1.
Linguistics
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Linguistics is the scientific study of language, and involves an analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context. Linguists traditionally analyse human language by observing an interplay between sound and meaning, phonetics is the study of speech and non-speech sounds, and delves into their acoustic and articulatory properties. While the study of semantics typically concerns itself with truth conditions, Grammar is a system of rules which governs the production and use of utterances in a given language. These rules apply to sound as well as meaning, and include componential sub-sets of rules, such as those pertaining to phonology, morphology, modern theories that deal with the principles of grammar are largely based within Noam Chomskys ideological school of generative grammar. In the early 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure distinguished between the notions of langue and parole in his formulation of structural linguistics. According to him, parole is the utterance of speech, whereas langue refers to an abstract phenomenon that theoretically defines the principles. This distinction resembles the one made by Noam Chomsky between competence and performance in his theory of transformative or generative grammar. According to Chomsky, competence is an innate capacity and potential for language, while performance is the specific way in which it is used by individuals, groups. The study of parole is the domain of sociolinguistics, the sub-discipline that comprises the study of a system of linguistic facets within a certain speech community. Discourse analysis further examines the structure of texts and conversations emerging out of a speech communitys usage of language, Stylistics also involves the study of written, signed, or spoken discourse through varying speech communities, genres, and editorial or narrative formats in the mass media. In the 1960s, Jacques Derrida, for instance, further distinguished between speech and writing, by proposing that language be studied as a linguistic medium of communication in itself. Palaeography is therefore the discipline that studies the evolution of scripts in language. Linguistics also deals with the social, cultural, historical and political factors that influence language, through which linguistic, research on language through the sub-branches of historical and evolutionary linguistics also focus on how languages change and grow, particularly over an extended period of time. Language documentation combines anthropological inquiry with linguistic inquiry, in order to describe languages, lexicography involves the documentation of words that form a vocabulary. Such a documentation of a vocabulary from a particular language is usually compiled in a dictionary. Computational linguistics is concerned with the statistical or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective, specific knowledge of language is applied by speakers during the act of translation and interpretation, as well as in language education – the teaching of a second or foreign language. Policy makers work with governments to implement new plans in education, related areas of study also includes the disciplines of semiotics, literary criticism, translation, and speech-language pathology. Before the 20th century, the philology, first attested in 1716, was commonly used to refer to the science of language
2.
Word
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In linguistics, a word is the smallest element that can be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content. This contrasts deeply with a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning, a word may consist of a single morpheme, or several, whereas a morpheme may not be able to stand on its own as a word. A complex word will typically include a root and one or more affixes, words can be put together to build larger elements of language, such as phrases, clauses, and sentences. The term word may refer to a word or to a written word. Spoken words are made up of units of sound called phonemes, the difficulty of deciphering a word depends on the language. Dictionaries categorize a languages lexicon into lemmas and these can be taken as an indication of what constitutes a word in the opinion of the writers of that language. The most appropriate means of measuring the length of a word is by counting its syllables or morphemes, when a word has multiple definitions or multiple senses, it may result in confusion in a debate or discussion. Leonard Bloomfield introduced the concept of Minimal Free Forms in 1926, words are thought of as the smallest meaningful unit of speech that can stand by themselves. However, some words are not minimal free forms as they make no sense by themselves. Some semanticists have put forward a theory of so-called semantic primitives or semantic primes, according to this theory, semantic primes serve as the basis for describing the meaning, without circularity, of other words and their associated conceptual denotations. In the Minimalist school of theoretical syntax, words are construed as bundles of features that are united into a structure with form. For example, the word koalas has semantic features, category features, number features, phonological features, the task of defining what constitutes a word involves determining where one word ends and another word begins—in other words, identifying word boundaries. There are several ways to determine where the boundaries of spoken language should be placed, Potential pause, A speaker is told to repeat a given sentence slowly. The speaker will tend to insert pauses at the word boundaries, however, this method is not foolproof, the speaker could easily break up polysyllabic words, or fail to separate two or more closely linked words. Indivisibility, A speaker is told to say a sentence out loud, thus, I have lived in this village for ten years might become My family and I have lived in this little village for about ten or so years. These extra words will tend to be added in the boundaries of the original sentence. However, some languages have infixes, which are put inside a word, similarly, some have separable affixes, in the German sentence Ich komme gut zu Hause an, the verb ankommen is separated. Phonetic boundaries, Some languages have rules of pronunciation that make it easy to spot where a word boundary should be
3.
