1.
Hawaii
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Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
2.
Hawaiian language
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The Hawaiian language is a Polynesian language that takes its name from Hawaiʻi, the largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed. Hawaiian, along with English, is a language of the state of Hawaii. King Kamehameha III established the first Hawaiian-language constitution in 1839 and 1840, Hawaiian was essentially displaced by English on six of seven inhabited islands. In 2001, native speakers of Hawaiian amounted to under 0. 1% of the statewide population, linguists were unsure that Hawaiian and other endangered languages would survive. Nevertheless, from around 1949 to the present day, there has been an increase in attention to. Public Hawaiian-language immersion preschools called Pūnana Leo were started in 1984, the first students to start in immersion preschool have now graduated from college and many are fluent Hawaiian speakers. The federal government has acknowledged this development, for example, the Hawaiian National Park Language Correction Act of 2000 changed the names of several national parks in Hawaiʻi, observing the Hawaiian spelling. A pidgin or creole language spoken in Hawaiʻi is Hawaiian Pidgin and it should not be mistaken for the Hawaiian language nor for a dialect of English. The Hawaiian alphabet has 12 letters, five vowels and seven consonants and it contains an additional consonantal sound okina which is a glottal stop. The island name was first written in English in 1778 by British explorer James Cook and they wrote it as Owhyhee or Owhyee. Explorers Mortimer and Otto von Kotzebue used that spelling, the initial O in the name is a reflection of the fact that unique identity is predicated in Hawaiian by using a copula form, o, immediately before a proper noun. Thus, in Hawaiian, the name of the island is expressed by saying O Hawaiʻi, the Cook expedition also wrote Otaheite rather than Tahiti. The spelling why in the name reflects the pronunciation of wh in 18th-century English, the spelling hee or ee in the name represents the sounds, or. Putting the parts together, O-why-ee reflects, an approximation of the native pronunciation. American missionaries bound for Hawaiʻi used the phrases Owhihe Language and Owhyhee language in Boston prior to their departure in October 1819 and they still used such phrases as late as March 1822. However, by July 1823, they had begun using the phrase Hawaiian Language, in Hawaiian, ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi means Hawaiian language, as adjectives follow nouns. Hawaiian is a Polynesian member of the Austronesian language family and it is closely related to other Polynesian languages, such as Marquesan, Tahitian, Māori, Rapa Nui, and less closely to Samoan and Tongan. According to Schütz, the Marquesans colonized the archipelago in roughly 300 CE followed by waves of immigration from the Society Islands
3.
Kingdom of Hawaii
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The Kingdom of Hawaiʻi originated in 1795 with the unification of the independent islands of Hawaiʻi, Oʻahu, Maui, Molokaʻi, and Lānaʻi under one government. In 1810 the whole Hawaiian archipelago became unified when Kauaʻi and Niʻihau joined the kingdom voluntarily, two major dynastic families ruled the kingdom, the House of Kamehameha and the House of Kalākaua. The kingdom won recognition from major European powers, the United States became its chief trading partner, and the kingdom was watched jealously lest Britain, Japan, or another power threaten to seize control. Hawaii adopted a new constitution in 1887 to reduce the power of King Kalākaua. Queen Liliuokalani, who succeeded Kalākaua in 1891, tried to restore the old order, Hawaii became a republic until the United States annexed it in 1898. Before the founding of a formal, united kingdom, the islands were all ruled by independent aliʻi nui or supreme executives. All of these rulers were believed to come from a hereditary line descended from the first Polynesian, Papa, Captain James Cook stumbled across the islands, but was killed while attempting to kidnap the aliʻi nui of Hawaii Island in 1779. Three years later Hawaii was passed to Kalaniʻōpuʻus son, Kīwalaʻō, while religious authority was passed to the rulers nephew, a series of battles, lasting 15 years, was led by the warrior chief who became Kamehameha the Great. The Kingdom of Hawaii was established with the help of weapons and advisors, such as John Young. Although successful in attacking both Oʻahu and Maui, he failed to secure a victory in Kauaʻi, his effort hampered by a storm, eventually, Kauaʻis chief swore allegiance to Kamehameha. The unification ended the ancient Hawaiian society, transforming it into an independent constitutional monarchy crafted in the traditions, from 1810 to 1893, the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was ruled by two major dynastic families, the House of Kamehameha and the Kalākaua Dynasty. Five members of the Kamehameha family led the government styled as Kamehameha, Lunalilo was a member of the House of Kamehameha through his mother. Liholiho and Kauikeaouli, were sons of Kamehameha the Great. For a period of Liholiho and Kauikeaoulis reigns, the wife of Kamehameha the Great, Queen Kaʻahumanu, ruled as Queen Regent and Kuhina Nui. Economic and demographic factors in the 19th century reshaped the islands, in 1848 the Great Māhele was imposed by the king, it resulted in the selling off virtually all the village land farmed by the natives. For the natives, contact with the world represented demographic disaster. The Hawaiian population of natives fell from approximately 128,000 in 1778 to 71,000 in 1853, American missionaries converted most of the natives to Christianity. The missionaries and their children became a powerful elite into the mid-19th century and they provided the chief advisors and cabinet members of the kings, and dominated the professional and merchant class in the cities
4.
