a nine-dimensional polytope constructed with 18 regular facets. It is a part of an family of polytopes, called hypercubes. The dual of a 9-cube can be called a 9-orthoplex, and is a part of the family of cross-polytopes. Cartesian coordinates for the vertices of a 9-cube centered at the origin, applying an alternation operation, deleting alternating vertices of the 9-cube, creates another uniform polytope, called a 9-demicube, which has 18 8-demicube and 256 8-simplex facets. Coxeter, Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, three regular polytopes in n-dimensions H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Manuscript N. W. Johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D, 9D uniform polytopes o3o3o3o3o3o3o3o4x - enne. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007
43.
Uniform 10-polytope
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In ten-dimensional geometry, a 10-polytope is a 10-dimensional polytope whose boundary consists of 9-polytope facets, exactly two such facets meeting at each 8-polytope ridge. A uniform 10-polytope is one which is vertex-transitive, and constructed from uniform facets, Regular 10-polytopes can be represented by the Schläfli symbol, with x 9-polytope facets around each peak. There are exactly three convex regular 10-polytopes, - 10-simplex - 10-cube - 10-orthoplex There are no nonconvex regular 10-polytopes. The topology of any given 10-polytope is defined by its Betti numbers, the value of the Euler characteristic used to characterise polyhedra does not generalize usefully to higher dimensions, and is zero for all 10-polytopes, whatever their underlying topology. This inadequacy of the Euler characteristic to distinguish between different topologies in higher dimensions led to the discovery of the more sophisticated Betti numbers. Similarly, the notion of orientability of a polyhedron is insufficient to characterise the surface twistings of toroidal polytopes, There are 512+16-1=527 forms based on all permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams with one or more rings. 31 are shown below, all one and two ringed forms, and the final omnitruncated form, bowers-style acronym names are given in parentheses for cross-referencing. There are 1023 forms based on all permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams with one or more rings, twelve cases are shown below, ten single-ring forms, and two truncations. Bowers-style acronym names are given in parentheses for cross-referencing, the D10 family has symmetry of order 1,857,945,600. This family has 3×256−1=767 Wythoffian uniform polytopes, generated by marking one or more nodes of the D10 Coxeter-Dynkin diagram, of these,511 are repeated from the B10 family and 256 are unique to this family, with 2 listed below. Bowers-style acronym names are given in parentheses for cross-referencing, however, there are 3 noncompact hyperbolic Coxeter groups of rank 9, each generating uniform honeycombs in 9-space as permutations of rings of the Coxeter diagrams. Miller, Uniform Polyhedra, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973 Kaleidoscopes, Selected Writings of H. S. M. Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, N. W, johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Toronto,1966 Klitzing, Richard, polytope names Polytopes of Various Dimensions, Jonathan Bowers Multi-dimensional Glossary Glossary for hyperspace, George Olshevsky
44.
10-cube
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In geometry, a 10-cube is a ten-dimensional hypercube. It can be named by its Schläfli symbol, being composed of 3 9-cubes around each 8-face and it is a part of an infinite family of polytopes, called hypercubes. The dual of a dekeract can be called a 10-orthoplex or decacross, cartesian coordinates for the vertices of a dekeract centered at the origin and edge length 2 are while the interior of the same consists of all points with −1 < xi <1. Applying an alternation operation, deleting alternating vertices of the dekeract, creates another uniform polytope, called a 10-demicube, which has 20 demienneractic and 512 enneazettonic facets. Coxeter, Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, three regular polytopes in n-dimensions H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Manuscript N. W. Johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D, 10D uniform polytopes o3o3o3o3o3o3o3o3o4x - deker. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007, multi-dimensional Glossary, hypercube Garrett Jones Sloanes A135289, Hypercubes, 10-cube. The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences
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