Phrase
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In everyday speech, a phrase may be any group of words, often carrying a special idiomatic meaning, in this sense it is roughly synonymous with expression. In linguistic analysis, a phrase is a group of words that functions as a constituent in the syntax of a sentence, a phrase typically appears within a clause, but it is possible also for a phrase to be a clause or to contain a clause within it. There is a difference between the use of the term phrase and its technical use in linguistics. In common usage, a phrase is usually a group of words with some special meaning or other significance, such as all rights reserved, economical with the truth, kick the bucket. It may be a euphemism, a saying or proverb, a fixed expression, in grammatical analysis, particularly in theories of syntax, a phrase is any group of words, or sometimes a single word, which plays a particular role within the grammatical structure of a sentence. It does not have to have any meaning or significance, or even exist anywhere outside of the sentence being analyzed. This means that expressions that may be called phrases in everyday language are not phrases in the technical sense. In grammatical analysis, most phrases contain a key word that identifies the type and linguistic features of the phrase, this is known as the head-word, or the head. The syntactic category of the head is used to name the category of the phrase, for example, the remaining words in a phrase are called the dependents of the head. Most theories of syntax view most phrases as having a head, a phrase lacking a head is known as exocentric, and phrases with heads are endocentric. When a noun is used in a sentence without an explicit determiner, for full discussion, see Determiner phrase. See the Generative approaches section of the article for details. Many theories of syntax and grammar illustrate sentence structure using phrase trees, trees show the words, phrases, and, at times, clauses that make up sentences. Any word combination that corresponds to a complete subtree can be seen as a phrase, there are two established and competing principles for constructing trees, they produce constituency and dependency trees and both are illustrated here using an example sentence. The node labels in the two trees mark the syntactic category of the different constituents, or word elements, of the sentence, in the constituency tree each phrase is marked by a phrasal node, and there are eight phrases identified by phrase structure analysis in the example sentence. On the other hand, the tree identifies a phrase by any node that exerts dependency upon, or dominates. And, using dependency analysis, there are six phrases in the sentence, the trees and phrase-counts demonstrate that different theories of syntax differ in the word combinations they qualify as a phrase. Here the constituency tree identifies three phrases that the tree does not, namely, house at the end of the street, end of the street
4.
Bird
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Birds, a subgroup of Reptiles, are the last living examples of Dinosaurs. Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5 cm bee hummingbird to the 2.75 m ostrich. They rank as the class of tetrapods with the most living species, at ten thousand. Birds are the closest living relatives of crocodilians, the fossil record indicates that birds evolved from feathered ancestors within the theropod group of saurischian dinosaurs. True birds first appeared during the Cretaceous period, around 100 million years ago, Birds, especially those in the southern continents, survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world while diversifying during periods of global cooling. Primitive bird-like dinosaurs that lie outside class Aves proper, in the broader group Avialae, have been found dating back to the mid-Jurassic period, around 170 million years ago. Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species, the digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have evolved for swimming. Many species annually migrate great distances, Birds are social, communicating with visual signals, calls, and bird songs, and participating in such social behaviours as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking, and mobbing of predators. The vast majority of species are socially monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous or, rarely, Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised through sexual reproduction. They are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents, most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Some birds, such as hens, lay eggs even when not fertilised, songbirds, parrots, and other species are popular as pets. Guano is harvested for use as a fertiliser, Birds prominently figure throughout human culture. About 120–130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century, human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry, the first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae. Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use, Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy. Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the dinosaur clade Theropoda, Aves and a sister group, the clade Crocodilia, contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria
5.
Animal
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Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia. The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the group to the choanoflagellates. Animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives and their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs, they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance, most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates, vertebrates have a backbone or spine, and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, the remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs, arthropods, annelids, nematodes, flatworms, cnidarians, ctenophores, the study of animals is called zoology. The word animal comes from the Latin animalis, meaning having breath, the biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges, jellyfish, insects, and humans. Aristotle divided the world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carl Linnaeus, in the first hierarchical classification. In Linnaeuss original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, in 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms, Metazoa and Protozoa. The protozoa were later moved to the kingdom Protista, leaving only the metazoa, thus Metazoa is now considered a synonym of Animalia. Animals have several characteristics that set apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and they are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals. With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges and Placozoa and these include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals
6.