Haalilio
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Timoteo or Timothy Kamalehua Haʻalilio was a royal secretary and first diplomat of the Kingdom of Hawaii. He is best known for helping Hawaii in gaining recognization from Britain, France, Haʻalilio was born early in the 19th century, probably 1808. He was the son Koeleele, and his wife Kipa, in some accounts Eseta Kipa and he was the half-brother of Levi Haʻalelea, who later became a husband of Princess Kekauōnohi. He was of the class or Hawaiian nobility. He was included in the first English school set up by Hiram Bingham I in Honolulu around April 1821, in 1823 William Richards joined the mission, and became a teacher and friend for the rest of his life. After learning of the death of King Kamehameha II in 1825, jean Baptiste Rives who had served as Kamehameha IIs secretary had been accused of mismanagement of funds and never returned to Hawaii. He took the Christian name Timothy, which was Timoteo in the Hawaiian language spelling, on June 7,1826, he married Hana Hopua, the daughter of Hopua and Polunu. The couple had no children and his wife outlived him and inherited lands in the Great Mahele in 1848. In 1831 the Lahainaluna School was founded, and he continued his education there, in July 1839 he was offered as a hostage during the French Incident. In the 1840 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii, he was included in the first members of the House of Nobles, Haʻalilio was a founding member of the first Hawaiian Historical Society in 1841. On April 8,1842 he was appointed as the first diplomat of the Kingdom, envoy to the United States, France, Richards would assist him as advisor and translator. In May he was appointed to a board, along with John Papa ʻĪʻī. Haʻalilio and Richards left on July 18,1842 for their diplomatic mission, instead of sailing via Cape Horn, they went through Mexico and over land. They took a steamer to Washington D. C, after a week waiting to see Daniel Webster who was the U. S. Secretary of State, they had their appointment on December 7. By December 19,1842 they had verbal assurance of U. S. recognition, while in Washington, he became quite the celebrity as the first distinguished man of color to visit the nations capital. An incident occurred on board the steamboat Globe, in which Haʻalilio was mistaken for Richards slave and they tried purchasing two tickets for breakfast but instead were given one and a half, one for Richards and the half for his servant. In London they met up with Sir George Simpson of the Hudsons Bay Company, february 1843 Richards, Sir George Simpson and Haʻalilio visited King Leopold I of Belgium. On March 17,1843 they met François Guizot who was the French Foreign Minister, both verbally accepted Hawaiian independence, and so did Lord Aberdeen on another visit on March 25
5.
Honolulu
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Honolulu is the capital and largest city of the U. S. state of Hawaii. It is an part of and the county seat of the City and County of Honolulu on the island of Oahu. The city is the gateway to Hawaii and a major portal into the United States. The city is also a hub for international business, military defense, as well as famously being host to a diverse variety of east-west and Pacific culture, cuisine. Honolulu is the most remote city of its size in the world and is both the westernmost and the southernmost major U. S. city. For statistical purposes, the U. S. Census Bureau recognizes the area commonly referred to as City of Honolulu as a census county division. Honolulu is a financial center of the islands and of the Pacific Ocean. The population of the city of Honolulu was 337,256 as of the 2010 census, while the Honolulu CCD was 390,738, Honolulu means sheltered harbor or calm port. The old name is said to be Kou, a district encompassing the area from Nuuanu Avenue to Alakea Street. The city has been the capital of the Hawaiian Islands since 1845, as of 2015, Honolulu was ranked high on world livability rankings, and was also ranked as the 2nd safest city in the U. S. It is also the most populated Oceanian city outside Australasia and ranks second to Auckland as the most populous city in Polynesia, evidence of the first settlement of Honolulu by the original Polynesian migrants to the archipelago comes from oral histories and artifacts. These indicate that there was a settlement where Honolulu now stands in the 11th century, however, after Kamehameha I conquered Oʻahu in the Battle of Nuʻuanu at Nuʻuanu Pali, he moved his royal court from the Island of Hawaiʻi to Waikīkī in 1804. His court relocated in 1809 to what is now downtown Honolulu, the capital was moved back to Kailua-Kona in 1812. In 1794, Captain William Brown of Great Britain was the first foreigner to sail into what is now Honolulu Harbor, more foreign ships followed, making the port of Honolulu a focal point for merchant ships traveling between North America and Asia. In 1845, Kamehameha III moved the permanent capital of the Hawaiian Kingdom from Lahaina on Maui to Honolulu and he and the kings that followed him transformed Honolulu into a modern capital, erecting buildings such as St. Andrews Cathedral, ʻIolani Palace, and Aliʻiōlani Hale. At the same time, Honolulu became the center of commerce in the islands, an economic and tourism boom following statehood brought rapid economic growth to Honolulu and Hawaiʻi. Modern air travel brings, as of 2007,7.6 million visitors annually to the islands, today, Honolulu is a modern city with numerous high-rise buildings, and Waikīkī is the center of the tourism industry in Hawaiʻi, with thousands of hotel rooms. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 68.4 square miles
6.
Laplace affair
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Under the threat of war, King Kamehameha III agreed to the French demands to stop the detention of Catholic citizens and pay reparations. After the 1819 death of King Kamehameha of the Hawaiian Islands, queen regent Kaʻahumanu came to power, new England Protestant ministers convinced her to illegalize Catholicism in Hawaii. Following the enactment of the new policy, chiefs loyal to her forcibly deported French Roman Catholic priests on to the Waverly in Honolulu Harbor on December 24,1831, native Hawaiian Catholic converts were arrested and imprisoned. Most of these prisoners were released once Protestant ministers had beaten them into rejecting Catholicism, the prejudice against the French Catholics missionaries remained the same under the reign of her successor, the Kuhina Nui Kaʻahumanu II. The Catholic missionaries returned unpersecuted and Kamehameha III donated land for them to build a church as reparation, French Perspective on the Laplace Affair. An account of the visit of the French frigate lArtemise, to the Sandwich Islands, campagne de circumnavigation de la frégate lArtémise, pendant les années 1837,1838,1839 et 1840, sous le commandement de M. Laplace
7.