Screwdriver
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A screwdriver is a tool, manual or powered, for turning screws. A typical simple screwdriver has a handle and a shaft, the shaft is usually made of tough steel to resist bending or twisting. The tip may be hardened to resist wear, treated with a dark tip coating for improved visual contrast between tip and screw—or ridged or treated for additional grip. Handles are typically wood, metal, or plastic and usually hexagonal, square, or oval in cross-section to improve grip, some manual screwdrivers have interchangeable tips that fit into a socket on the end of the shaft and are held in mechanically or magnetically. These often have a handle that contains various types and sizes of tips. A screwdriver is classified by its tip, which is shaped to fit the driving surfaces—slots, grooves, recesses, proper use requires that the screwdrivers tip engage the head of a screw of the same size and type designation as the screwdriver tip. Screwdriver tips are available in a variety of types and sizes. The two most common are the simple blade-type for slotted screws, and Phillips®, generically referred to as cross-recess and this is particularly useful as drilling a pilot hole before driving a screw is a common operation. Special combination drill-driver bits and adapters let an operator rapidly alternate between the two, variations include impact drivers, which provide two types of hammering force for improved performance in certain situations, and right-angle drivers for use in tight spaces. Many options and enhancements, such as built-in bubble levels, high/low gear selection, magnetic screw holders, adjustable-torque clutches, keyless chucks, gyroscopic control, the earliest documented screwdrivers were used in Europe in the late Middle Ages. They were probably invented in the late 15th century, either in Germany or France, the tools original names in German and French were Schraubendreher and tournevis, respectively. The first documentation of the tool is in the medieval Housebook of Wolfegg Castle and these earliest screwdrivers had pear-shaped handles and were made for slotted screws. The screwdriver remained inconspicuous, however, as evidence of its existence throughout the next 300 years is based primarily on the presence of screws, screws, hence screwdrivers, were not used in full combat armor, most likely to give the wearer freedom of movement. The jaws that hold the pyrites inside medieval guns were secured with screws, the tool is more documented in France, and took on many shapes and sizes, though all for slotted screws. There were large, heavy-duty screwdrivers for building and repairing large machines, the screwdriver depended entirely on the screw, and it took several advances to make the screw easy enough to produce to become popular and widespread. The most popular door hinge at the time was the butt-hinge, the butt-hinge was handmade, and its constant motion required the security of a screw. Screws were very hard to produce before the First Industrial Revolution, the brothers Job and William Wyatt found a way to produce a screw on a novel machine that first cut the slotted head, and then cut the helix. Though their business failed, their contribution to low-cost manufacturing of the screw ultimately led to a vast increase in the screw
7.
Screwdriver (cocktail)
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A screwdriver is a popular alcoholic highball drink made with orange juice and vodka. While the basic drink is simply the two ingredients, there are variations, the most common one is made with one part vodka, one part of any kind of orange soda. Many of the variations have different names in different parts of the world, the International Bartender Association has designated this cocktail as an IBA Official Cocktail. This drink appears in literature as early as 1938 And answered it The famous Smirnoff Screwdriver, Just pour a jigger of smirnoff vodka over ice cubes, fill glass with orange juice and serve. A screwdriver with two parts of Sloe Gin, and filled with orange juice is a Slow Screw, a screwdriver with two parts of Sloe Gin, one part of Southern Comfort and filled with orange juice is a Slow Comfortable Screw. A screwdriver with one part of Sloe Gin, one part of Southern Comfort and one part Galliano, a screwdriver with two parts vodka, four parts orange juice, and one part Galliano is a Harvey Wallbanger. A screwdriver with equal parts vanilla vodka and Blue Curaçao topped with lemon-lime soda is a Sonic Screwdriver
8.
Computer science
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Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
9.
WordNet
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WordNet is a lexical database for the English language. It groups English words into sets of synonyms called synsets, provides definitions and usage examples. WordNet can thus be seen as a combination of dictionary and thesaurus, while it is accessible to human users via a web browser, its primary use is in automatic text analysis and artificial intelligence applications. The database and software tools have been released under a BSD style license and are available for download from the WordNet website. Both the lexicographic data and the compiler for producing the distributed database are available, the project received funding from government agencies including the National Science Foundation, DARPA, the Disruptive Technology Office, and REFLEX. George Miller and Christiane Fellbaum were awarded the 2006 Antonio Zampolli Prize for their work with WordNet, as of November 2012 WordNets latest Online-version is 3.1. The database contains 155,287 words organized in 117,659 synsets for a total of 206,941 word-sense pairs, in compressed form, WordNet includes the lexical categories nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs but ignores prepositions, determiners and other function words. Words from the lexical category that are roughly synonymous are grouped into synsets. Synsets include simplex words as well as collocations like eat out, the different senses of a polysemous word form are assigned to different synsets. The meaning of a synset is further clarified with a short defining gloss, an example adjective synset is, good, right, ripe – All synsets are connected to other synsets by means of semantic relations. Individual synset members can also be connected with lexical relations, for example, the noun director is linked to the verb direct from which it is derived via a morphosemantic link. The morphology functions of the software distributed with the try to deduce the lemma or stem form of a word from the users input. Irregular forms are stored in a list, and looking up ate will return eat, both nouns and verbs are organized into hierarchies, defined by hypernym or IS A relationships. For instance, one sense of the dog is found following hypernym hierarchy. Each set of synonyms has a unique index, at the top level, these hierarchies are organized into 25 beginner trees for nouns and 15 for verbs. All are linked to a unique beginner synset, entity, noun hierarchies are far deeper than verb hierarchies Adjectives are not organized into hierarchical trees. Instead, two central antonyms such as hot and cold form binary poles, while satellite synonyms such as steaming, the adjectives can be visualized in this way as dumbbells rather than as trees. The initial goal of the WordNet project was to build a database that would be consistent with theories of human semantic memory developed in the late 1960s
10.
Translation
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Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. While interpreting—the facilitating of oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages—antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance of written literature, there exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE. Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language translation, on the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated, because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers have sought to automate translation or to mechanically aid the human translator. The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for services and has facilitated language localization. Translation studies systematically study the theory and practice of translation, the English word translation derives from the Latin word translatio, which comes from trans, across + ferre, to carry or to bring. Thus translatio is a carrying across or a bringing across, in this case, the Germanic languages and some Slavic languages have calqued their words for the concept of translation on translatio. The Romance languages and the remaining Slavic languages have derived their words for the concept of translation from an alternative Latin word, traductio, the Ancient Greek term for translation, μετάφρασις, has supplied English with metaphrase — as contrasted with paraphrase. Metaphrase corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to formal equivalence, nevertheless, metaphrase and paraphrase may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation. Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into antiquity, the ancient Greeks distinguished between metaphrase and paraphrase. Literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed, Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of imitation, i. e. of adapted translation, When a painter copies from the life. He has no privilege to alter features and lineaments, despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has hardly changed since antiquity. The grammatical differences between languages and free-word-order languages have been no impediment in this regard. The particular syntax characteristics of a source language are adjusted to the syntactic requirements of the target language. When a target language has lacked terms that are found in a language, translators have borrowed those terms. However, due to shifts in ecological niches of words, an etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused with the cognate French actuel, the Polish aktualny, the Swedish aktuell, the translators role as a bridge for carrying across values between cultures has been discussed at least since Terence, the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translators role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, the main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as Cicero
11.
Machine translation
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Current machine translation software often allows for customization by domain or profession, improving output by limiting the scope of allowable substitutions. This technique is effective in domains where formal or formulaic language is used. It follows that machine translation of government and legal documents more readily produces usable output than conversation or less standardised text. With the assistance of techniques, MT has proven useful as a tool to assist human translators and, in a very limited number of cases. The progress and potential of machine translation have been debated much through its history, since the 1950s, a number of scholars have questioned the possibility of achieving fully automatic machine translation of high quality. Some critics claim there are in-principle obstacles to automating the translation process. The idea of machine translation may be traced back to the 17th century, in 1629, René Descartes proposed a universal language, with equivalent ideas in different tongues sharing one symbol. The field of machine translation appeared in Warren Weavers Memorandum on Translation, the first researcher in the field, Yehosha Bar-Hillel, began his research at MIT. A Georgetown University MT research team followed with a demonstration of its Georgetown-IBM experiment system in 1954. MT research programs popped up in Japan and Russia, and the first MT conference was held in London, real progress was much slower, however, and after the ALPAC report, which found that the ten-year-long research had failed to fulfill expectations, funding was greatly reduced. Beginning in the late 1980s, as computational power increased and became less expensive, various MT companies were launched, including Trados, which was the first to develop and market translation memory technology. The first commercial MT system for Russian / English / German-Ukrainian was developed at Kharkov State University, MT on the web started with SYSTRAN Offering free translation of small texts, followed by AltaVista Babelfish, which racked up 500,000 requests a day. Franz-Josef Och won DARPAs speed MT competition, recently, Google announced that Google Translate translates roughly enough text to fill 1 million books in one day. The idea of using computers for translation of natural languages was proposed as early as 1946 by A. D. Warren Weaver wrote an important memorandum Translation in 1949, several papers on the topic were published at the time, and even articles in popular journals. A similar application, also pioneered at Birkbeck College at the time, was reading and composing Braille texts by computer, the human translation process may be described as, Decoding the meaning of the source text, and Re-encoding this meaning in the target language. Behind this ostensibly simple procedure lies a complex cognitive operation, of the source language, as well as the culture of its speakers. The translator needs the same in-depth knowledge to re-encode the meaning in the target language, in its most general application, this is beyond current technology
12.
Synonym
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A synonym is a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase in the same language. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy, the word comes from Ancient Greek sýn and ónoma. An example of synonyms are the words begin, start, commence, words can be synonymous when meant in certain senses, even if they are not synonymous in all of their senses. For example, if one talks about a time or an extended time, long. Some academics call the former type cognitive synonyms to distinguish them from the latter type, some lexicographers claim that no synonyms have exactly the same meaning because etymology, orthography, phonic qualities, ambiguous meanings, usage, etc. make them unique. Different words that are similar in meaning usually differ for a reason, feline is more formal than cat, long and extended are only synonyms in one usage, synonyms are also a source of euphemisms. In the figurative sense, two words are said to be synonymous if they have the same connotation. a widespread impression that. Metonymy can sometimes be a form of synonymy, as when, for example, thus a metonym is a type of synonym, and the word metonym is a hyponym of the word synonym. The analysis of synonymy, polysemy, hyponymy, and hypernymy is inherent to taxonomy and it has applications in pedagogy and machine learning, because they rely on word-sense disambiguation and schema. Synonyms can be any part of speech, as long as both words belong to the part of speech. Such like, he expired means the same as he died, in English, many synonyms emerged in the Middle Ages, after the Norman conquest of England. While Englands new ruling class spoke Norman French, the lower classes continued to speak Old English, thus, today we have synonyms like the Norman-derived people, liberty and archer, and the Saxon-derived folk, freedom and bowman. For more examples, see the list of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English, the purpose of a thesaurus is to offer the user a listing of similar or related words, these are often, but not always, synonyms. The word poecilonym is a synonym of the word synonym. It is not entered in most major dictionaries and is a curiosity or piece of trivia for being a word because of its meta quality as a synonym of synonym. Antonyms are words with opposite or nearly opposite meanings, for example, hot ↔ cold, large ↔ small, thick ↔ thin, synonym ↔ antonym Hypernyms and hyponyms are words that refer to, respectively, a general category and a specific instance of that category. For example, vehicle is a hypernym of car, and car is a hyponym of vehicle, homophones are words that have the same pronunciation, but different meanings. For example, witch and which are homophones in most accents, homographs are words that have the same spelling, but have different pronunciations
13.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
14.