Kamehameha III
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Kamehameha III was the King of Hawaii from 1825 to 1854. His goal was the careful balancing of modernization by adopting Western ways, Kauikeaouli was born at Keauhou Bay, on Hawaiʻi island, the largest island in the Hawaiian Islands archipelago. He was the son of King Kamehameha I and his highest ranking wife, Queen Keōpūolani. Early historians suggested June or July 1814, but one accepted date is August 11,1813, biographer P. Christiaan Klieger cites 17 March 1814 as his birthday. He was of the highest kapu lineage, Kauikeaouli was about 16 years younger than his brother Liholiho, who ruled as Kamehameha II starting in 1819. He was named Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa Kuakamanolani Mahinalani Kalaninuiwaiakua Keaweaweʻulaokalani after his maternal grandfather Kīwalaʻō and he was promised to Kuakini in hānai, but at birth he appeared to be delivered stillborn, Kuakini did not wish to take him. But Chief Kaikioʻewa summoned his kaula Kapihe who declared the baby would live, Kauikeaouli was cleansed, laid on a rock, fanned, prayed over and sprinkled with water until he breathed, moved and cried. The prayer of Kapihe was to Kaʻōnohiokalā, Child of God, the rock is preserved as a monument at Keauhou Bay. He was given to Kaikioʻewa to raise and he was torn between the Puritan Christian guidelines imposed on the kingdom by the kuhina nui who was his stepmother Kaʻahumanu, and the desires to honor the old traditions. By 1835 returned to ways of the missionaries, during his reign, that number would be halved again, due to a series of epidemics. In ancient Hawaii, upper classes considered a marriage with a royal family member to be an excellent way to preserve pure bloodlines. His brother Liholiho and his Queen Kamāmalu were a half-sister and brother couple and he had loved his sister Nāhiʻenaʻena and planned to marry her since childhood, but the union was opposed by the missionaries due to their perceptions of incest. It was proposed in 1832 that Kamanele, the daughter of Governor John Adams Kuakini, would be the most suitable in age, rank, Kamanele died in 1834 before the wedding took place. Instead Kamehameha III chose to marry Kalama Hakaleleponi Kapakuhaili, against the wishes of Kīnaʻu, after his sisters death in late 1836, he married Kalama February 14,1837 in a Christian ceremony. Kamehameha III and Kalama had two children, Prince Keaweaweʻulaokalani I and Prince Keaweaweʻulaokalani II who both died while infants, kūnuiākea lived to adulthood but died childless. In 1838, senior advisor Hoapili convinced former missionary William Richards to resign from the church, Richards gave classes to Kamehameha III and his councilors on the Western ideas of rule of law and economics. Their first act was a declaration of rights in 1839. In 1839, under a French threat of war, Roman Catholicism was legalized in the Edict of Toleration and he also enacted the Constitution of 1840, Hawaiis first
8.
William Richards (Hawaii)
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William Richards was a missionary and politician in the Kingdom of Hawaii. William Richards was born in Plainfield, Massachusetts on August 22,1793 and his father was James Richards and mother was Lydia Shaw. He was schooled under Moses Hallock in Plainfield, attended Williams College 1815 through graduation in 1819 and his brother James had also gone to Williams College and became a missionary. He was ordained September 12,1822 and he married Clarissa Lyman on October 30,1822. Her distant cousin David Belden Lyman would also come to Hawaii to serve as a missionary 9 years later. They sailed on November 19,1822 on the ship Thames under Captain Clasby from New Haven and they arrived to the Hawaiian Islands April 24,1823 and landed in Honolulu April 27. On May 28,1823 he and shipmate Charles Stewart sailed on the Royal Yacht Cleopatras Barge to Lahaina, however, he did not speak the Hawaiian language fluently enough for people to understand his sermons. In September Queen Mother Keōpūolani became ill and requested Baptism, English missionary William Ellis had just arrived with Tahitian interpreters, and the language was similar enough that they were used for the baptism just before the Queen Mothers death. A standardized orthography was developed and some texts were printed. In 1825 Richards published a biography of Queen Keōpūolani, some time in 1825, the Richards moved back to Maui to establish a mission. Whaling ships had been visiting the port, expecting women to greet the ship, in October 1825 the crew of the British whaleship Daniel threatened Richards in front of his wife and children unless they relaxed restrictions on the town. Tensions escalated, and the ships master William Buckle refused a request to control his crew, in January 1826 the American Schooner USS Dolphin arrived in Honolulu and demanded the release of four women who were accused of prostitution, since there were no written laws. The crew attacked the house of the Prime Minister and the missionaries, later in 1826 another mob damaged the town of Lahaina, although Richards and his family escaped. In 1827 the English whaleship John Palmer fired cannons at the house after its captain Elisha Clarke was arrested for taking four women on board. Richards negotiated the release of Clarke if the women were returned, near the end of 1827, word got back to the islands that the 1825 incident with William Buckle had found its way into American newspapers. The papers accused the captain of purchasing a woman for 10 doubloons and taking her on board his vessel, British Consul Richard Charlton demanded that Richards be arrested and taken for a libel trial in Honolulu. The story had probably been sensationalized along the way, and many agreed that these were inflammatory charges with only hearsay evidence, on November 26,1827 with Queen Regent Kaʻahumanu presiding, Richards was released. Buckle pointed out that the woman named Leoiki had come willingly, there were precedents at the time for English and Americans of high rank to marry Hawaiian noble women
9.
John Tyler
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John Tyler was the tenth President of the United States. He was also, briefly, the tenth Vice President, elected to office on the 1840 Whig ticket with William Henry Harrison. Tyler became president after Harrisons death in April 1841, only a month after the start of the new administration. Still, the circumstances of his rise to the presidency. A firm believer in manifest destiny, President Tyler sought to strengthen and preserve the Union through territorial expansion, Tyler, born to an eminent Virginia family, came to national prominence at a time of political upheaval. In the 1820s the nations only political party, the Democratic-Republicans, though initially a Democrat, his opposition to Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren led him to ally with the Whig Party. Tyler served as a Virginia state legislator, governor, U. S. representative and he was put on the ticket to attract states rights Southerners to what was then a Whig coalition to defeat Van Burens re-election bid. Harrisons death made Tyler the first vice president to succeed to the presidency without being elected to the office, because of the short duration of Harrisons one-month term, Tyler served longer than any president in U. S. history who was never elected to the office. A strict constructionist, Tyler found much of the Whig platform unconstitutional, believing that the president should set policy instead of deferring to Congress, he attempted to bypass the Whig establishment, most notably Kentucky Senator Henry Clay. Most of Tylers Cabinet resigned soon into his term, and the Whigs, dubbing him His Accidency, though Tyler was not the first president to veto bills, he was the first to see his veto overridden by Congress. Although he faced a stalemate on domestic policy, he had several achievements, including the Webster–Ashburton Treaty with Britain. He initially sought election to a term as president, but after failing to gain the support of either Whigs or Democrats. When the American Civil War began in 1861, Tyler sided with the Confederate government, although some have praised Tylers political resolve, his presidency is generally held in low esteem by historians. He is considered an obscure president, with presence in American cultural memory. John Tyler was born on March 29,1790, like his future running mate William Henry Harrison, he hailed from Charles City County, Virginia, both descended from aristocratic and politically entrenched families. The Tyler family traced its lineage to colonial Williamsburg in the 17th century, the elder Tyler served four years as Speaker of the House of Delegates before becoming a state court judge. He subsequently served as governor and as a judge on the U. S. District Court at Richmond and his wife, Mary Marot, was the daughter of a prominent plantation owner, Robert Booth Armistead. She died of a stroke when her son John was seven years old, with his two brothers and five sisters, Tyler was raised on Greenway Plantation, a 1, 200-acre estate with a six-room manor house his father had built
10.
George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen
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The Aberdeen ministry was filled with powerful and talented politicians, whom Aberdeen was largely unable to control and direct. Despite trying to avoid this happening, it took Britain into the Crimean War, aberdeens career was dominated by foreign policy, but his experience did not prevent the slide towards the Crimean War. His personal life was marked by the loss of parents by the time he was eleven, and of his first wife after only seven years of a happy marriage. His daughters died young, and his relations with his sons were difficult, before his marriage he travelled extensively in Europe, including Greece, and he had a serious interest in the classical civilisations and their archaeology. On his return to Britain in 1805 he devoted much time, after the death of his wife in 1812 he became a diplomat, almost immediately being given the important embassy to Vienna while still in his twenties. After holding the position for two years, followed by another role, by 1841 his experience led to his appointment as Foreign Secretary again under Robert Peel for a longer term. This was despite his being a bad speaker, which mattered far less in the House of Lords. Nonetheless his Peelite colleague, later himself Prime Minister, William Ewart Gladstone, I have loved others, but never like him. Born in Edinburgh on 28 January 1784, he was the eldest son of George Gordon, Lord Haddo, son of George Gordon and his mother was Charlotte, youngest daughter of William Baird of Newbyth. He lost his father in 1791 and his mother in 1795 and was brought up by Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville and he was educated at Harrow, and St Johns College, Cambridge, where he graduated with a Master of Arts in 1804. Before this, however, he had become Earl of Aberdeen on his grandfathers death in 1801, on his return to England, he founded the Athenian Society. In 1805, he married Lady Catherine Elizabeth, daughter of John Hamilton, in December 1805 Lord Aberdeen took his seat as a Tory Scottish representative peer in the House of Lords. In 1808, he was created a Knight of the Thistle, following the death of his wife from tuberculosis in 1812 he joined the Foreign Service. He was appointed Ambassador Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Austria, in the company of the Austrian Emperor, Francis II he was an observer at the decisive Coalition victory of the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, he had met Napoleon in his earlier travels. Aberdeen was greatly affected by the aftermath of war which he witnessed at first hand and he wrote home, The near approach of war and its effects are horrible beyond what you can conceive. The whole road from Prague to was covered with full of wounded, dead. The shock and disgust and pity produced by such scenes are beyond what I could have supposed possible. the scenes of distress, I have been quite haunted by them. Returning home he was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Viscount Gordon, of Aberdeen in the County of Aberdeen, and made a member of the Privy Council
11.