Reference work
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A reference work is a book or periodical to which one can refer for information. The information is intended to be found quickly when needed, Reference works are usually referred to for particular pieces of information, rather than read beginning to end. The writing style used in works is informative, the authors avoid use of the first person. Many reference works are compiled by a team of contributors whose work is coordinated by one or more editors rather than by an individual author, indices are commonly provided in many types of reference work. Updated editions are published as needed, in some cases annually. Reference works include dictionaries, thesauruses, encyclopedias, almanacs, bibliographies, many reference works are available in electronic form and can be obtained as application software, CD-ROMs, DVDs, or online through the Internet. A reference work is useful to its users if they attribute some degree of trust, in comparison, a reference book or reference-only book in a library is one that may only be used in the library and may not be borrowed from the library. Many such books are works, which are, usually, used briefly or photocopied from. Keeping them in the library assures that they always be available for use on demand. Some reference-only books are too valuable to permit borrowers to take them out, reference-only items may be shelved in a reference collection located separately from circulating items. Some libraries consist entirely, or to an extent, of books which may not be borrowed. An electronic resource is a piece of information that is stored electronically, general American Reference Books Annual, ARBA. Littleton, Col. Libraries Unlimited, 1970- Bergenholtz, H. Nielsen, S. Tarp, S. Lexicography at a Crossroads, Dictionaries and Encyclopedias Today, printed Reference Material London, Library Association Katz, W. A. Introduction to Reference Work, 3rd ed.2 vols, new York, McGraw-Hill Nielsen, Sandro The Effect of Lexicographical Information Costs on Dictionary Making and Use. J. Walfords Concise Guide to Reference Material, London, Library Association ISBN 0-85365-882-X, p.19. Books of Reference for School Libraries, an annotated list, 2nd ed. London, Library Association Malclès, geneva, Droz, 1950-58 Sheehy, E. P. et al. comps. Guide to Reference Books, 9th ed. Chicago, American Library Association, Supplement,1980 Totok, W. & Weitzel, aufl. hrg. von W. Totok, K. -H. Frankfurt am Main, Klostermann Day, Alan, walford, A. J. Walfords Guide to Reference Material
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Dictionary
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It is a lexicographical product which shows inter-relationships among the data. A broad distinction is made between general and specialized dictionaries, Specialized dictionaries include words in specialist fields, rather than a complete range of words in the language. Lexical items that describe concepts in specific fields are called terms instead of words. In practice, the two approaches are used for both types, there are other types of dictionaries that do not fit neatly into the above distinction, for instance bilingual dictionaries, dictionaries of synonyms, and rhyming dictionaries. The word dictionary is usually understood to refer to a general purpose monolingual dictionary, there is also a contrast between prescriptive or descriptive dictionaries, the former reflect what is seen as correct use of the language while the latter reflect recorded actual use. Stylistic indications in many modern dictionaries are also considered by some to be less than objectively descriptive, the birth of the new discipline was not without controversy, the practical dictionary-makers being sometimes accused by others of astonishing lack of method and critical-self reflection. The oldest known dictionaries were Akkadian Empire cuneiform tablets with bilingual Sumerian–Akkadian wordlists, discovered in Ebla, the early 2nd millennium BCE Urra=hubullu glossary is the canonical Babylonian version of such bilingual Sumerian wordlists. Philitas of Cos wrote a pioneering vocabulary Disorderly Words which explained the meanings of rare Homeric and other words, words from local dialects. Apollonius the Sophist wrote the oldest surviving Homeric lexicon, the first Sanskrit dictionary, the Amarakośa, was written by Amara Sinha c. 4th century CE. Written in verse, it listed around 10,000 words, according to the Nihon Shoki, the first Japanese dictionary was the long-lost 682 CE Niina glossary of Chinese characters. The oldest existing Japanese dictionary, the c.835 CE Tenrei Banshō Meigi, was also a glossary of written Chinese, a 9th-century CE Irish dictionary, Sanas Cormaic, contained etymologies and explanations of over 1,400 Irish words. In India around 1320, Amir Khusro compiled the Khaliq-e-bari which mainly dealt with Hindavi, in medieval Europe, glossaries with equivalents for Latin words in vernacular or simpler Latin were in use. The Catholicon by Johannes Balbus, a large grammatical work with a lexicon, was widely adopted. It served as the basis for several bilingual dictionaries and was one of the earliest books to be printed, in 1502 Ambrogio Calepinos Dictionarium was published, originally a monolingual Latin dictionary, which over the course of the 16th century was enlarged to become a multilingual glossary. The first monolingual dictionary written in Europe was the Spanish, written by Sebastián Covarrubias Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española, published in 1611 in Madrid, in 1612 the first edition of the Vocabolario dellAccademia della Crusca, for Italian, was published. It served as the model for works in French and English. In 1690 in Rotterdam was published, posthumously, the Dictionnaire Universel by Antoine Furetière for French, in 1694 appeared the first edition of the Dictionnaire de lAcadémie française. Between 1712 and 1721 was published the Vocabulario portughez e latino written by Raphael Bluteau, the Totius Latinitatis lexicon by Egidio Forcellini was firstly published in 1777, it has formed the basis of all similar works that have since been published