Leopold I of Belgium
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Leopold I was a German prince who became the first King of the Belgians following Belgian independence in 1830. He reigned between July 1831 and December 1865, Charlotte died in 1817, but Leopold continued to enjoy considerable status in Britain. After the Greek War of Independence, LeopoId was offered the position of King of Greece but turned it down, instead, Leopold accepted the kingship of the newly established Kingdom of Belgium in 1831. The Belgian government offered the position to Leopold because of his connections with royal houses across Europe. Leopold took his oath as King of the Belgians on 21 July 1831 and his reign was marked by attempts by the Dutch to recapture Belgium and, later, by internal political division between liberals and Catholics. As a result of the ambiguities in the Belgian Constitution, Leopold was able to expand the monarchs powers during his reign. He also played an important role in stopping the spread of the Revolutions of 1848 into Belgium and he died in 1865 and was succeeded by his son, Leopold II. Leopold was born in Coburg in the tiny German duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld in modern-day Bavaria on 16 December 1790 and he was the youngest son of Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and Countess Augusta Reuss-Ebersdorf. In 1826, Saxe-Coburg acquired the city of Gotha from the neighboring Duchy of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg and gave up Saalfeld to Saxe-Meiningen, becoming Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Ln 1795, at just five years old, Leopold was given a commission of the rank of colonel in the Izmaylovsky Regiment, part of the Imperial Guard. Seven years later, he received a promotion to the rank of Major General, when French troops occupied the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars, Leopold went to Paris where he became part of the Imperial Court of Napoleon. Napoleon offered him the position of adjutant, but Leopold refused, instead, he went to Russia to take up a military career in the Imperial Russian cavalry, which was at war with France at the time. He campaigned against Napoleon and distinguished himself at the Battle of Kulm at the head of his cuirassier division, in 1815, by the time of the final defeat of Napoleon and, aged 25, reached the rank of lieutenant general. Leopold received British citizenship in 1815, on 2 May 1816, Leopold married Princess Charlotte of Wales at Carlton House in London. Charlotte was the legitimate child of the Prince Regent George. The same year he received a commission to the rank of Field Marshal. On 5 November 1817, Princess Charlotte gave birth to a stillborn son and she herself died the next day following complications. Despite Charlottes death, the Prince Regent granted Prince Leopold the British style of Royal Highness by Order in Council on 6 April 1818, from 1828 to 1829, Leopold had several-months long affair with the actress Caroline Bauer, who bore a striking resemblance to Charlotte
12.
Louis Philippe I
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Louis Philippe I was King of the French from 1830 to 1848 as the leader of the Orléanist party. He spent 21 years in exile after he left France in 1793 and he was proclaimed king in 1830 after his cousin Charles X was forced to abdicate in the wake of the events of the July Revolution of that year. His government, known as the July Monarchy, was dominated by members of a wealthy French elite and he followed conservative policies, especially under the influence of the French statesman François Guizot during the period 1840–48. He also promoted friendship with Britain and sponsored colonial expansion, notably the conquest of Algeria and his popularity faded as economic conditions in France deteriorated in 1847, and he was forced to abdicate after the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1848. He lived out his life in exile in Great Britain, Louis Philippe was born in the Palais Royal, the residence of the Orléans family in Paris, to Louis Philippe, Duke of Chartres, and Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a Prince of the Blood and his mother was an extremely wealthy heiress who was descended from Louis XIV of France through a legitimized line. Louis Philippe was the eldest of three sons and a daughter, a family that was to have erratic fortunes from the beginning of the French Revolution to the Bourbon Restoration. Louis Philippes father was exiled from the court, and the Orléans confined themselves to studies of the literature. Louis Philippe was tutored by the Countess of Genlis, beginning in 1782 and she instilled in him a fondness for liberal thought, it is probably during this period that Louis Philippe picked up his slightly Voltairean brand of Catholicism. When Louis Philippes grandfather died in 1785, his father succeeded him as Duke of Orléans, from October 1788 to October 1789, the Palais Royal was a meeting-place for the revolutionaries. Louis Philippe grew up in a period that changed Europe as a whole and, following his fathers support for the Revolution. In his diary, he reports that he took the initiative to join the Jacobin Club. In June 1791, Louis Philippe got his first opportunity to become involved in the affairs of France, in 1785, he had been given the hereditary appointment of Colonel of the 14th Regiment of Dragoons. With war on the horizon in 1791, all proprietary colonels were ordered to join their regiments, Louis Philippe showed himself to be a model officer, and he demonstrated his personal bravery in two famous instances. The young colonel broke through the crowd and extricated the two priests, who then fled, at a river crossing on the same day, another crowd threatened to harm the priests. Louis Philippe put himself between a peasant armed with a carbine and the priests, saving their lives, the next day, Louis Philippe dove into a river to save a drowning local engineer. For this action, he received a crown from the local municipality. His regiment was moved north to Flanders at the end of 1791 after the Declaration of Pillnitz, Louis Philippe served under his fathers crony, the Duke of Biron, along with several officers who later gained distinction in Napoleons empire and afterwards
13.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
14.