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Glossary
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A glossary, also known as a vocabulary or clavis, is an alphabetical list of terms in a particular domain of knowledge with the definitions for those terms. Traditionally, a glossary appears at the end of a book and includes terms within that book that are newly introduced, uncommon. While glossaries are most commonly associated with books, in some cases. A bilingual glossary is a list of terms in one language defined in a language or glossed by synonyms in another language. In a general sense, a glossary contains explanations of concepts relevant to a field of study or action. In this sense, the term is related to the notion of ontology, automatic methods have been also provided that transform a glossary into an ontology or a computational lexicon. A core glossary is a glossary or defining dictionary that enables definition of other concepts. It contains a working vocabulary and definitions for important or frequently encountered concepts. Computational approaches to the extraction of glossaries from corpora or the Web have been developed in the recent years. These methods typically start from domain terminology and extract one or more glosses for each term of interest, glosses can then be analyzed to extract hypernyms of the defined term and other lexical and semantic relations
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Phrase book
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A phrase book or phrasebook is a collection of ready-made phrases, usually for a foreign language along with a translation, indexed and often in the form of questions and answers. While mostly thematically structured into chapters like interpersonal relationships, food, at the doctor. Also common are a concise grammar and an index intended for quick reference, a phrase book generally features high clarity and a practical, sometimes color-coded structure to enable its user to communicate in a quick and easy, though very basic, manner. Especially with this in mind a phrase book sometimes also provides several possible answers to each question, additional audio material is often included to help pronunciation and comprehension. This kind of books is often referred to as a talking phrase book or voice translator. Hand-written phrase books were used in the Mediaeval Europe by pilgrims to the Holy Land, major European languages, Greek, by the 15th century, phrase books designed for merchants involved in the international trade are attested as well. The earliest known example of genre is a 1424 manuscript compiled by one Master George of Nuremberg. Printed phrase books appeared by the late 15th century, exemplified by the Good Boke to Lerne to Speke French. In Asia, phrase books were compiled for the travelers on the Silk Road already in the first millennium AD, such as a Dunhuang manuscript containing a set of useful Saka and Sanskrit phrases. James Thurber wrote an essay, Theres No Place Like Home, concerning a phrase book he came across in a London bookstore Collins Pocket Interprers. The essay appeared in The New Yorker of August 14,1937, the British comedian group Monty Python featured a phrase book containing wrong translations in two of their sketches. English as She is Spoke is a classic of unwittingly incompetent translation. The expression My postillion has been struck by lightning, supposedly included in some phrasebooks, is used to some of the less likely to be useful phrases found in some books. Dirk Bogarde published a memoir with this title, the 1972 short story by Joanna Russ, Useful Phrases for the Tourist, takes the form of an excerpt from a phrase book. Since its initial appearance it has been reprinted nine times, and has translated into Italian. Phrasebooks exist not only for living languages, but also for languages that are no longer spoken natively by anyone, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook
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Thesaurus
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Although including synonyms, a thesaurus should not be taken as a complete list of all the synonyms for a particular word. The entries are also designed for drawing distinctions between words and assisting in choosing exactly the right word. Unlike a dictionary, a thesaurus entry does not give the definition of words, in library science and information science, thesauri have been widely used to specify domain models. Recently, thesauri have been implemented with Simple Knowledge Organization System, the word thesaurus is derived from 16th-century New Latin, in turn from Latin thēsaurus, which is the Latinisation of the Greek θησαυρός, treasure, treasury, storehouse. The word thēsauros is of uncertain etymology, douglas Harper derives it from the root of the Greek verb τιθέναι tithenai, to put, to place. Robert Beekes rejected an Indo-European derivation and suggested a Pre-Greek suffix *-arwo-, from the 16th to the 19th centuries, the term thesaurus was applied to any dictionary or encyclopedia, as in the Thesaurus linguae latinae, and the Thesaurus linguae graecae. The meaning collection of words arranged according to sense is first attested in 1852 in Rogets title, in antiquity, Philo of Byblos authored the first text that could now be called a thesaurus. In Sanskrit, the Amarakosha is a thesaurus in verse form, the first modern thesaurus was Rogets Thesaurus, first compiled in 1805 by Peter Mark Roget, and published in 1852. Since its publication it has never been out of print and is still a widely used work across the English-speaking world, entries in Rogets Thesaurus are listed conceptually rather than alphabetically. AGRIS Controlled vocabulary Knowledge Organization Systems Ontology Simple Knowledge Organisation System ISO25964 The dictionary definition of thesaurus at Wiktionary
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Bilingual dictionary
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A bilingual dictionary or translation dictionary is a specialized dictionary used to translate words or phrases from one language to another. Bilingual dictionaries can be unidirectional, meaning that they list the meanings of words of one language in another, or can be bidirectional, allowing translation to, bidirectional bilingual dictionaries usually consist of two sections, each listing words and phrases of one language alphabetically along with their translation. In addition to the translation, a bilingual dictionary usually indicates the part of speech, gender, verb type, declension model, other features sometimes present in bilingual dictionaries are lists of phrases, usage and style guides, verb tables, maps and grammar references. In contrast to the dictionary, a monolingual dictionary defines words. The Roman Emperor Claudius is known to have compiled an Etruscan-Latin dictionary, one substantial bilingual dictionary was the Mahāvyutpatti. Dictionaries from Hebrew and Aramaic into medieval French were composed in the European Jewish communities in the 10th century CE and these were used for understanding and teaching the Talmud and other Jewish texts. The most important challenge for practical and theoretical lexicographers is to define the functions of a bilingual dictionary, a bilingual dictionary works to help users translate texts from one language into another or to help users understand foreign-language texts. In such situations users will require the dictionary to contain different types of data that have been selected for the function in question. If the dictionary is intended to translate texts, it will need to include not only equivalents but also collocations. The British lexicographer Robert Ilson gives example definitions from the Collins-Robert French-English English-French Dictionary, both phrases can be understood reasonably well from their constituents and have fairly obvious contrasts with garde urbain in French or with urban policeman in English. But garde champêtre has a specific unpredictable contrast within the system of French. But a gendarme is a member of a police force that is technically part of the French Army whereas a garde champêtre is employed by a local commune. Rural policeman has no such contrast, for example, in English, a ticket can provide entrance to a movie theater, authorize a bus or train ride, or can be given to you by a police officer for exceeding the posted speed limit. Recently, a method for the disambiguation of the entries of bilingual dictionaries has been proposed that makes use of specific kinds of graphs. As a result, translations in each entry of the dictionary are assigned the specific sense they refer to, to mitigate the problem of one word having multiple meanings and its translation having multiple, but not necessarily corresponding meanings, the user should perform a reverse lookup. Reverse lookups can usually be performed faster with Dictionary programs and online dictionaries, bilingual dictionaries are available in a number of formats, and often include a grammar reference and usage examples. Printed dictionaries – Printed dictionaries range from small pocket-sized editions to large, Dictionary programs – software that allows words or phrases to be input and translated on computers and smart phones. Visual dictionaries – A visual dictionary is a dictionary that relies primarily on illustrations to provide the user with a reliable way of identifying the correct translation
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Electronic dictionary
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An electronic dictionary is a dictionary whose data exists in digital form and can be accessed through a number of different media. But soon the opportunities offered by digital media began to be exploited, bilingual electronic dictionaries and monolingual dictionaries of inflected languages often include an interactive verb conjugator, and are capable of word stemming and lemmatization. Dictionary software generally far exceeds the scope of the hand held dictionaries and these programs can either be downloaded or purchased on CD-ROM and installed. Other dictionary software is available from specialised electronic dictionary publishers such as iFinger, Abbyy Lingvo, Collins-Ultralingua, Mobile Systems and they also have functions other than just dictionary, for example, MP3 player, Video player, web browser, and simple games. Most of them usually will have a screen, Qwerty keyboard, a speaker, SD card slot. Their functions can even be comparable to smartphones, with the exception of phone capabilities since they do not have radios to make or receive phone calls. Because they are intended to be portable, the dictionaries are battery-powered. Many devices can be expanded for several languages with the purchase of additional memory cards, manufacturers include AlfaLink, Atree, Besta, Casio, Canon, Instant Dict, Ectaco, Franklin, Iriver, Lingo, Maliang Cyber Technology, Compagnia Lingua Ltd. The market size as of 2014 was about 24.2 billion yen, although the market has been shrinking gradually from 2007 because of smartphones, the targeted customer base has been being shifted from business users to students. Sony and Seiko has withdrawn from the market, as of 2015, the Market Share Ranking is below. At 2016, Seiko announced that their mobile apps on iPad iOS has been launched. Dictionaries of all types are available as apps for smartphones and for tablet computers such as Apples iPad, the BlackBerry PlayBook, there are several types of online dictionary, including, Aggregator