Lord George Paulet
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Admiral Lord George Paulet CB was an officer of the Royal Navy. He entered the navy shortly after the end of the Napoleonic Wars and he served off the Iberian Peninsula during the Portuguese Liberal Wars and the Spanish First Carlist War, protecting British interests and property. While serving on the Pacific Station he obtained a measure of infamy when he occupied the Hawaiian Islands for five months in 1843. The occupation was later reversed by his commanding officer, Paulet went on to serve during the Crimean War, commanding a ship during the heavy fighting around the Siege of Sevastopol in 1854. He received a number of awards after the war, and was promoted through the ranks, George Paulet was born on 12 August 1803, the third son of Charles Ingoldsby Paulet, 13th Marquess of Winchester, and his wife, Anne Andrews. He joined the Royal Navy on 6 February 1817 and after years of service was commissioned a lieutenant on 9 February 1825. He was promoted to commander on 28 February 1828, and was given command of HMS Nautilus in March 1830 and he was assigned to the Lisbon station, where he spent the rest of the Portuguese Civil War, based in and off the Douro and Tagus rivers. Nautilus was later moved to the northern Spanish coast after the outbreak of the First Carlist War, Paulet was promoted to post-captain on 18 November 1833. He went to Bilbao on 17 December to render assistance and protect British property, from Bilbao he proceeded to London to deliver despatches, after which he sailed to Portsmouth to pay off Nautilus, on which occasion he gave his officers a sumptuous entertainment. He married Georgina Wood of Surrey, daughter of Major-General Sir George Wood on 11 July 1835, Paulet became captain of HMS Carysfort on 28 December 1841, and served on the Pacific Station under Rear-Admiral Richard Darton Thomas. In late 1842, Richard Charlton, the British consul to the Kingdom of Hawaii told Paulet that British subjects in the Hawaiian Islands were being denied their legal rights, Paulet requested permission from Rear-Admiral Thomas to investigate the allegations. Paulet arrived at Honolulu on 11 February 1843 but was unable to meet immediately with King Kamehameha III, the Hawaiian government acceded to his demands on 18 February and an agreement was signed on 25 February which ceded the land subject to any diplomatic resolution. Paulet appointed himself and three others to a commission to be the new government, and insisted on control of land transactions. Paulet destroyed all Hawaiian flags he could find, and raised the British Union Flag during the occupation and he cleared 156 residents off contested land. Both Paulet and Judd despatched envoys to London to present their cases, Paulet to explain to his actions, Rear-Admiral Thomas received word of the developments, and sailed to Hawaii himself on his flagship HMS Dublin. On 26 July Thomas arrived in Honolulu harbour and met with King Kamehameha III, after investigating, Thomas declared on 31 July that the occupation was over and while he reserved the right to protect British citizens, Hawaiian sovereignty was to be respected. In June 1845 Paulet was no longer captain of Carysfort and he was appointed to command HMS Bellerophon on 7 November 1850 in the Mediterranean. He fought during the Crimean War, seeing action at the Siege of Sevastopol, during the bombardment of Fort Constantine on 17 October 1854 Paulet took Bellerophon in close to support the damaged HMS Agamemnon
15.
Paulet affair (1843)
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The Paulet Affair was a five-month occupation of the Hawaiian Islands in 1843 by British naval officer Captain Lord George Paulet, of HMS Carysfort. Paulet had become captain of HMS Carysfort on 28 December 1841, Richard Charlton, who had been the British Consul to the Kingdom of Hawaii since 1825 met Paulet off the coast of Mexico in late 1842. Charlton claimed that British subjects in the Hawaiian Islands were being denied their legal rights, in particular, Charlton had a claim to land that was under dispute. Paulet requested permission from Admiral Thomas to investigate the allegations, Paulet arrived at Honolulu and requested an audience with King Kamehameha III on 11 February 1843. He was told the King was on island and would take six days to arrive. The King replied that American Gerrit P. Judd, as government minister. This seemed to infuriate Paulet who had been told by Charlton that Judd was acting as dictator, Paulet refused to speak with Judd, and accused him of fabricating the previous response. To-morrow, in the event of the demands now forwarded by me to the King of these Islands not being complied with by that time, sir, I have the honour to be your most obedient humble servant, George Paulet, captain Boston did not interfere. On 18 February the Hawaiian government wrote back that they would comply with the demands under protest, between the 20 and 23 daily meetings were held by Alexander Simpson, acting consul and Paulet with the King. Kamehameha III agreed to reopen the cases but refused to overrule the courts. On 25 February the agreement was signed ceding the land subject to any diplomatic resolution, Paulet appointed himself and three others to a commission to be the new government, and insisted on direct control of all land transactions. Paulet destroyed all Hawaiian flags he could find, and raised the British Union Flag for an occupation that would last six months and he cleared 156 residents off of the contested Charlton land. The dispute would take years to resolve, Marshall, an American merchant of Ladd and Company was invited aboard Boston where he secretly met chief Hawaiian Kingdom minister Judd. Judd gave Marshall an emergency commission as envoy extraordinary and sent him to plead the case for an independent Hawaii in London, Paulet closed down all shipping, but wanted to send Alexander Simpson back to England so that his side of the case could be heard first. Paulet rechristened the Hawaiian ship Hoikaika as Albert, and both Simpson and Marshall sailed to San Blas, Mexico, on 12 April they left overland and reached Veracruz by 1 May. Simpson continued to England, while Marshal went by ships and trains to Boston by 2 June. He spread the news in the American press, and met 4 June with fellow Bostonians such as U. S. Secretary of State Daniel Webster and business partner, Webster gave him letters for Edward Everett who was the American minister to the United Kingdom. On 30 June Marshall arrived in London and met with Everett, two other envoys from Hawaii, William Richards and Timothy Haʻalilo were in Paris, France negotiating treaties
16.