sites, which give access to data licensed from various reference publishers. They typically offer monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, one or more thesauruses, examples include Collins Online Dictionary, Duden Online, Larousse bilingual dictionaries, the Macmillan English Dictionary, and the Merriam-Webster Learners Dictionary. Dictionaries available free from non-commercial publishers, examples include the Algemeen Nederlands Woordenboek, and Den Danske Ordbog. Some online dictionaries are regularly updated, keeping abreast of language change, many have additional content, such as blogs and features on new words. Some are collaborative projects, most notably Wiktionary and the Collins Online Dictionary, and some, like the Urban Dictionary, consist of entries supplied by users. Although they may often be presented in list form without a function, because of the way in which the information is stored and transmitted. There are differences in quality of hardware, software, and dictionary content, some hand helds are more robustly constructed than others, and the keyboards or touch screen input systems should be physically compared before purchase
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Encyclopedic dictionary
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An encyclopedic dictionary typically includes a large number of short listings, arranged alphabetically, and discussing a wide range of topics. Encyclopedic dictionaries can be general, containing articles on topics in different fields, or they can specialize in a particular field, such as art, biography, law, medicine. They may also be organized around an academic, cultural, ethnic. Historically, the term has been used to refer to any reference book. However, it developed into a somewhat distinct class of reference books. Hence, while it may offer a definition, it may leave the reader lacking in understanding the meaning or import of a term. An encyclopedia, on the hand, seeks to discuss each subject in more depth. This characteristic is true of those encyclopedias with long monographs on particular subjects. While often organized alphabetically, some encyclopedias were not, usually, more of the discussion may be organized around a field or a topic, and less on the alphabetic terminology related to that discussion. An encyclopedia also often includes many maps and illustrations, as well as bibliography, compared to a dictionary, the encyclopedic dictionary offers a more complete description and a choice of entries selected to convey a range of knowledge. Of course, the question of how to structure the entries, as different approaches are better suited to different uses or users, all three approaches have been in wide use since the end of the 18th century. The title of the volume may not be an indication of which type of reference it is. The encyclopedic dictionary evolved from the dictionary, john Harris subtitled his landmark Lexicon Technicum a universal English dictionary of Arts and Sciences, it was the first English-language, alphabetically ordered collection of knowledge. However, such works were costly and difficult to produce, and to keep current. Hunter was assisted by zoology author Henry Scherren and a team of domestic assistants at his house in Loughton. In the US, the dictionary was reissued with a variety of titles, sandro Nielsen, The Effect of Lexicographical Information Costs on Dictionary Making and Use
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Idiom dictionary
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An idiom dictionary is a dictionary or phrase book that lists and explains idioms – distinctive words or phrases having a figurative meaning that goes beyond the original semantics of the word. For example, the keep your breath to cool your porridge is more likely to be a rebuke to mind your own business than literal advice at breakfast. An idiom is a phrase whose meaning could not be deduced from the meaning of its individual words. The word comes from the Greek ἰδίωμα – the distinctive style of a particular person, the traditional example is kick the bucket which is normally understood to mean dying. The extent to which a phrase is thought idiomatic is a matter of degree, an idiom dictionary may be a traditional book or expressed in another medium such as a database within software for machine translation. Some multilingual dictionaries of idioms are available on-line, one of them is Babelite which is freely accessible. The main readership and market for idiom dictionaries are deaf people, the first major dictionary of idioms in American English was A Dictionary of Idioms for the Deaf, published in 1966 by the American School for the Deaf. Subsequent editions were published under the general title of A Dictionary of American Idioms. Idioms may vary considerably in their presentation, the keywords may vary – green fingers or a green thumb. The grammar may vary – turn the tables or the tables are turned, a phrase may even be recast completely, just following a pattern – a few gallons shy of a full tank or one sandwich short of a picnic. This variation makes organisation of an idiom dictionary difficult, the idioms may be organised in simple alphabetical order, as in The Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English. They may be grouped by keyword, as in the Longman Dictionary of English Idioms, or they may be grouped by domain so that, for example, all idioms based upon nautical expressions such as show him the ropes and three sheets to the wind are put together. Bilingual dictionaries have a problem when dealing with idioms – as well as explaining the idiom. In doing so, they will provide both a literal translation and a free translation. For example, the phrase can be counted on the fingers of one hand, meaning few in number, may translated literally into Chinese as qu zhe ke shu and, more sensibly, glossary of nautical terms Slang dictionary