Richard Darton Thomas
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On arrival in the Caribbean he transferred to the 32-gun frigate Blanche under the command of Captain Robert Murray, and was rated able. Blanche was paid off in June 1792, and in December he joined the sloop Nautilus as a midshipman, Thomas returned to England as masters mate of the Boyne, the flagship of Sir John Jervis. He was aboard her at Spithead on 1 May 1795 when a fire broke out aboard, Thomas was forced to jump overboard, and swam to a nearby boat. He served aboard the Glory, then Barfleur, flagship of the Honourable William Waldegrave, from there he moved into Victory, flagship of Sir John Jervis. He was subsequently sent on shore with a party of seamen to man the guns at the Fort of St. Fiorenza, in Corsica, remaining there until the island was evacuated in October 1796. On 15 January 1797 Thomas was commissioned as a lieutenant aboard the 74-gun Excellent, commanded by Captain Cuthbert Collingwood, in June 1798 he moved into the frigate Thalia, under Captain Lord Henry Paulet, rejoining him in the 74-gun Defence in February 1799 after three months on half-pay. From June 1802 he served aboard the Cambrian and Leander, the flagships of Sir Andrew Mitchell, Commander-in-Chief on the North American Station, based at Halifax, in early June 1803 Thomas finally received notification of his promotion to commander of the fifth-rate Chichester, dated 18 January. He sailed from Halifax as a passenger aboard the 179-ton Post Office packet Lady Hobart, four days out she was intercepted by a French schooner, L Aimable Julie, who mistook her for an unarmed merchant. After taking the French vessel as prize, Lady Hobart continued on her voyage, but during the night of 28 July struck a large iceberg, and foundered. All aboard her were crammed into the cutter and jolly boat for a 350-mile voyage back to land, with only small amounts of ships biscuit, water. Despite encountering heavy rain, gales and thick fog, they made a landfall at Lower Island Cove on 4 June, all suffering from various degrees of malnutrition, the only casualty was the French captain, who threw himself overboard in a fit of depression. Thomas eventually returned to England and in December 1803 was appointed to command of the bomb vessel Aetna, to serve in the Mediterranean. His position was an arduous one, there being no Captain of the Fleet. After Collingwoods death Thomas served as captain of the Ville de Paris until December 1810, the following February he was appointed to command of the frigate Undaunted initially engaged on operations on the coast of Catalonia, then on the blockade of Marseilles and Toulon. He was eventually invalided home in February 1813, and saw no further wartime service, between April 1822 and April 1825, and again from May 1834, Thomas served as Superintendent of the Ships in Ordinary at Portsmouth and Plymouth, until promoted to rear-admiral on 10 January 1837. From May 1841 until December 1844 he served as commander-in-chief on the Pacific Station and he also had to deal with the occupation of Tahiti by the French Rear-Admiral Dupetit Thouars, and the unauthorized annexation of the Sandwich Islands by one of his own subordinates. He also received the thanks of the government of the United States and was appointed a member of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Thomas was promoted to vice-admiral on 8 January 1848, and to admiral on 11 September 1854 and he died in Stonehouse, Devon on 21 August 1857
17.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
18.
Republic of Hawaii
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The Territory of Hawaii was formally established as part of the U. S. on June 14,1900. The Kingdom of Hawaii was overthrown in 1893 in a revolt against a Queen who rejected the constitution then in effect. American officials immediately recognized the new government and U. S, marines landed to protect American citizens during the upheaval. The Queens supporters charged their presence frightened the Queen and thus enabled the revolution, in 1887, members of the Reform Party of Hawaii forced the King to accept a new constitution limiting the monarchs constitutional power as defined by the Constitution of 1864. The Constitution of 1887, also called the Bayonet Constitution for the used to secure the kings approval, was enacted without legislative approval. In 1893 a coup détat against the monarch was carried out by more than 1,000 armed local men who were led by sugar planters. There was no bloodshed as the armed force did not resist. A temporary Provisional Government of Hawaii was formed by the Committee of Safety, the leaders of the coup, who had strong economic ties with the United States wanted to join the United States, in part to avoid import taxes. Annexation was delayed by two petitions with over 20,000 signatures representing over half of the Native Hawaiian population, the Queen herself took up residence in Washington to lobby for her restoration. President Grover Cleveland, a Democrat opposed to American expansion, sent an investigator who wrote the Blount Report, the report concluded that Minister Stevens had manipulated and orchestrated the revolt. Cleveland decided that the United States should restore the Queen, he asked for Doles resignation, however, the U. S. Senate held hearings regarding the Morgan Report, undermining the Blount Reports claims. Public opinion in the United States favored annexation, in May 1894 the U. S. President Cleveland thereupon dropped the issue, leaving the Republic of Hawaii to fend for itself. The Provisional Government convened a convention and established the Republic of Hawaiʻi on July 4,1894. The president of Hawaii was the head of state and head of government. The constitution provided that the term of office would be six years. The President had the authority to legislation, which could be overridden by two-thirds majority in both houses of the legislature, and he was also commander-in-chief of the military. The President appointed, subject to the confirmation of the Senate, Cabinet members were considered usurers of both houses of the Legislature, they could participate in proceedings, but could not vote as they were not elected members of the Legislature. If the presidency became vacant, the Minister of Foreign Affairs could serve as Acting President until the Legislature voted to elect a successor, article 23 of the 1894 Constitution specifically named Sanford B. Dole as the republics first President
19.
Thanksgiving
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Thanksgiving Day is a national holiday celebrated in Canada, in the United States, in some of the Caribbean islands and in Liberia. It was originally celebrated as a day of giving thanks for the blessing of the harvest, similarly named festival holidays occur in Germany and Japan. Thanksgiving is celebrated on the second Monday of October in Canada and on the fourth Thursday of November in the United States, although Thanksgiving has historical roots in religious and cultural traditions, it has long been celebrated as a secular holiday as well. Prayers of thanks and special thanksgiving ceremonies are common among almost all religions after harvests, the Thanksgiving holidays history in North America is rooted in English traditions dating from the Protestant Reformation. It also has aspects of a harvest festival, even though the harvest in New England occurs well before the date on which the modern Thanksgiving holiday is celebrated. Before 1536 there were 95 Church holidays, plus 52 Sundays, the 1536 reforms reduced the number of Church holidays to 27, but some Puritans wished to completely eliminate all Church holidays, including Christmas and Easter. The holidays were to be replaced by specially called Days of Fasting or Days of Thanksgiving, unexpected disasters or threats of judgement from on high called for Days of Fasting. Special blessings, viewed as coming from God, called for Days of Thanksgiving, for example, Days of Fasting were called on account of drought in 1611, floods in 1613, and plagues in 1604 and 1622. Days of Thanksgiving were called following the victory over the Spanish Armada in 1588, an unusual annual Day of Thanksgiving began in 1606 following the failure of the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and developed into Guy Fawkes Day on November 5. Some researchers state that there is no compelling narrative of the origins of the Canadian Thanksgiving day, the origins of Canadian Thanksgiving are also sometimes traced to the French settlers who came to New France in the 17th century, who celebrated their successful harvests. The French settlers in the area typically had feasts at the end of the harvest season and continued throughout the winter season, as settlers arrived in Nova Scotia from New England after 1700, late autumn Thanksgiving celebrations became commonplace. New immigrants into the country—such as the Irish, Scottish, most of the US aspects of Thanksgiving, were incorporated when United Empire Loyalists began to flee from the United States during the American Revolution and settled in Canada. The 1621 Plymouth feast and thanksgiving was prompted by a good harvest, Pilgrims and Puritans who began emigrating from England in the 1620s and 1630s carried the tradition of Days of Fasting and Days of Thanksgiving with them to New England. In the land of Virginia shall be yearly and perpetually kept holy as a day of thanksgiving to Almighty God, now called Oktober Feesten, Leidens autumn thanksgiving celebration in 1617 was the occasion for sectarian disturbance that appears to have accelerated the pilgrims plans to emigrate to America. Later in Massachusetts, religious thanksgiving services were declared by civil leaders such as Governor Bradford, the practice of holding an annual harvest festival did not become a regular affair in New England until the late 1660s. Thanksgiving proclamations were made mostly by church leaders in New England up until 1682, during the revolutionary period, political influences affected the issuance of Thanksgiving proclamations. Various proclamations were made by governors, John Hancock, General George Washington. James Baker maintains, The American holidays true origin was the New England Calvinist Thanksgiving, never coupled with a Sabbath meeting, the Puritan observances were special days set aside during the week for thanksgiving and praise in response to Gods providence
20.
Ralph Simpson Kuykendall
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Ralph Simpson Kuykendall was an American historian who served as the trustee and secretary of the Hawaiian Historical Society from 1922 to 1932. Kuykendall also served as professor of history at the University of Hawaii at Manoa and he is most noted as a historian of the Hawaiian Islands, South Pacific, and Pacific Northwest. Kuykendall was born in Linden, California and his parents Reverend John Wesley Kuykendall and Marilla Persis Pierce were both Methodist missionaries and descendants of Dutch settlers from New York. In 1919 Kuykendall married Edith Clare Kelly from Hollister, California and they had two sons, John Richard Kuykendall and Delman Leur Kuykendall. Kuykendall attended California’s College of the Pacific where he was active in life as a debater, editor of the college newspaper. He graduated in 1910 with a Bachelor of Arts degree, following his graduation from 1911–1912, Kuykendall taught at College Park Academy and started his graduate studies in history at Stanford University. After a year of study, Kuykendall took a break and moved to Florida to work with his brother at a newspaper, in 1916 Kuykendall returned to California to work as a field research agent for the California Historical Survey Commission. He apparently succeeded at collecting and assessing the material he obtained in the field, Kuykendall had resumed his post-graduate work at the University of California at Berkeley. In 1919 Kuykendall completed his M. A. thesis entitled History of Early California Journalism and he had intended to complete his doctorate when he was again awarded the Native Sons of the Golden West fellowship to do research in the Archives of Seville, Spain. While in Spain, Kuykendall was tapped to be the secretary of the newly established Hawaiian Historical Commission. Ralph Kuykendall arrived in Honolulu, Hawaii on June 19,1922, as executive secretary of the Hawaiian Historical Commission, Kuykendall was expected to research and complete three historical works. The first was a textbook on Hawaiian history. The second was a history on Hawaii’s role in World War I, and the third was a comprehensive and authoritative history of the Hawaiian people. Kuykendall mostly relied upon the collections at the Territorial Archives. Earlier histories were written from the perspectives of the missionaries, or the missionaries, or traders, Kuykendall wanted to incorporate all of these perspectives Kuykendall’s first book, A History of Hawaii, was approved by the Hawaii State Legislature in 1925. It co-authored with the help of Dr. Herbert E. Gregory who served as the Director of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, a History of Hawaii documents the early beginnings of the Hawaiian kingdom to United States territory. The year 1926 marked its first use in Hawaii classrooms, the second book, titled Hawaii in the World War, was co-authored with Lorin Tarr Gill. Published in 1928, Hawaii in the World War details the territory’s military, the final, third book, an accurate history of the Hawaiian people, was by far the most difficult to complete
21.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
22.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
